2. This collaboratively-created timeline by the students
of SLS 408, Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, is a
visual representation of the theme of the
2016 LLL Graduate Student Conference:
Celebrating Voices: Past, Present, and Future.
It focuses on historical events in both Hawai‘i and the
US that have impacted language use and instruction
over the last few decades. Many of these legislative
events have shaped the ideologies surrounding
multilingualism in the United States.
After seeing this timeline, what are your thoughts
on what the future has in store for bilingualism and
bilingual education?
3. Created Collaboratively by the students of SLS 408-1,
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Spring 2016
, monica.vidal@hawaii.edu
4. 1868 1878-1879
_________________________
In 1868, the Indian Peace
Commission recommends
English-only schooling for the
Native Americans in their
report, stating:
“...Schools should be
established, which children
should be required to attend;
their barbarous dialect should
be blotted out and the English
language substituted” (p. 87).
In 1878–79, the
California constitution
is rewritten:
"All laws of the State of
California, and all official
writings, and the executive,
legislative, and judicial
proceedings shall be
conducted, preserved, and
published in no other than
the English language."
(remained in effect until 1966.)
5. Bernice Bishop
establishes
Kamehameha
Schools with an
English only model.
Students stage walk-
out on first day:
"Don’t tell me I can’t
use my language!"
On O‘ahu on
January 17, 1893, the
Kingdom of Hawai‘i is
illegally overthrown.
Queen Lili‘uokalani yields her
throne, under protest, in order
to avoid bloodshed, trusting
that the United States
government would right the
wrong that had been done to
her and the Hawaiian people.
1887 1893
_________________________
7. 1896
__________________________
‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i is banned in both public and private
schools; teachers face termination; children are punished
This law does not make Hawaiian illegal within Hawai‘i, however it
takes Hawiian out of both public and private schools which have
far-reaching effects on the community and the transmission of
languages within families.
Many children are punished for speaking Hawaiian, and the
Hawaiian language is consequently regarded as a foreign
language with the school system. In 1987, 91 years later, the ban
is lifted thanks to the efforts of Hawaiian parents and their
community.
The classification of Hawaiian as a foreign language in the
school system in still in place today.
8. A Hawaiian Kingdom banknote from 1879 illustrates the decline of the Hawaiian language
even before the official ban was declared in 1896.
There are only two words that appear in Hawaiian.
These are literally marginalized on the bill and one is a transliterations of English:
‘elima’, meaning ‘five’ in Hawaiian and ‘haneri'--a transliteration of ‘hundred’.
http://www.angelfire.com/hi2/hawaiiansovereignty/hawlangillegal.html
9. 1906
_______________
The Naturalization Act of 1906 revises the
1870 law to require immigrants to be able
to speak English in order to be eligible for
naturalization.
This law is meant to promote a unified
America and to discourage ethnic separation
It is by US President Theodore Roosevelt
who strongly promoted the idea of
Americanization.
He famously said in 1907:
"...We have room for but one language here
and that is the English language, for we
intend to see that the crucible turns our
people out as American, of American
nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot
boarding house."
10. 1918 1919
__________________________
"English Only" statute of 1918
makes it a misdemeanor in
Texas for any teacher or
administrator to use a
language other than English in
school or to prescribe textbooks
not printed in the English
language, except in high school
foreign language classes.
By 1919, 34 states had passed
English-only laws.
This is in effect until 1973.
New Hawaiian Law:
ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi to be taught
as a foreign language
According to ‘Aha Pūnana
Leo’s language revitalization
timeline, in 1919,
“Many Hawaiian parents with
higher economic and social
aspirations absorb colonial
attitudes in opposition even to
the academic study of
Hawaiian by their children.”
11. 1923 1927
__________________________
Meyer v. State of Nebraska
A U.S. Supreme Court case
declaring the 1919 Nebraska Act
regulating foreign language
education violates the Due
Process clause of the 14th
Amendment. The act restricts the
use of a foreign language as a
medium for instruction, and as
a subject of study.
The court holds the statute as
unconstitutional, saying it deprives
the community of basic civil
liberties.
Farrington v. Tokushige
U.S. Supreme Court
unanimously reverses Hawai‘i’s
law that made it illegal for
schools to teach foreign
languages without a permit
claiming it violates the due
process of the 5th and 14th
amendment.
13. 1957 1958
__________________________
Mary Kawena Pukui and
Samuel H. Elbert
publish the first Hawaiian
Dictionary with 30,000
entries.
This could be seen as the
beginning of the revitalization
movement for ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i.
In 1964, they published a
Hawaiian-English version of
the dictionary.
National Defense Education
Act (NDEA)
In response to the Russians
launching Sputnik in 1957,
NDEA is passed under
President Dwight D.
Eisenhower.
It promotes foreign language
learning from elementary
schools to universities.
14. Fidel Castro’s coup dʻétat
dissolves Fulgencio Batista’s
dictatorship and creates a
communist government in
Cuba.
Many educated Cubans flee
to the US, creating larger
numbers of Spanish-
speaking people in
Southern Florida.
Hawai‘i is “admitted”, against
protest, as the
50th State of the
United States of America
By this point,
no first language speakers
of ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i are
entering school except on
‘remote’ Ni‘ihau.
(Aguilera & LeCompte, 2009)
1959
__________________________
15. 1963 1964
__________________________
Coral Way Initiative
Bilingual Education program is
introduced at an elementary
school in Miami.
First bilingual program after WWII
(García, 2009).
Half day of English and half day
of Spanish instruction.
Within 3 years, the initiative
reported their success:
Both groups of students were
bilingual and bicultural!
Civil Rights Act of 1964
A landmark piece of
legislation in the U.S. that
prohibits discrimination
based on race, color,
religion, sex, or national
origin ending inequality for
voter’s rights, and racial
segregation in all public
spheres.
17. Immigration and
Naturalization Act of 1965
(Hart-Celler Act)
Abolishes the national origins
quota system that had
structured American
immigration policy since the
1920s and replaces it with a
preference system that
focuses on immigrants'
skills and family
relationships with citizens
or residents of the U.S.
Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA)
ESEA is passed by President
Lyndon B. Johnson as part of the
“War on Poverty” campaign.
ESEA provides federal funding
in the form of grants to school
districts serving low-income
families and students.
This bill was later adopted as the
No Child Left Behind Act (2001),
but was reauthorized in 2015 as
ESEA by President Obama.
1965
__________________________
19. Bilingual Education Act (BEA),
Title VII of the ESEA of 1965, known as the
Bilingual Education Act, is signed into law January 2, 1968.
Schools must accommodate language-minority children.
This is the first FEDERAL law to address the needs of students
learning English. It also makes it possible in the future for more to be
done with bilingual education as regards students’ rights.
However, the goal of the Act, which is sponsored by Democratic Senator
Ralph Yarborough of Texas, is the “quick acquisition of English”. While it
is a big step forward, there is little importance placed on actually becoming
bilingual.
The act would consequently lead to several amendments and in 2001, it
was renamed without mentions of bilingualism in the title. This was tied to
No Child Left Behind.
1968
__________________________
20. Merrie Monarch Festival
The MMF is an annual week-long cultural event taking place in
Hilo, Hawai‘i. The major purpose of the festival is to
perpetuate, preserve, and promote the art of hula and the
traditional Hawaiian arts.
Started by The Hawai‘i Island Chamber of Commerce to generate
tourism in 1971, the MMF has turned into one of the most
prestigious Hula competitions.
The festival is named after King David Kalākaua who was
nicknamed the “merrie monarch”.
Along with the successful Hokul‘ea sailing of the ancient routes to
the Tahitian islands in 1976, the MMF is often regarded as one
of the first events to mark the Hawaiian Renaissance.
1971
__________________________
21.
22. 1972
__________________________
Indian Education Act
The IEA is a landmark legislative act
that creates a comprehensive
approach for meeting the needs of
American Indian and Alaska
Native students by recognizing
the cultural related needs and
distinct language.
It deals with education from
preschool to graduate-level
coursework, and provides service
not provided by the Bureau of Indian
Affairs.
Mills v. Board of Education
A case against the District of
Columbia that asserts the
necessity of a public education
for students with disabilities.
It sets a precedent that free
services for children with needs
must be provided by public
schools regardless of their physical
capabilities.
24. 1974
__________________________
Lau v. NIchols
January 21, 1974
Chinese students in San Francisco
sue for not having enough resources
in the school district to help with low
English proficiency; claims that Title
VI of the Civil Rights Act entitled
them to this because it stated that
schools can not discriminate on
basis of national origin.
It influenced the development of
bilingual education programs. For
example, after Lau, EEOC and BEA
are enacted. It reaffirms the rights of
non English speakers to be free
from discrimination in education.
Bilingual Education and Training Act
June 3, 1974
Governor Dolph Briscoe [D-TX] signs the
act into law. It marks a turning point in
bilingual education in the state; it caters
to Mexican-American students, declaring
that all Texas public elementary schools
enrolling 20+ children of limited English
ability in a given grade level must provide
bilingual instruction.
Any language can be used for
instruction; this abolishes Texas’s
1918 English-only teaching
requirement.
25. 1974
__________________________
Serna v. Portales
July 17, 1974
In New Mexico, a successful
class-action suit is brought
against the school district for
not providing a community of
50% hispanics appropriate
bilingual and bicultural teaching
plans for children with hispanic
surnames.
Portales school district was in
violation of the 14th
Amendment.
Equal Education
Opportunity Act
August 21, 1974
This act makes it so no state can
deny equal education opportunity
to someone based on their race,
color, gender, or national origin.
It also bans the failure of an
educational agency to take
appropriate action to overcome
language barriers that impede
equal participation by its students
in its instructional programs.
26.
27. 1975
__________________________
Indian Self-Determination and Education
Assistance Act (ISDEAA)
Gives Indian tribes control over their own affairs
and shifted responsibility for the administration of
federal program to the tribes. Tribes are able to
negotiate contracts directly with the federal
government to run their own programs and
services, instead of the federal government doing
it for them which had previously been the case.
The act sets out to achieve Native Indian tribe
participation in the U.S. government as well as
education of Native peoples. It supports the right
of Native Indians to control the education of its
people and establishes assistance to upgrade
that education. It is amended in 1988 which
made it harder for the federal government to deny
the proposals put forward by tribes.
Aspira v. New York
May 28, 1975
Aspira, a NYC-based
community organization that
works for the rights of Puerto
Rican and Latin@ students,
successfully sues the city
seeking aid for bilingual
learners of English.
The court mandates that the
city carefully assess and
identify students needing
special language services. It
also requires implementation
of an appropriate bilingual
education.
28. 1976
__________________________
Keyes v.
School District No. 1
In Denver, Colorado, Hispanic and
African American students claim de
facto segregation influenced the Park
Hill school district. De Facto meaning
there is no official law supporting
segregation in Denver school, yet
segregation still exists.
After securing an order from the state
for desegregation, they expand their
suit to include the remaining schools of
the Denver school districts within the
city and win.
Polynesian Voyaging Society
sails the Hokule‘a on a
successful 30-day, 2500 mile
journey following the ancient
route of the Polynesian
migration between the
Hawaiian and Tahitian islands
(Eddie Aikau Foundation)
This, along with the Merrie
Monarch Festival in 1971, can
be regarded as marking the
beginnings of the Hawaiian
Renaissance.
30. 1977 1977-1978
__________________________
National Clearinghouse for
bilingual education a.k.a National
Association for Bilingual
Education (NABE)
Supports the education of English
Language Learners through
professional development language
learning.
They form partnerships with other
civil rights and educational
organizations to fight for the interests
of language minority students
American Institutes for Research (AIR)
conducts a national evaluation of 38 bilingual
programs. Critics of bilingual ed cite this
study: it compared Spanish-language
students enrolled in bilingual ed and those
enrolled in English ed..
They measured English in reading, oral
comprehension, math, as well as Spanish
reading and oral comprehension.
AIR concluded there was no difference
between the two groups in oral English and
math and that all English classroom students
outperformed the bilingual students in English
reading.
A major flaw in this evaluation was that ⅔
of the Spanish students in the English Ed
sample had previously been enrolled in
Bilingual Ed!
31. Two provisions for the State
Constitution are submitted: that the
Hawaiian language be accorded the
status of official language along with
English; and that The study of
Hawaiian be accorded special
promotion by the State.
Both provisions are passed”.
(‘Aha Punana Leo Revitalization Timeline, n.d.)
HAWAI‘I STATE CONSTITUTION,
ARTICLE XV, SECTION 4,
OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
“English and Hawaiian shall be the
official languages of Hawai`i, except that
Hawaiian shall be required for public
acts and transactions only as provided
by law” (Crawford, n.d.).
1978 1979
________________________________________________
Jim Cummins begins publishing work
where he distinguishes between oral
proficiency and academic language
proficiency.
He observes that English-language
learners are able to acquire oral
proficiency in 2–3 years, but that it
may take another 2–4 years to
acquire academic language
proficiency.
These numbers have been distorted in
Bilingual Education debates in which
Ron Unz, the millionaire businessman
from California that sponsored
Proposition 227 in 1998.
32. Castañeda v. Pickard
This is successful case against a school
in Texas where Mexican-American
children were segregated by a
discriminatory grouping system.
It was first tried in 1978 where the ruling
was in favor of the defendant. After the
appeal in 1981, measures are made for
the evaluation of English Proficiency in
Limited English Proficient (LEP) students.
3 principles are established to assess
LEP programs. They should:
1. be based on a sound educational theory,
2. effectively implement the educational
theory it follows, and
3. be evaluated after a certain period of
time to measure its effectiveness in
overcoming the language barriers.
NCLB (2001) does not respect the 3rd point.
The University of Hawai‘i at Hilo
initiates a Hawaiian Studies
degree program taught through
Hawaiian.
The focus of the degree is
traditional Hawaiian language and
culture, especially performing arts,
to complement the focus of the
Mānoa campus B.A. on Hawaiian
history and politics.
This is the first time that Hawaiian
has been used as a medium of
government funded education since
1895.
(ʻAha Pūnana Leo)
1981 1982
________________________________________________
33. First ʻAha Pūnana Leo is established on Hilo
Several Hawaiian language teachers met on Kauaʻi to discuss the
status and state of the Hawaiian language. They formed an
organization an organization called ʻAha Pūnana Leo on January
12, 1983: a pre-school taught in Hawaiian which also required
parents to take an active role in the home for the successful
transmission of Hawaiian .
Several board members drafted a bill to make Hawaiian an official
legal language of instruction in Hawai‘i public schools.
This non-profit organization created by parents interested in
restoring Native Hawaiian language through Hawaiian medium
of education, successfully persuaded the state government to
suspend the English Only law in 1987 that had been in effect
for 91 years.
1983
________________________________________________
34. US Senator S. I. Hayakawa (R-CA) founds “US English”, a
political lobbying organization aimed at making English the
official language of the US.
A law like this could have have negative effects for
immigrants who do not speak English.
Though not successful in 1983, it is still in existence today
and have a few “celebrities” on their advisory board:
Arnold Schwarzenegger
Alex Trebek (the host of Jeopardy!)
Donald Trump
1983 (cont)
________________________________________________
35. The ‘Aha Pūnana Leo political action committee submits two bills into legislation.
1st: The Hawai‘i State Legislature passes a resolution asking the DOE to
implement schools taught through Hawaiian.
2nd: The legislation passes calling upon the U.S. Congress to develop policy in
support of the survival of Hawaiian and other Native American languages.
1987
________________________________________________
The Hawaiian Lexicon Committee is
established to create words for new
concepts current to the progression of
time with emphasis on the curriculum
content of the Hawaiian Language
Immersion Program.
For several years, there were no first
language speakers of Hawaiian on the
committee
(NeSmith, 2005)
The first elementary indigenous
language immersion classes in the
US officially begins at Keaukaha
Elementary in Hilo and Waiau
Elementary in Pearl City.
https://twitter.com/ahapunanaleo
36. Native American Language Act
(NALA)
An executive order voted by
Congress in 1990, NALA declared
that Native Americans had the right
to use their own languages.
It was amended in 1992 and
furthered the effort to preserve,
protect and promote the rights and
freedoms of Native Americans to
use and develop their own
indigenous languages
(Reyhner & Eder, 2004).
White House conference on
Indian Education
As required by amendments to
the 1987 Indian Education Act,
this conference discussed
possibilities of creating board of
education specifically for Native
American communities that
would help create programs to
keep their language alive and to
educate their children in their
respective languages.
(see abstract)
1990 1992
________________________________________________
37. Final report of the White House conference on Indian Education
38. PROPOSITION 227 aka (English Language in Public Schools Statute)
The English for children Initiative in California, Proposition 227, is
presented as something that can improve English language
instruction for children who need to learn English for economic
reasons and employment opportunities.
This proposition, sponsored by Ron Unz, outlaws bilingual education
and lawmakers claim Proposition 227 will teach all children English as
rapidly and effectively as possible.
1998
__________________________
39.
40. Proposition 203-English for the Children passes by 63%
in Arizona
Ron Unzʻs Proposition 227 “English for the Children“ Initiative
in California passed in 1998, influenced similar propositions in
Arizona and Massachusetts that win by landslides.
Ron Unz campaign is defeated in other states, but the
damage is done.
In California bilingual education falls from
498,879 in 1998 to 167,163 in 2000.
2000
__________________________
41. No Child Left Behind
NCLB passes Congress in 2001, and is signed on January 8th 2002 by George W.
Bush. It makes states and their schools accountable for fostering academic
achievement for all students, in particular minority children, English language
learners, and students who need special education.
One problematic aspect of this act is that it refers to students as English Language
Learners rather than bilinguals or students from a language minority background.
Therefore it implies that the only difference between students is their English
proficiency.
Secondly, this accountability is done through standardized testing and rewarded
funding for acceptable scores. The bilingual students’ low scores are due to “critical
assessments without preparation” (Hilner, 2005) and have a major impact on
whether or not schools received funding.
As a result of NCLB and its emphasis on testing, the Bilingual Education Act was
renamed the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and
Academic Achievement Act, removing any mention of the word “bilingual”.
2001
_______________________ ___
42. Esther Martínez Native American
Language Preservation Act of 2006
Esther Martinez proposes this bill
amending the Native American
Programs Act of 1874 which provided
administration for Native American
language programs, but limited federal
funding.
The purpose of the new law is to
protect language immersion
programs trying to keep Native
American language alive. This act
authorized three-year grants for
education language nests, survival
schools, and restoration programs, and
lays out the requirements for the
programs and applicants.
Kerry Laiana Wong writes the
first dissertation solely in
Hawaiian, entitled:
Kuhi aku, kuhi mai, kuhi hewa ē :
He mau loina kuhikuhi ʻā kena
no ka ʻō lelo Hawaiʻi
(Ways of fingering the culprit in Hawaiian)
2006
________________________________________________
43.
44. February 11, 2015
Native Hawaiian
Education
Reauthorization Act of
2015
(referred to the Committee
on Health, Education,
Labor, and Pensions)
Sponsored by Senator Mazie
Hirono [D-HI]
A bill to amend the
Elementary and
Secondary Education Act
of 1965 regarding Native
Hawaiian education.
(Native Hawaiian Education
Reauthorization Act of 2015)
November, 2015
Pidgin is considered
an official language
in Hawaii.
"In [census] data
collected from 2009-
2013 in Honolulu,
Hawaii and Maui
counties, 1,390
respondents over the
age of five listed
Pidgin or Hawaiian
Pidgin as the
language they spoke
at home."
(Hawaiian news now)
2015
__________________________
June 16, 2015
Seal of Biliteracy in
Hawaiʻi
“The Board of Education
hereby establishes a Seal
of Biliteracy to be awarded
upon graduation to
students who demonstrate
a high proficiency in either
of the State’s two official
languages and at least
one additional language,
including American Sign
Language…”
(http://sealofbiliteracy.org/hawaii)
45.
46. BOE Policy 105.14, Multilingualism for Equitable Education
Action on Student Achievement Committee recommends new Board
Policy 105.14, Language in Education (ELL/Bilingual). and passes!
The goals are to provide:
1. a range of language education program(s) for multilingual
students, which includes EL students and students who want to
learn an additional language
2. effective educators with appropriate knowledge, skills and
instructional materials
3. outreach supports to families to become actively engaged in their
children’s education.
Our very own SLS MA student, Samuel Aguirre plays role in this success!
2016
__________________________
47. References
Aguilera, D., & LeCompte, M. D. (2009). Restore my language and treat me justly: Indigenous students’ rights to their tribal
languages. In S. C. Scott, D. Y. Straker, & L. Katz (Eds.). Affirming students' right to their own language: Bridging language
policies and pedagogical practices, (pp. 68-84). Madison, NY: Routledge.
A timeline of revitalization (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/index.php?/about/a_timeline_of_revitalization/
Crawford, J. (n.d.). Issues in U.S. language policy: Language legislation in the U.S. Retrieved from http://www.languagepolicy.
net/archives/langleg.htm
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn
García, G. (2009 December 23). Bilingual Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/bilingual-
education/
García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
History of Indian Education - OIE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/oie/history.
html
Gov.track.US. (n.d.) H.R. 4766 (109th): Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act of 2006. Retrieved from
https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr4766
Hilner, B. (2005).. "'Bad Policy and Bad Law'": The shortcomings of the No Child Left Behind Act in bilingual educational policy
and its frustration of the equal protection clause. Educational Law Consortium Journal, 5.
Holmes, J., & Sutherland, J. (n.d.). FindLaw's United States Supreme Court case and opinions. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from http:
//caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/262/390.html
48. References
Keiki K. C., Kawaiʻaeʻa, K. K. C., Housman, A. K., Alencastre, M., Ka’awa, K., Mākaʻimoku, K. K., & Lauano, K. K. (2007).
Pūʻā, i ka ʻŌlelo, Ola ka ʻOhana: Three Generations of Hawaiian Language Revitalization. Hūlili: Multidisciplinary Research on
Hawaiian Well-Being, 4(1), 183–237.
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from https://www.law.cornell.
edu/supremecourt/text/413/189
NABE: About NABE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.nabe.org/aboutnabe
Native Hawaiian Education Reauthorization Act of 2015, S. 464, 114th Cong. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.congress.
gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/464
NeSmith, R. K. (2005). Tū tū ’s Hawaiian and the emergence of a neo Hawaiian language. Ō iwi Journal 3: A Native Hawaiian
Journal. Honolulu, HI: Kuleana ‘Ō iwi Press
Reyhner, J. & Eder J. (2004). American indian education a history, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press
Ross, W. G. (n.d.). Meyer v. Nebraska. Retrieved from http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.law.032
Wong, K. L. (2006). Kuhi aku, kuhi mai, kuhi hewa ē : He mau loina kuhikuhi ʻā kena no ka ʻō lelo Hawaiʻi [Ways of fingering the
culprit in Hawaiian] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI.
TruthOut Archive. Kunichoff, Y. (2010, September 25). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://truth-out.
org/archive/component/k2/item/91897:speaking-in-tongues-bilingual-education-and-immigrant-communities
TruthOut Archive. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://truth-out.org/archive/component/k2/item/91897:speaking-in-tongues-
bilingual-education-and-immigrant-communities
