This document discusses research on the concept that rape is an act of power rather than solely a sexual act. It summarizes several studies that examined how socioeconomic status, gender roles and stereotypes, and perceptions of masculinity and femininity can influence whether someone views a situation as rape or consensual sex. One study found that lower socioeconomic status of a female victim correlated with greater rape prevalence and belief in rape myths. Another study found that men who view sex as dominance over women were more likely to relate to a rapist. Gender roles often cause people to sympathize more with victims or perpetrators of their own gender. The document examines how perceptions of sexual assault differ based on the genders of victims and perpetrators.
How And When To Tell Your Kids About Sex Reviseddfwilliams1162
Â
A presentation built on the text, "How and When to Tell Your Kids about Sex," by Stanton Jones. For use by church leaders who are looking for ways to train parents in providing sound biblical and developmental education in human sexuality.
How And When To Tell Your Kids About Sex Reviseddfwilliams1162
Â
A presentation built on the text, "How and When to Tell Your Kids about Sex," by Stanton Jones. For use by church leaders who are looking for ways to train parents in providing sound biblical and developmental education in human sexuality.
Describes the design, assumptions, and interpretations for one-way ANOVA, one-way repeated measures ANOVA, factorial ANOVA, SPANOVA, ANCOVA, and MANOVA. More info: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Survey_research_and_design_in_psychology/Lectures/ANOVA_II
Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence OutcomesJe.docxhanneloremccaffery
Â
Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence Outcomes
Jennifer E. Caldwell, Suzanne C. Swan, and V. Diane Woodbrown
University of South Carolina
Objective: This paper proposes a conceptual model for gender differences in outcomes
of intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, broadly conceived as including
physical, sexual, emotional, and coercive control forms of abuse, as well as stalking.
Method: Literature review of PsycInfo and PubMed databases. Results: The literature
reviewed suggests these negative effects are not equally distributed by genderâstudies
indicate that women suffer disproportionately from IPV, especially in terms of injuries,
fear, and posttraumatic stress. The review also finds that women experience greater
decreases in relationship satisfaction as a result of IPV. Conclusions: Our review
largely supports the contention of feminist theory that gender mattersâ but we would
go further and say that what really matters is power; gender matters because it is so
highly correlated with power. We propose that, due to cultural factors that typically
ascribe higher status to the male gender, and menâs greater size and strength compared
to women (on average), women are more likely than men to encounter contextual
factors that disempower them and put them in situationsâsuch as sexual abuseâthat
increase their risk of poor outcomes.
Keywords: intimate partner violence, gender differences, gender symmetry, feminist theory,
power
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a costly
and debilitating health and social concern for
families, communities, mental and physical
health practitioners, the criminal justice system,
policymakers, and society at large. In the past,
IPV was conceptualized primarily as something
men do to women; however, recent research has
demonstrated that IPV is much more complex
and multidimensional, defying simplistic expla-
nations. For instance, gender symmetry, the no-
tion that women are similarly or more aggres-
sive than males in their intimate relationships
(Johnson, 2006; Melton & Belknap, 2003;
Straus, 2006; White, 2009), seems to apply for
some types of IPV, but not others. Numerous
studies have found that women commit equal
(e.g., Katz, Kuffel, & Coblentz, 2002) or higher
(Archer, 2000; Magdol et al., 1997) rates of
physical aggression toward partners as com-
pared to men, supporting gender symmetry the-
ory. However, feminist theory, which views
IPV as a gendered issue, is supported by studies
finding that, relative to men, women experience
more injuries (Archer, 2000), sexual victimiza-
tion (Coker et al., 2002; Harned, 2001; Romito
& Grassi, 2007; Slashinski, Coker, & Davis,
2003), and stalking (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000)
from current and former intimate partners. In
addition, law enforcement reports find that 75%
of domestic violence offenders are male (Sny-
der & McCurley, 2008), and on a typical day in
the United States, approximately three females,
compared to one male, are the victims of inti-
...
Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, and Sexual ViolenceGender stereo.docxfathwaitewalter
Â
Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, and Sexual Violence
Gender stereotypes influence and perpetuate what is known as patriarchy. Patriarchy is a concept that considers men the holders of power and authority resulting in domination of all sectors throughout society. Men have held the most powerful positions in the world and have guided our laws, policies, and culture. Patriarchy not only impacts society on a global scale through structural oppression but also our daily lives. It influences individual relationships and the daily interactions amongst husbands and wives, boyfriends and girlfriends, and colleagues. Feminist theory posits that men use violence in attempt to maintain this power and privilege. Domestic abuse and sexual assault are forms of violence that clearly exert power and control over a person. While abuse can be demonstrated by both men and women and survivors of abuse could be of either gender, statistics show that women are the overwhelming victims of abuse and violence. Patriarchy and the sexist and misogynistic viewpoints propagate views of women as subordinates who are meant to be kept in "their place." Violence is a form of managing and maintaining a male's role in society. To prepare for this Discussion, review the Johnson case. Reflect on the gender and sexism stereotypes expressed and the essential skills for social work practice you have learned throughout the program.
To prepare:
View Johnson
(Episode 2) and consider the gender and sexist stereotypes made around sexual assault by the professional in the episode. These stereotypes may revolve around gender, life circumstances, socioeconomic status, and education level.
By Day 3
Post
an explanation of gender and sexist stereotypes and assumptions around sexual assault made by a professional you observe in the case study episode. Explain how these stereotypes perpetuate violence against women. Apply social work skills for social change advocacy to address sexism. Explain how social workers can respond to the stereotypes and assumptions you have identified in the Johnson case and how you might advocate for social change related to sexism while working with families, clients, and groups and collaborating with other professionals. Be specific about the skills you would apply and the actions you would take.
...
Sex of an Act of Power and Effects of Gender Roles
1. 1
Running Head: SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
Rape: Sex as an Act of Power and the Effect of Gender Roles
Sara K. Manning
John Jay College of Criminal Justice
2. 2
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
Rape: Sex as an Act of Power and the Effect of Gender Roles
The issue of rape has become a prevalent research concern in recent years. Psychologists
have studied the topic in depth and have found how rape effects the victims, why perpetrators
rape, the prevalence of rape in society and other environments, and how society tends to view
sexual assault and the victims. Traditionally rape was viewed and constructed as purely an act of
sex. In more current research, however, it has come to light that rape may not be purely an act of
sex. Studies have begun to show that rape is an act of power between the perpetrator and the
victim, both relationally and socioeconomically, and the views of both of the participants are
directly affected by the gender roles held by society.
The concept that rape is an act of power is a new topic that researches have been
attempting to define. Using older definitions, rape is defined as sex accomplished through use of
force and against a womanâs will (Buchhandler-Raphael, 2011). This definition has evolved in
todayâs society to focus less on women, and more on the idea of force and non-consensual sex.
This is important in understanding that, despite the acknowledgment that men can be raped,
gender roles do play a part in the perceptions of sexual assault, which is addressed in much of the
ârape as an act of powerâ research.
In a study conducted by Yamawaki, Darby, and Queiroz (2007), the issue of power was
constructed by the difference in socioeconomic status (SES) between the victim and the
perpetrator. The focus of the study was to determine how the SES affected perceptions of both
the victim and the perpetrator. What was discovered is that the perceptions of rape were not only
mediated by SES status, but also by perceived gender roles. For example, âgender inequality
3. 3
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
correlates highly with the prevalence of rape incidents, [and the] acceptance of rape mythsâŠâ
(Yamawaki et. al., 2007). This result hinted that when women were considerably lower in
society, in regards to SES, the event of rape was far more common and rape myths were believed
more often. This would mean that rape is not only a physical act of power, but a socioeconomic
struggle for power as well. This is further supported with the results that the public perceived the
man with a higher SES as less culpable for the rape and the woman victim was viewed as trying
to gain power and manipulate the man.
Another important implication of this study was that when a woman victim had an equal
or higher amount of SES but was still assaulted, they continued to be viewed negatively. As it
turns out, when the victim is perceived to have violated an expected gender role, despite her
SES, people on the outside will still view her as responsible for her rape. This is interesting
because where SES affects how people view a male perpetrator, gender roles are what affect the
views of the female victim the most.
Socioeconomic status is a major factor in power between a victim and perpetrator of rape.
However, there is another measure of power as it is related to sex. Sex is sometimes viewed as a
conquest over another person (Chapleau & Oswald, 2010). This gives the concept of power a
completely different definition than SES. Instead of a person being socially more powerful than
their victim, power and sex is now about one person (the perpetrator) being in power over the
other (the victim). This construction of power makes idea of rape as an act of power physical and
relational rather than economic. Chapleau and Oswald suggest that men, in particular, view sex
as an aggressive act associated with dominance (2010).
4. 4
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
With this idea in mind, the research differentiated implicit and explicit thoughts about sex
and aggression. Where implicit thoughts were more sub-conscious and related to the idea that
sex was pleasurably related to power, explicit thoughts were direct beliefs that consensual sex
involved submission from the partner (Chapleau & Oswald, 2010). What this means is that men
with explicit views hold the concept that sex and power are directly linked. When this occurred,
these men were more likely to relate to a perpetrator or rape, believe sex myths, and were more
likely to partake in coercion of their partners to get rape.
Sex as an act of power is a fairly new research topic within psychology. What is
interesting is the variety of ways the sex is an acts of power. Not only can men physically feel
that raping a woman makes them powerful, and shown in Chapleau and Oswalds research, but
also socioeconomic status is a form of power that seems to affect victims and perpetrators in the
realm of perceptions. Research should continue to explore the extent that rape is an act of power,
but also explore the various definitions of power and how each affect the publicâs perceptions.
Gender roles and gender stereotypes, as mentioned slightly above, have a drastic effect
on how individuals view the perpetrators and victims of rape. It is well known that men tend to
relate more to the offender, whereas women tend to relate more to the victim; despite the gender
of either (Kahn et al., 2011). This is due to gender stereotypes and how the person evaluating the
sexual assault relates to the gender role of the people involved. This can be indicative of rape
being an act of power as well. Not only is rape used to take power physically over a woman, but
gender stereotypes in our society also cause individuals to relate to the victim or perpetrator
because of the perceived amount of power.
5. 5
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
Despite this difference between men and women and how they relate to the victim and
perpetrator, both sexes do have similarities when evaluating sexual assault scenarios. It has been
shown that both men and women perceive actions as coercive the more physical force increases
(Russell, Oswald, Kraus, 2011). This means that as coercion increases to physical force, both
women and men realize that this constitutes as rape. However, the sex of the perpetrator effects
menâs perceptions. For example, if a man is forcing sex on a woman, men tend to agree that it is
coercive behavior that constitutes as rape. However, if it is a woman using the same tactics, men
tend to see this as a positive event (Russell et. al., 2011). This could be because men do not see
women as threatening and perceive it as a compliment to their masculinity and gender role in
society, where as if a man were to sexually assault a man it would be a threat to oneâs sexual
identity (Lev-Wiesel, 2006).
There are different definitions of coercion, however the typical use is âan experience of
being pressure or forced by another person to have contact which involved touching of sexual
parts or sexual intercourseâ (Judson, Johnson, & Perez, 2013). It has become a focus of more
researchers to look at how sexual coercion is used by women to gain sex from men. Sexual
coercion is a broader term that not only looks at physical force to obtain sex, but at psychological
methods to take advantage of a person. Where woman are more likely to be raped, men are more
likely to experience sexual coercion when the perpetrator is a woman (Judson et al., 2013).
This is an interesting concept because, historically, it has not been a common perception
that men can be raped or sexually assaulted and have negative consequences. Typically, men are
viewed as having less of a fear against women. If a man is âsexually assaultedâ by a woman,
then he wanted to have sex, enjoyed the assault, and does not have any negative effects from the
6. 6
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
assault as a woman victim would. However, research has shown that men do in fact have
negative consequences from unwanted sexual advances. Men who are raped tend to have long-
term avoidance issues of sex, experience guilt for not desiring to have sex, question their
heterosexuality, experience depression, embarrassment, and can also experience alcohol-related
consequences (Judson et al., 2013).
It is obvious that there are many factors that affect peopleâs perceptions of rape. Gender
roles and gender stereotypes in society are two factors that have a great impact. For both the
perpetrator and victims, understanding the root of these stereotypes and overcoming them could
have major impact on rape cases in the future. Not only would rape myths about women be
firmly debunked, but men victims of rape would also hold more credibility and less negative
responses from the public.
7. 7
SEX AS AN ACT OF POWER
Works Cited
Buchhandler-Raphael, M. (2011). The failure of consent: Re-conceptualizing rape as sexual
abuse of power. Michigan Journal of Gender & Law, 18(1), 147-228.
Chapleau, K., M., & Oswald, D. L. (2010). Power, sex, and rape myth acceptance: Testing two
models of rape proclivity. Journal of Sex Research, 47(1), 66.
doi:10.1080/00223390902954323
Judson, S. S., Johnsons, D. M., & Perez, A. U. (2013). Perceptions of adult sexual coercion as a
function of victim gender. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(4), 335-344.
doi:10.1037/a0030448
Kahn, A. S., Rodgers, K. A., Martin, C., Malic, K., Claytor, J., Gandolfo, M., & Webne, E.
(2011). Gender versus gender role in attributions of blame for a sexual assault. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 41(2), 229-251. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00711.x
Lev-Wiesel, R., & Besser, A. (2006). Male definitions of sexual assault: The role of the
perpetratorâs gender. Individual Difference Research, 4(1), 46-50.
Russel, B. B., Oswald, D. L., & Kraus, S. W. (2011). Evaluations of sexual assault: Perceptions
of guilt and legal elements for male and female aggressors using various coercive
strategies. Violence & Victims, 26(6), 788-815.
Yamaaki, N., Darby, R., & Queiroz, A. (2007). The moderating role of ambivalent sexism: The
influence of power status on perception of rape victim and rapist. Journal of Social
Psychology, 147(1), 41-56.
