Adolescence is a period of increased behavioral and psychiatric vulnerabilities as well as dramatic structural and functional neurodevelopment. Studies have found that adolescents exhibit greater risk-taking behaviors, sensation seeking, and impulsivity compared to children and adults. This is due to ongoing changes in the adolescent brain involving reductions in neuronal coordination and processing efficiency. A more comprehensive understanding of adolescent brain development and the link to behaviors could provide insights into vulnerabilities during this period and the pathophysiology of mental illnesses that sometimes emerge.
Recopilación de los datos más relevantes sobre la investigación visual y documental
Se incluye además un gráfico/ilustración en el que recabamos la información.
Información y gráficos realizados por:
Flor Arredondo
María José Reyes
Jazmín Osorio
The document discusses the pain of not knowing if a partner is having an affair or experiencing health issues like thyroid problems. It lists potential signs of an affair, such as lack of intimacy or interest in activities previously enjoyed together, and symptoms of thyroid issues, such as weight changes, mood swings, insomnia, and irritability. It emphasizes that either situation can create distress and misery, especially the uncertainty of not knowing what is wrong. Effective communication between partners is presented as important to relieve distrust and find understanding.
Recopilación de los datos más relevantes sobre entrevistas realizadas a personas cristianas acerca de su opinión sobre el incesto.
Se incluye además dibujos realizados por cada entrevistado como prueba de la realización de las mismas. Dichos dibujas constan de un corazón hecho con un lápiz labial rojo.
Entrevistadoras:
Flor Arredondo
María José Reyes
Jazmín Osorio
Los nombres de los entrevistados no serán revelados debido a que estas personas decidieron mantenerse como anónimas y deseamos respetar su decisión.
Agradecemos mucho la colaboración de estas personas que colaboraron con su opinión.
Este documento discute el complejo de Edipo y la castración genital edípica. Explica que durante el período de Edipo, los niños desarrollan un deseo de identificarse con el padre o la madre. El padre debe dar al hijo la "castración", explicándole que no puede amar a su madre como pareja. De lo contrario, el niño podría desarrollar una imagen distorsionada de las relaciones. La ausencia del padre o un padre violento pueden ser dañinos, ya que el niño podría tomarlos como modelo
El documento presenta bocetos de tres estudiantes: Flor Azalea Arredondo Galván, Ivette Jazmín Osorio Montoya y María José Reyes Calderón para un proyecto el 4 de marzo de 2015.
Este documento presenta una guía sobre cómo citar fuentes y referencias bibliográficas de acuerdo con el Manual de Publicaciones de la Asociación Americana de Psicología (APA). Explica cómo realizar citas textuales o indirectas de uno o varios autores en el texto, así como los elementos requeridos para referencias bibliográficas. Además, resume los cambios en la quinta edición del manual de APA.
Psicoterapia de Sobrevivientes Adultos de Incestomcvila
Este documento describe los principios de la psicoterapia para sobrevivientes adultos de incesto. Aborda los efectos del trauma crónico como la hiperestimulación y desorganización psicológica, así como la recuperación de recuerdos y la integración del yo disociado. El modelo terapéutico se enfoca en desarrollar las capacidades del yo, una relación genuina con el terapeuta y la internalización progresiva de esta relación para sanar el daño del abuso.
Recopilación de los datos más relevantes sobre la investigación visual y documental
Se incluye además un gráfico/ilustración en el que recabamos la información.
Información y gráficos realizados por:
Flor Arredondo
María José Reyes
Jazmín Osorio
The document discusses the pain of not knowing if a partner is having an affair or experiencing health issues like thyroid problems. It lists potential signs of an affair, such as lack of intimacy or interest in activities previously enjoyed together, and symptoms of thyroid issues, such as weight changes, mood swings, insomnia, and irritability. It emphasizes that either situation can create distress and misery, especially the uncertainty of not knowing what is wrong. Effective communication between partners is presented as important to relieve distrust and find understanding.
Recopilación de los datos más relevantes sobre entrevistas realizadas a personas cristianas acerca de su opinión sobre el incesto.
Se incluye además dibujos realizados por cada entrevistado como prueba de la realización de las mismas. Dichos dibujas constan de un corazón hecho con un lápiz labial rojo.
Entrevistadoras:
Flor Arredondo
María José Reyes
Jazmín Osorio
Los nombres de los entrevistados no serán revelados debido a que estas personas decidieron mantenerse como anónimas y deseamos respetar su decisión.
Agradecemos mucho la colaboración de estas personas que colaboraron con su opinión.
Este documento discute el complejo de Edipo y la castración genital edípica. Explica que durante el período de Edipo, los niños desarrollan un deseo de identificarse con el padre o la madre. El padre debe dar al hijo la "castración", explicándole que no puede amar a su madre como pareja. De lo contrario, el niño podría desarrollar una imagen distorsionada de las relaciones. La ausencia del padre o un padre violento pueden ser dañinos, ya que el niño podría tomarlos como modelo
El documento presenta bocetos de tres estudiantes: Flor Azalea Arredondo Galván, Ivette Jazmín Osorio Montoya y María José Reyes Calderón para un proyecto el 4 de marzo de 2015.
Este documento presenta una guía sobre cómo citar fuentes y referencias bibliográficas de acuerdo con el Manual de Publicaciones de la Asociación Americana de Psicología (APA). Explica cómo realizar citas textuales o indirectas de uno o varios autores en el texto, así como los elementos requeridos para referencias bibliográficas. Además, resume los cambios en la quinta edición del manual de APA.
Psicoterapia de Sobrevivientes Adultos de Incestomcvila
Este documento describe los principios de la psicoterapia para sobrevivientes adultos de incesto. Aborda los efectos del trauma crónico como la hiperestimulación y desorganización psicológica, así como la recuperación de recuerdos y la integración del yo disociado. El modelo terapéutico se enfoca en desarrollar las capacidades del yo, una relación genuina con el terapeuta y la internalización progresiva de esta relación para sanar el daño del abuso.
El documento lista diferentes figuras retóricas como incesto, personificación, políptoton, antítesis, alusión, sinécdoque, repetición, paradoja, elipsis y enálague.
El documento presenta el programa de una obra de teatro dividida en 8 escenas tituladas: Introducción, La Palabra, El Otro, Primera Vez, Una Mujer Desnuda, La Conferencia, Lujuria y Doña Virginia Morales, Canto Final. También incluye los créditos del equipo técnico y artístico involucrado en la producción teatral.
Apego e hiperactividad, un estudio exploratorio del vínculo madre hijomackisv
Este documento presenta los resultados de un estudio exploratorio sobre el vínculo madre-hijo en niños diagnosticados con Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (TDAH). Se aplicaron pruebas de evaluación para explorar las representaciones internas del vínculo en los niños con TDAH y sus madres. Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas en los estilos de apego entre el grupo clínico y el grupo control, con más niños del grupo clínico mostrando estilos de apego inseguros. El documento
¿Qué es un macho sino un niño intimidado que fue concebido y evolucionó en el cuerpo de su madre? Un hijo tiene testículos y un pene porque su madre tiene ovarios y un clítoris. Esta es la relatividad de la existencia del hombre y la mujer que determina su inseparabilidad como los elementos de la humanidad y su igualdad.
El incesto.. trabajo de adriana alvis leguia 7 bandrealvis2802
El documento discute el incesto y las normas sociales relacionadas con el matrimonio y el parentesco. Explica que el incesto implica relaciones sexuales entre parientes y que la mayoría de las sociedades lo prohíben para fomentar vínculos fuera del grupo familiar original. También describe cómo el matrimonio sirve para legitimar uniones sexuales y la descendencia, aunque sus formas varían culturalmente.
Este capítulo discute la evolución histórica de la familia y los roles de género. En la antigüedad, Aristóteles veía al hombre como soberano y a la mujer como subordinada. Freud consideraba la sexualidad femenina como un "continente negro" y creía que las mujeres debían transferir su placer de los genitales a la vagina. A fines del siglo XIX, las mujeres ganaron más control sobre la procreación, lo que amenazó el orden familiar patriarcal. En la actualidad, se ha profundizado la fractura entre el deseo fem
Este documento discute los orígenes de la prohibición del incesto. Argumenta que el incesto tiene un origen biológico al surgir de la familia elemental formada por el padre, la madre y los hijos. Explica que el incesto fue prohibido para evitar los celos del macho dominante y preservar la cohesión del grupo. También señala que el totemismo surgió como una figura que representaba al ancestro y protegía al clan, asegurando la autoridad paterna después de su muerte.
La violencia infantil incluye diversos tipos como el ciberacoso, abuso fetal, bullying, explotación comercial, alienación parental, síndrome de Munchausen, negligencia, abuso sexual, emocional y físico. Estos actos causan daños al desarrollo del niño y consecuencias como baja autoestima, trastornos psicológicos, enfermedades, fracaso escolar y problemas de salud. La violencia proviene de diversos entornos como la familia, escuela, sociedad y se debe a factores como marginación, falta
El documento discute el tabú del incesto, notando que aunque es prohibido universalmente, existen algunas excepciones históricas como en las monarquías del Antiguo Egipto. Algunas culturas como el Tíbet permiten relaciones incestuosas, pero la mayoría de legislaciones modernas lo consideran un delito. Las sanciones por incesto van desde castigos severos hasta el repudio social.
El tribunal penal de Punto Fijo dictó sentencia definitiva contra Sergio Guzmán García Atacho por el delito de incesto con sus hijas Reina Gabriela García Marrufo y Reina María Marrufo Amaya. El fiscal solicitó que se admita totalmente la acusación presentada en contra de Guzmán García y que se ordene su enjuiciamiento oral y público, ratificando los medios de prueba ofrecidos.
El documento presenta tres ensayos sobre teoría sexual de Sigmund Freud de 1905. Incluye prólogos a ediciones posteriores donde Freud defiende sus teorías sobre la sexualidad humana y la importancia del factor sexual. También resume las diferentes concepciones de la inversión sexual y argumenta que no debe considerarse como un signo de degeneración.
Si descargas mi ppt al menos dale like... La fisiología del embarazo abarca distintos cambios anatómicos y funcionales para la nutrición y bienestar del dúo madre - hijo, hay que comprenderlos para saber diferenciar lo normal de lo anormal, es de vital importancia tomar referencia de las bibliografías que se plasman para poder entender del todo la presentación.
El documento presenta un cuadro comparativo de los delitos de violación, actos lascivos y abuso sexual según el Código Penal. Resume las diferencias en términos del acto carnal, la naturaleza de cada delito, y el bien jurídico tutelado. La violación implica un acto carnal a través de violencia o amenazas. Los actos lascivos son tocamientos lujuriosos mediante violencia. El abuso sexual incluye ambos delitos al vulnerar la integridad a través de la violencia para satisfacer necesidades
Este documento analiza los delitos de violación, incesto, actos lascivos y abuso sexual según el Código Penal venezolano. Define la violación como un acto carnal mediante violencia o amenazas, y tipifica la penalidad de 10 a 15 años de prisión. El incesto entre ascendientes, descendientes o hermanos se castiga con 3 a 6 años. El abuso sexual a niños o adolescentes conlleva penas de 1 a 10 años dependiendo de si implica penetración. Estos delitos atentan contra la libertad y dignidad sexuales protegidas
El primer documento presenta una dinámica para hablar de sexualidad de forma inapropiada usando flores como metáfora. El segundo documento describe una dinámica de abuso sexual que pone a estudiantes en situaciones de riesgo. El tercer documento sugiere organizar equipos para analizar canciones que promueven estereotipos y violencia de género.
¿Cómo liberarte del apego? Simplemente renuncia a él, ayuna de él. Pero si eso es difícil, cámbialo por un apego más noble o más sano. Si eso no funciona entonces has un voto o compromiso y trabájalo espiritualmente. Si aún así no puedes, entonces acude a la meditación, al entrenamiento de tu mente, para que aprendas a transformar el deseo en libertad!!!
Este documento resume las características generales de los cestodos, incluyendo su morfología, ciclo de vida, órdenes, familias y géneros más importantes. Describe en detalle cestodos como Taenia solium, Dipylidium caninum y Moniezia que parasitan humanos, caninos y ganado respectivamente. Explica las enfermedades que producen y su tratamiento.
Source SummaryYou should be very careful to avoid plagiarism when .docxrafbolet0
Source Summary
You should be very careful to avoid plagiarism when summarizing your sources. All source content in your summaries should be in your own words (preferred) or in quotation marks with page numbers provided (try to avoid quotes). Keeping plagiarism out of your summaries is an important step in keeping it out of your literature review. DO NOT JUST READ AND SUMMARIZE THE ABSTRACT! READ THE ENTIRE ARTICLE UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
1. Identify the main research hypothesis or thesis.
2. Describe how the researchers tested their hypothesis/hypotheses. In other words, describe their methodology (what they did, including what behaviors they recorded, how often they observed the primates, how they recorded the data, etc), the participants (who were they, how many were used/observed, where were they housed, where were they from), and a brief overview of the procedure.
3. Describe what the researchers found (focus on their main findings from the results section, discussion, and conclusions). Make sure that you understand their overall results, including the statistics and charts/graphs/figures they reported.
Source Evaluation (Excerpted from Galvan, 2006, p. 8)
In addition to summarizing the relevant information from a source, you should also evaluate the information in the source. Critique/analysis of the literature is an important part of a good article summary.
· Are there any obvious problems with the way the authors are discussing the background literature, their methods, or misconstruing their findings? Explain.
· Are there any obvious biases from the authors trying to downplay abnormal behaviors or justify what they are doing for human good? Explain.
· Did you notice any other flaws? Explain.
· Overall, do you think the research makes an important contribution to advancing knowledge?
Critical Reading (Excerpted from Lawson, 1999)
You should find the following questions useful as you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each of your sources.
· What is the quality of the evidence used to support the claim?
· Is there a control or comparison group against which to assess the performance of the experimental group?
· Is the person concluding there is a causal relationship on the basis of correlational data?
· Are there confounding variables that might account for the findings, or are there confounding variables that they are not considering (e.g. exposure to humans on a daily basis, invasive experimental procedures, single housing)?
· Has the person made it impossible to falsify his or her theory or hypothesis? Does he or she consider positive evidence as support for the theory but negative evidence as not being relevant?
· Is the person acknowledging that complex behaviors or phenomena have multiple causes?
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (2006) 1246–1259
Review
Psychopathology in great apes: Concepts, treatment options and
possible homologies to human psychiatric disorders
Martin Brüne.
Aggression and Violent Behavior 16 (2011) 63–73Contents li.docxsimonlbentley59018
This document proposes a conceptual framework for understanding the relationship between early health risk factors and later violence and aggression. It identifies three gaps in the current literature: 1) the role of prenatal and early childhood health factors is underexplored, 2) existing theories do not fully integrate biological and psychosocial factors, and 3) longitudinal studies are needed. The proposed framework incorporates biological, psychosocial, and protective factors from prenatal to early childhood periods. It is supported by evidence that risk factors like smoking during pregnancy, malnutrition, head injuries, and abuse are linked to negative behavioral outcomes. The framework could improve understanding and lead to more effective prevention programs.
El documento lista diferentes figuras retóricas como incesto, personificación, políptoton, antítesis, alusión, sinécdoque, repetición, paradoja, elipsis y enálague.
El documento presenta el programa de una obra de teatro dividida en 8 escenas tituladas: Introducción, La Palabra, El Otro, Primera Vez, Una Mujer Desnuda, La Conferencia, Lujuria y Doña Virginia Morales, Canto Final. También incluye los créditos del equipo técnico y artístico involucrado en la producción teatral.
Apego e hiperactividad, un estudio exploratorio del vínculo madre hijomackisv
Este documento presenta los resultados de un estudio exploratorio sobre el vínculo madre-hijo en niños diagnosticados con Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (TDAH). Se aplicaron pruebas de evaluación para explorar las representaciones internas del vínculo en los niños con TDAH y sus madres. Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas en los estilos de apego entre el grupo clínico y el grupo control, con más niños del grupo clínico mostrando estilos de apego inseguros. El documento
¿Qué es un macho sino un niño intimidado que fue concebido y evolucionó en el cuerpo de su madre? Un hijo tiene testículos y un pene porque su madre tiene ovarios y un clítoris. Esta es la relatividad de la existencia del hombre y la mujer que determina su inseparabilidad como los elementos de la humanidad y su igualdad.
El incesto.. trabajo de adriana alvis leguia 7 bandrealvis2802
El documento discute el incesto y las normas sociales relacionadas con el matrimonio y el parentesco. Explica que el incesto implica relaciones sexuales entre parientes y que la mayoría de las sociedades lo prohíben para fomentar vínculos fuera del grupo familiar original. También describe cómo el matrimonio sirve para legitimar uniones sexuales y la descendencia, aunque sus formas varían culturalmente.
Este capítulo discute la evolución histórica de la familia y los roles de género. En la antigüedad, Aristóteles veía al hombre como soberano y a la mujer como subordinada. Freud consideraba la sexualidad femenina como un "continente negro" y creía que las mujeres debían transferir su placer de los genitales a la vagina. A fines del siglo XIX, las mujeres ganaron más control sobre la procreación, lo que amenazó el orden familiar patriarcal. En la actualidad, se ha profundizado la fractura entre el deseo fem
Este documento discute los orígenes de la prohibición del incesto. Argumenta que el incesto tiene un origen biológico al surgir de la familia elemental formada por el padre, la madre y los hijos. Explica que el incesto fue prohibido para evitar los celos del macho dominante y preservar la cohesión del grupo. También señala que el totemismo surgió como una figura que representaba al ancestro y protegía al clan, asegurando la autoridad paterna después de su muerte.
La violencia infantil incluye diversos tipos como el ciberacoso, abuso fetal, bullying, explotación comercial, alienación parental, síndrome de Munchausen, negligencia, abuso sexual, emocional y físico. Estos actos causan daños al desarrollo del niño y consecuencias como baja autoestima, trastornos psicológicos, enfermedades, fracaso escolar y problemas de salud. La violencia proviene de diversos entornos como la familia, escuela, sociedad y se debe a factores como marginación, falta
El documento discute el tabú del incesto, notando que aunque es prohibido universalmente, existen algunas excepciones históricas como en las monarquías del Antiguo Egipto. Algunas culturas como el Tíbet permiten relaciones incestuosas, pero la mayoría de legislaciones modernas lo consideran un delito. Las sanciones por incesto van desde castigos severos hasta el repudio social.
El tribunal penal de Punto Fijo dictó sentencia definitiva contra Sergio Guzmán García Atacho por el delito de incesto con sus hijas Reina Gabriela García Marrufo y Reina María Marrufo Amaya. El fiscal solicitó que se admita totalmente la acusación presentada en contra de Guzmán García y que se ordene su enjuiciamiento oral y público, ratificando los medios de prueba ofrecidos.
El documento presenta tres ensayos sobre teoría sexual de Sigmund Freud de 1905. Incluye prólogos a ediciones posteriores donde Freud defiende sus teorías sobre la sexualidad humana y la importancia del factor sexual. También resume las diferentes concepciones de la inversión sexual y argumenta que no debe considerarse como un signo de degeneración.
Si descargas mi ppt al menos dale like... La fisiología del embarazo abarca distintos cambios anatómicos y funcionales para la nutrición y bienestar del dúo madre - hijo, hay que comprenderlos para saber diferenciar lo normal de lo anormal, es de vital importancia tomar referencia de las bibliografías que se plasman para poder entender del todo la presentación.
El documento presenta un cuadro comparativo de los delitos de violación, actos lascivos y abuso sexual según el Código Penal. Resume las diferencias en términos del acto carnal, la naturaleza de cada delito, y el bien jurídico tutelado. La violación implica un acto carnal a través de violencia o amenazas. Los actos lascivos son tocamientos lujuriosos mediante violencia. El abuso sexual incluye ambos delitos al vulnerar la integridad a través de la violencia para satisfacer necesidades
Este documento analiza los delitos de violación, incesto, actos lascivos y abuso sexual según el Código Penal venezolano. Define la violación como un acto carnal mediante violencia o amenazas, y tipifica la penalidad de 10 a 15 años de prisión. El incesto entre ascendientes, descendientes o hermanos se castiga con 3 a 6 años. El abuso sexual a niños o adolescentes conlleva penas de 1 a 10 años dependiendo de si implica penetración. Estos delitos atentan contra la libertad y dignidad sexuales protegidas
El primer documento presenta una dinámica para hablar de sexualidad de forma inapropiada usando flores como metáfora. El segundo documento describe una dinámica de abuso sexual que pone a estudiantes en situaciones de riesgo. El tercer documento sugiere organizar equipos para analizar canciones que promueven estereotipos y violencia de género.
¿Cómo liberarte del apego? Simplemente renuncia a él, ayuna de él. Pero si eso es difícil, cámbialo por un apego más noble o más sano. Si eso no funciona entonces has un voto o compromiso y trabájalo espiritualmente. Si aún así no puedes, entonces acude a la meditación, al entrenamiento de tu mente, para que aprendas a transformar el deseo en libertad!!!
Este documento resume las características generales de los cestodos, incluyendo su morfología, ciclo de vida, órdenes, familias y géneros más importantes. Describe en detalle cestodos como Taenia solium, Dipylidium caninum y Moniezia que parasitan humanos, caninos y ganado respectivamente. Explica las enfermedades que producen y su tratamiento.
Source SummaryYou should be very careful to avoid plagiarism when .docxrafbolet0
Source Summary
You should be very careful to avoid plagiarism when summarizing your sources. All source content in your summaries should be in your own words (preferred) or in quotation marks with page numbers provided (try to avoid quotes). Keeping plagiarism out of your summaries is an important step in keeping it out of your literature review. DO NOT JUST READ AND SUMMARIZE THE ABSTRACT! READ THE ENTIRE ARTICLE UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
1. Identify the main research hypothesis or thesis.
2. Describe how the researchers tested their hypothesis/hypotheses. In other words, describe their methodology (what they did, including what behaviors they recorded, how often they observed the primates, how they recorded the data, etc), the participants (who were they, how many were used/observed, where were they housed, where were they from), and a brief overview of the procedure.
3. Describe what the researchers found (focus on their main findings from the results section, discussion, and conclusions). Make sure that you understand their overall results, including the statistics and charts/graphs/figures they reported.
Source Evaluation (Excerpted from Galvan, 2006, p. 8)
In addition to summarizing the relevant information from a source, you should also evaluate the information in the source. Critique/analysis of the literature is an important part of a good article summary.
· Are there any obvious problems with the way the authors are discussing the background literature, their methods, or misconstruing their findings? Explain.
· Are there any obvious biases from the authors trying to downplay abnormal behaviors or justify what they are doing for human good? Explain.
· Did you notice any other flaws? Explain.
· Overall, do you think the research makes an important contribution to advancing knowledge?
Critical Reading (Excerpted from Lawson, 1999)
You should find the following questions useful as you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each of your sources.
· What is the quality of the evidence used to support the claim?
· Is there a control or comparison group against which to assess the performance of the experimental group?
· Is the person concluding there is a causal relationship on the basis of correlational data?
· Are there confounding variables that might account for the findings, or are there confounding variables that they are not considering (e.g. exposure to humans on a daily basis, invasive experimental procedures, single housing)?
· Has the person made it impossible to falsify his or her theory or hypothesis? Does he or she consider positive evidence as support for the theory but negative evidence as not being relevant?
· Is the person acknowledging that complex behaviors or phenomena have multiple causes?
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (2006) 1246–1259
Review
Psychopathology in great apes: Concepts, treatment options and
possible homologies to human psychiatric disorders
Martin Brüne.
Aggression and Violent Behavior 16 (2011) 63–73Contents li.docxsimonlbentley59018
This document proposes a conceptual framework for understanding the relationship between early health risk factors and later violence and aggression. It identifies three gaps in the current literature: 1) the role of prenatal and early childhood health factors is underexplored, 2) existing theories do not fully integrate biological and psychosocial factors, and 3) longitudinal studies are needed. The proposed framework incorporates biological, psychosocial, and protective factors from prenatal to early childhood periods. It is supported by evidence that risk factors like smoking during pregnancy, malnutrition, head injuries, and abuse are linked to negative behavioral outcomes. The framework could improve understanding and lead to more effective prevention programs.
The Pursuit Of Happiness Essay. Analysis of Film The Pursuit of Happiness Fr...Elizabeth Montes
Pursuit happyness review essay. Essay On The Pursuit Of Happiness. The Pursuit of Happyness Essay.docx - “The Pursuit of Happyness” Essay .... The Pursuit of Happiness | David Myers. Pursuit of Happiness Photo Essay. Essay on Pursuit of Happiness for Kids & Children | Short, Long Essays. The Pursuit of Happyness: Movie Retelling and Analysis Free Essay Example. The Pursuit of Happyness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Pursuit of Happiness Admission/Application Essay. Happiness Essay | Essay on Happiness for Students and Children in .... Pursuit of happiness belonging essay. The Happiness Essay | Passion (Emotion) | Happiness & Self-Help. Pursuit of Happyness Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Analysis the poster of the pursuit of happiness Essay.
Best Essay About Experience In Life ~ Thatsnotus. An Experience That Changed My Life Essay - Essays About Experiences .... Life Experience Essay. My Life Experience Essay – Telegraph. An experience that changed my life essay. An Experience That Changed My Life Essay — Experience That Changed My Life. 004 Essay Example Personal Experience Examples ~ Thatsnotus. My life experience essay - Expert Custom Essay Writing Service You Can .... Example Of Essay About Life Experience. an experience that changed my life essay.
A Brief Note On The Growth Theory And The Dual Sector...Michele Thomas
The attachment theory accounts for differences in the development of social relationships in aging adults in the following ways:
1. Attachment styles formed early in life with caregivers influence social relationships in adulthood. Secure attachment leads to more social confidence while insecure attachment can cause social wariness.
2. Life experiences like marriage and parenthood can influence attachment styles in adulthood. Positive relationships help maintain secure attachment while negative experiences increase insecure attachment.
3. In older age, attachment styles impact the ability to form new relationships and cope with loss of existing relationships. Securely attached seniors are generally more social and able to seek support, while insecure attachment leads to greater loneliness and isolation.
Don T Blame The Eater Essay. Dont Blame the Eater by Katie BalkoCynthia Washington
"don't blame the eater" by david zinczenko essay sample - 740 Words .... ENGLISH101 - Dont Blame The Eater Analysis 2 .docx - "don't Blame The ....
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social SciencesSocial scie.docxikirkton
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social Sciences
Social science refers to any field of study that examines human behaviors within the context of society. Included in the social sciences are the fields of anthropology, criminology, economics, geography, gerontology, history, law, political science, psychology, and sociology. Each of these fields has its own vocabulary, theories, and methodologies. Each makes sense of social problems from a disciplinary lens that is necessarily biased and limited in scope. Increasingly, social scientists recognize that social phenomena are best understood when examined from the perspectives of multiple disciplines and within the social sciences we see greater collaboration across fields as well as the borrowing of methods and terminology.
At UMUC, the BEHS designator identifies courses that examine social problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. The term “interdisciplinarity” suggests that we can gain a richer and more meaningful understanding of social phenomena by incorporating the perspectives of more than one traditional discipline. In John Godfrey Saxe’s (1963) famous poem, “The Blind Men and the Elephant,” six blind men attempt to describe the characteristics of an elephant from their different vantage points. One man, feeling the elephant’s knee, describes it as a tree, while another holding onto the tail compares it to a rope. Though each man is accurate, each focuses so narrowly on one part of the elephant that none can appreciate the whole.
And so these men of Indostan
Disputed loud and long,
Each in his own opinion
Exceeding stiff and strong,
Though each was partly in the right,
And all were in the wrong!
MORAL.
So oft in theologic wars,
The disputants, I ween,
Rail on in utter ignorance
Of what each other mean,
And prate about an ElephantNot one of them has seen!
In the social sciences, there is a growing recognition that the complexities of social issues cannot be fully understood through just one disciplinary lens. Social forces exert their impact at multiple levels (e.g. individual, group, community, society), often with far-reaching consequences that are best appreciated by a sweeping assessment across disciplines.
In Nissani’s (1997) classic article “Ten Cheers for Interdisciplinarity,” the advantages and pitfalls of interdisciplinary exploration are outlined. There are many reasons why interdisciplinarity is valuable, including:
· Greater opportunities for creative thinking
· Greater likelihood of detecting errors through the eyes of someone with different background
· Greater ability to explore and understand complex social problems
· Greater flexibility and branching out in research
· Willingness to explore new territory
· Ability to serve as translators and moderators between disciplines
· Creating greater synergy between disciplines resulting in outcomes that cut across disciplines and advance science and social justice
OVERVIEW OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Alth ...
Developmental researchers study human development across the lifespan using various scientific methods to describe, explain, predict, and intervene in developmental changes. They examine physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development across multiple levels of environmental influence. Research incorporates longitudinal, cross-sectional, and experimental designs while adhering to strict ethical guidelines to protect participants. The overarching goal is to understand the complex interplay between nature and nurture over time in order to optimize well-being.
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
This course deals with the study of the patterns of human development especially focusing on the cognitive, biological, social, moral and emotional development of the child and adolescent learners.
Christmas Essay Short Essay on Christmas for Students and Children .... Essay On Christmas In English Christmas Day Essay In English 450 words. Essay on Christmas Day for Students/Kids Paragraph 100-400 Words. Christmas Day Essay In English 10 Lines Christmas Day Essay 100 Words .... Christmas Essay in English Simple essay on Christmas Beautiful Essay Christmas Day. Christmas Essay in English 10 Lines 10 Lines on Christmas Day. Essay on Christmas Day 25 Dec in English for Class 1 to 12 Students. Essay On Christmas In English Christmas Essay in English Essay on .... My Christmas Day - PHDessay.com. 5 Lines On Christmas Essay On Christmas Essay For Kg Students .... Essay On Christmas Short Essay On Christmas for Students and Children .... Very Simple 10 Lines Essay On Christmas For Kids l Essay On Christmas .... Christmas essay High School English essays - English Daily. Christmas Essay in English for Students 400 Words Short Essay. Short essay on merry christmas / cheap assignment writing service. Essay on Christmas day Christmas essay in English 2019 - YouTube. 10 Line Essay/Nibandh on Christmas Day in Englis//Christmas Day par Speech in English//25 December.. About Christmas Day Essay Christmas Day. Christmas Essay In English Short essay on Christmas - YouTube. How To Write Christmas Essay - Adermann Script. Christmas day essay in englishhow to write essay on christmas day .... Write My Paper - descriptive essays christmas - 2017/09/29. Essay on Christmas in English - YouTube. Essay on christmas day in english - gcisdk12.web.fc2.com. Christmas Essay In English/Essay On Christmas in English Essay Writing .... Essay On A Christmas celebration - YouTube. Best Christmas Essay Short amp; Long Essay about Christmas for Students. 10 Lines Essay on Christmas. essay my christmas day. ️ Christmas essays. Christmas essays for kids. 2019-02-06. Essay on christmas. write me a essay. A Memorable Christmas Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays ... Christmas Day Essay Christmas Day Essay
Growth and development depends on both genetic and environmental factors. Genetics influence characteristics like appearance and susceptibility to diseases, while the prenatal environment, family/culture, school, peer groups, nutrition, climate, and trauma can also impact development. Both nature and nurture work together to shape human growth.
What Are The Main Principles Of Restorative Justice? Essay Example .... The Goal and Purpose of the Restorative Justice Program, Community .... Restorative Justice Legal Essay | Legal Studies - Year 11 QCE | Thinkswap. (PDF) Restorative practice essay. Restorative Justice Study Guide. (PDF) Restorative Justice and Islam.
This document discusses geriatric and gerontological nursing. It begins by defining aging as the continuous effects of time on the body, which causes cells and organs to degenerate over time. As a result, older adults often face physical and mental health problems. Aging is a natural part of the human life cycle, though its duration and effects can be decreased. The number of older adults is increasing globally due to demographic changes. Gerontology is the study of the aging process, while geriatric care aims to keep older adults independent and improve their quality of life. A gerontological nurse specializes in caring for older patients. Their roles include guiding, educating, assessing, and supporting older adults. Common physical and psychological changes in
This document discusses geriatric and gerontological nursing. It begins by defining aging as the continuous effects of time on the body, which causes cells and organs to degenerate over time. As a result, older adults often face physical and mental health problems. Aging is considered to begin around ages 60-65, though it can start earlier for some. The number of older adults is increasing globally due to demographic changes. Gerontology is the study of the aging process, while geriatric care aims to keep older adults independent and improve their quality of life. A gerontological nurse specializes in caring for older patients. Their roles include guiding, educating, assessing, and supporting older adults. Common physical changes in aging include effects
This document discusses human development from conception through old age. It describes key stages of development such as prenatal, infancy, toddlerhood, childhood, puberty, adolescence, and adulthood. For each life stage, it outlines important physical, cognitive, emotional, and social milestones. The document also explains that development is a continuous process that depends on both maturation and environmental factors.
Adolescent Depression Aetiology A Systematic ReviewAudrey Britton
This document summarizes a literature review on the aetiology of adolescent depression. The review finds that depression in adolescents has increased significantly in recent decades and is a major public health issue. It explores biological, environmental, sociological, and psychological risk factors. Biologically, genetics and changes in brain development during puberty can increase vulnerability to depression. Environmental and sociological factors like peer rejection, romantic relationships, parenting styles, family mental health, and excessive social media use are also linked to higher depression risk. Understanding the complex interplay between these various risk pathways is important for addressing the rising rates of adolescent depression.
The document discusses geriatric care and aging. It defines key terms like gerontology, the study of aging, and geriatric care which aims to keep older persons independent and improve their quality of life. It outlines common physical, psychological, and social changes that occur with aging. It also discusses theories of aging, the role of nurses in geriatric care, assessing health in the elderly, and promoting nutrition, activity, and preventive care for older patients.
The document discusses geriatric care and aging. It defines key terms like gerontology, the study of aging, and geriatric care which aims to keep older persons independent and improve their quality of life. It outlines common physical, psychological, and social changes that occur with aging. It also discusses theories of aging, the role of nurses in geriatric care, assessing health in the elderly, and promoting nutrition, activity, and preventive care for older patients.
Marijuana Legalization Essay. Legalization of marijuana Essay Example Topics...Veronica Johnson
Marijuana legalization argumentative essay - Foundations of English .... Marijuana Legalization Argumentative Essay Outline and Speech - Free .... Marijuana legalization Research outline - Research Paper Example - Free .... Benefits of Legalizing Marijuana Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Should Cannabis be legalised? - A-Level General Studies - Marked by .... Legalize Marijuana Essay Essay on Legalize Marijuana for Students and .... Argument for the legalization of Marijuana - GCSE English - Marked by .... Legalization of Marijuana in the United States Essay. ️ Argumentative essay on why marijuana should be legalized. Why Should .... Should Marijuana Be Legalized Free Essay Example. Legalization Of Marijuana Essay Telegraph. Legalization of Recreational Marijuana - Free Essay Example PapersOwl.com. Marijuana legalization essay. Legalization of Marijuana for Economic Growth - Free Essay Example .... Medical Marijuana Should be Legalized Throughout the US - Free Essay .... Marijuana Essay PDF Cannabis Drug Substance Abuse. Marijuana legalization argumentative essay. Pros of legalizing weed essay titles. Marijuana legalization thesis. Thesis on Legalization of Marijuana .... Frightening Argumentative Essay On Legalizing Weed Thatsnotus. Legalizing marijuana argumentative essay. Argumentative Essay On .... Should Marijuana be legal? - University Social studies - Marked by .... ️ Position paper legalizing weed. Position paper on legalization of .... LEGALIZATION OF MARIJUANA FOR MEDICAL USE IN THE PHILIPPINES .... Outline for Opinion Paper: Legalization of Marijuana - Free Essay .... Marijuana Should be Legalized - Argumentative Essay - Free Essay .... legalization of medical cannabis by Richlee Prime. Legalization of Marijuana Essay Example Topics and Well Written .... Legalization of marijuana Essay Example Topics and Well Written .... Legalizing Marijuana Thesis Statement : Respond to this Question. Marijuana Legalization Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays ... Marijuana Legalization Essay Marijuana Legalization Essay. Legalization of marijuana Essay Example Topics and Well Written ...
El documento discute los límites entre la normalidad y la anormalidad en la adolescencia. Define la normalidad como un estado de bienestar físico, mental y social completo según la OMS, y la ausencia de un trastorno mental según el DSM-IV-TR. Examina diferentes perspectivas de la normalidad y criterios de anormalidad. Explica que la línea entre lo normal y lo patológico en la adolescencia depende de la frecuencia e intensidad de los comportamientos y sentimientos. La prevalencia de trastornos de salud mental en
El documento trata sobre la resiliencia. Explica que la resiliencia se refiere a la capacidad de superar la adversidad y salir fortalecido de ella. También describe que el término fue adaptado en las ciencias sociales para caracterizar a personas que, a pesar de vivir en situaciones de alto riesgo, se desarrollan psicológicamente sanos y exitosos. Finalmente, señala que la resiliencia ha sido estudiada desde la década de 1970 y es un concepto clave en la psicología positiva.
Este documento resume los principales cambios neurobiológicos, conductuales y cognitivos que ocurren durante la adolescencia. Explica que hay una reorganización estructural y funcional del cerebro adolescente, incluyendo poda sináptica, mielinización y cambios en los neurotransmisores. Estos cambios conducen a una mayor búsqueda de sensaciones, impulsividad y tendencia al riesgo en los adolescentes, posiblemente debido a una menor habilidad para procesar emociones y tomar decisiones bajo activación. El documento también
El documento resume la etapa de la adolescencia desde diferentes perspectivas. En particular, define la adolescencia como un proceso de cambios biológicos, psicológicos y de desarrollo social que ocurre entre los 11-20 años aproximadamente. Se dividen las fases de la adolescencia en temprana, central y tardía. Además, explica los componentes clave de la adolescencia como el desarrollo físico, cognitivo y moral desde un enfoque psicológico y psiquiátrico.
El documento presenta las actividades de una unidad temática de un curso de psicología médica y psiquiatría. Incluye instrucciones para realizar mapas mentales y conceptuales sobre temas como el desarrollo del adolescente y el suicidio. También contiene rúbricas para evaluar dichos mapas conceptuales, con criterios como la presentación, organización y conexión de conceptos.
Este documento presenta información sobre la adolescencia y los límites entre la normalidad y la anormalidad en este periodo. Se incluye una lista de autores que escribieron el libro y se detallan los cargos y afiliaciones de cada uno. También se proporciona información sobre la editorial y el patrocinio del libro. El contenido cubre temas como el concepto de adolescencia, características normales y anormales del desarrollo en esta etapa, conducta, desarrollo psicosexual, psicopatología y trastornos
El documento proporciona información biográfica sobre Jean Piaget, un psicólogo suizo conocido por sus estudios sobre el desarrollo cognitivo infantil. Describe las etapas del desarrollo cognitivo propuestas por Piaget, incluyendo la etapa sensoriomotora, la etapa preoperacional, la etapa de las operaciones concretas y la etapa de las operaciones formales. Además, explica conceptos clave de Piaget como la adaptación, la asimilación, la acomodación y los esquemas cognit
Erik Erikson fue un psicólogo estadounidense conocido por su teoría del desarrollo psicosocial. Propuso ocho etapas del desarrollo, en cada una se enfrenta una crisis psicosocial que debe resolverse para un desarrollo saludable. La teoría describe las relaciones sociales y virtudes clave en cada etapa como la confianza, la autonomía, la iniciativa, la identidad, la intimidad, la generatividad y la integridad.
El documento presenta información sobre las teorías de la personalidad de Sigmund Freud. Explica que la personalidad está compuesta por el ello, yo y superyó, que interactúan según los principios del placer y realidad. También describe los conceptos de consciente, preconsciente e inconsciente como parte de la estructura de la personalidad.
El documento describe la evolución de los conceptos médico-psicológicos a través de la historia, desde los conceptos del hombre primitivo hasta los desarrollos recientes. Se explican dos modelos: el modelo biomédico, que es lineal, patologista y reduccionista, y el modelo biopsicosocial, que considera la salud y enfermedad como un continuo que depende de factores biológicos, psicológicos, sociales y culturales. También se mencionan tres concepciones sobre el origen de la conducta anormal: mágica
Este documento presenta el Modelo Biopsicosocial (MBPS) desarrollado por George Engel en 1977. El MBPS reconoce que las enfermedades tienen componentes biológicos, psicológicos y sociales, y que cada individuo está compuesto por sistemas internos que interactúan con sistemas externos más grandes. Se basa en la Teoría General de Sistemas de von Bertalanffy y el Modelo Ecológico de Bronfenbrenner. El MBPS ofrece una perspectiva más amplia que el enfoque biomédico reduccionista
El documento discute las influencias genéticas y ambientales en el desarrollo mental, señalando que las influencias genéticas no son inmutables y que la naturaleza y la crianza están en constante interacción desde el desarrollo temprano. El genotipo se expresa a través de mecanismos regulados por el ambiente, por lo que el fenotipo está inextricablemente ligado al ambiente de desarrollo. Las diferencias entre las influencias genéticas y ambientales son absolutas y el desarrollo sexual es más complejo que determinado solo por la
Este documento discute la relación entre la mente y el cerebro desde perspectivas psicológicas y médicas. Explica que la psicología médica busca comprender los factores psicológicos en la salud y enfermedad para mejorar el tratamiento de los pacientes de una manera holística. También explora definiciones clave como mente, conciencia y cerebro, y resume los enfoques filosóficos clásicos sobre cómo la mente emerge del cuerpo, como el materialismo y el monismo. El documento concluye que a
Este documento presenta la agenda para un curso de Psicología Médica. Incluye una breve introducción al curso y su objetivo de enriquecer la experiencia de los estudiantes. La agenda detalla las secciones del curso incluyendo presentaciones, dinámicas, contenido temático, y exámenes parciales. También incluye preguntas para guiar las discusiones y actividades, y enlaces a recursos adicionales como un blog del curso.
El documento compara el modelo biomédico tradicional con el modelo biopsicosocial. El modelo biomédico se centra en los aspectos biológicos y patológicos de la enfermedad, mientras que el modelo biopsicosocial considera factores biológicos, psicológicos y sociales. La medicina de familia está bien posicionada para adoptar un enfoque biopsicosocial debido a su contacto a largo plazo con pacientes y familias. Un modelo biopsicosocial reconoce una variedad de perspectivas sobre la salud y enfermed
Este documento describe la evolución de la ética médica desde la antigüedad hasta la actualidad. Tradicionalmente, la ética médica se basaba en el "orden natural" y el paternalismo del médico. Sin embargo, con la Ilustración y los derechos humanos, la relación médico-paciente ha cambiado a una basada en la autonomía del paciente. Esto ha creado un panorama más pluralista y conflictivo en la toma de decisiones médicas.
Este documento reflexiona sobre cómo las transformaciones sociales han afectado la institución del matrimonio. A lo largo de la historia, el matrimonio ha estado dominado por el patriarcado y ha promovido la dominación de un género sobre el otro. En la actualidad, el cuestionamiento del patriarcado y el surgimiento del feminismo han complejizado las relaciones de pareja al incorporar la "otra subjetividad". El verdadero reto es conocer al cónyuge y ser conocido, desear un proyecto compartido y la fidelidad, pero
1) El documento compara el duelo y la melancolía, señalando que ambos pueden ser reacciones a la pérdida de un objeto amado.
2) Mientras que el duelo implica un proceso doloroso de retirar la libido del objeto perdido, en la melancolía hay una pérdida desconocida que lleva a una devaluación del yo.
3) Freud argumenta que los reproches del melancólico hacia su yo en realidad son reproches dirigidos hacia el objeto amado perdido, que se
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712 1705
the literature reviewed here has primarily defined adolescence in
humans as the second decade of life, in monkeys as age two to four
years, and in rodents as week four to week six or seven.
Despite the definitional ambiguities, it is well recognized that
during this period major transitions do occur, including a vari-
ety of characteristic behavioral changes seen across species. There
is increased social behavior (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1977), nov-
elty and sensation seeking (Adriani et al., 1998; Stansfield and
Kirstein, 2006; Stansfield et al., 2004), tendencies toward risk tak-
ing (Spear, 2000; Steinberg, 2008), emotional instability (Steinberg,
2005), and impulsivity (Adriani and Laviola, 2003; Chambers et al.,
2003; Fairbanks et al., 2001; Vaidya et al., 2004). Peer relationships
become dominant, and there are greater inclinations to seek out
fun and exciting experiences (Nelson et al., 2005). Increased nov-
elty and sensation seeking may be evolutionarily adaptive, as these
behaviors could improve the increasingly independent adolescent’s
chances of finding food and a mate (Spear, 2010). In modern society,
however, these features can be associated with taking unnecessary
risks. Therefore, adolescence is considered a period of behavioral
vulnerability: teens are more likely to experiment with tobacco
and illicit drugs and alcohol; drive recklessly; engage in unpro-
tected sex; and have interpersonal conflicts (Arnett, 1992, 1999;
Chambers et al., 2003; Spear, 2000). Adolescent risk taking is more
likely to occur in groups (e.g., vehicular accidents), when cer-
tain behaviors are perceived to be acceptable by one’s peers (e.g.,
unprotected sex, drug use) (Steinberg, 2008), and in emotionally
charged situations (Figner et al., 2009). Thus, while adolescents
have survived the potential health problems of early childhood
their morbidity and mortality rates are twice that of pre-pubescent
children (Dahl, 2004).
In addition to the added risks of normal adolescent develop-
ment, it is also the time when symptoms of a variety of mental
illnesses often manifest, including mood disorders, eating disor-
ders, and schizophrenia (Paus et al., 2008; Pine, 2002; Sisk and
Zehr, 2005; Volkmar, 1996). During this period there is a vast array
of neurobiological changes that drive everything from a cascade
of hormonal signals that initiate puberty (Sisk and Zehr, 2005),
to increased cognitive ability and motivational changes (Doremus-
Fitzwater et al., 2009; Luna et al., 2004). Understanding precisely
how the brain develops through adolescence, and relating such
changes to both normal behavioral tendencies and pathological
conditions, is critically important to public health. Here we review
some of the behavioral, and neurodevelopmental changes of ado-
lescence and discuss several models that connect them, including
our own hypothesis of reduced processing efficiency.
2. Adolescent behavior
Studies in rodents and humans have shown that adolescents
exhibit greater “impulsive choice,” defined as the preference for
smaller rewards that occur sooner over larger delayed rewards,
as measured with delay-discounting tasks (Adriani and Laviola,
2003; Steinberg et al., 2009). It is notable that in human studies
only younger adolescents exhibit this difference; with delay dis-
counting reaching adult levels by age 16–17 (Steinberg et al., 2009).
Adolescent humans also score higher on the Sensation-Seeking
Scale than adults, with males exhibiting higher levels than females
(Zuckerman et al., 1978). Sensation seeking is “the need for varied,
novel, and complex sensations and experiences. . .” (Zuckerman,
1979, p. 10), which may occur independently, or together with
impulsivity. Sensation seeking is greatest during early- to mid-
adolescence and lower thereafter, while impulse control appears
to steadily improve through the teenage years, suggesting that
they are subserved by different biological processes (Steinberg
et al., 2008). Consistent with human evidence of heightened adoles-
cent sensation seeking, adolescent rodents prefer novelty (Adriani
et al., 1998; Douglas et al., 2003; Stansfield et al., 2004), exhibit
greater novelty-induced locomotion (Stansfield and Kirstein, 2006;
Sturman et al., 2010), and spend more time exploring open arms in
an elevated plus maze than adults (Adriani et al., 2004; Macrì et al.,
2002).
Adolescents’ tendencies to seek novel experiences, even at the
risk of physical or social harm, might be expected if their capacity
to assess risk or compute outcome probability is underdeveloped.
Cognitive abilities do continue to develop at this time (Luna et al.,
2004; Spear, 2000). According to Piaget, the formal operation
period, which is associated with more abstract reasoning, reaches
full maturity during adolescence (Schuster and Ashburn, 1992), and
may be less well developed in some individuals. Also, the persis-
tence of egocentrism, in which teenagers experience an ‘imaginary
audience’ along with the ‘personal fable’ of unique feelings, may
cause them to believe they are exceptional and give them a sense
of invulnerability (Arnett, 1992; Elkind, 1967). However, only mod-
est cognitive improvements appear from mid-adolescence onward
(Luna et al., 2004; Spear, 2000), and even young children exhibit
an accurate implicit understanding of probability (Acredolo et al.,
1989). Furthermore, there is little evidence that adolescents actu-
ally perceive themselves as invulnerable or underestimate risk;
in fact, they often overestimate risk, such as the chance they will
become pregnant within a year, go to jail, or die young (de Bruin
et al., 2007). Finally, any cognitive explanation for adolescent risk-
taking must account for the fact that children take fewer risks and
yet are less cognitively developed than adolescents.
Alternatively, adolescent behavioral disparities could relate to
differences in cognitive strategies. One hypothesis, called “fuzzy
trace theory,” states that far from lacking in cognitive ability, ado-
lescents process the risk/benefit details of choices more explicitly
than adults. Paradoxically, adolescents may behave more rationally
than adults by more explicitly computing the expected values of
different options, but this could lead to greater risk taking (Rivers
et al., 2008). According to Rivers et al. (2008), through develop-
ment we progress from doing more literal “verbatim” to a “fuzzy”
gist-level heuristic that captures the essence or bottom line with-
out details. This presumably improves the efficiency of decision
making and tends to bias us away from risky choices as we tend
to avoid potential adverse outcomes without assessing the actual
probabilities involved. For example, unlike adolescents, adults
favor choices that attach certainty to increased gains or reduced
losses over probabilistic alternatives with identical expected values
(Rivers et al., 2008). Overall, the idea that adolescent choices could
reflect differences in cognitive strategy—but not deficiencies in
outcome prediction—is intriguing. Future neuroimaging and phys-
iology studies of adolescent decision making might benefit from
considering the possibility that differences in the precise pattern
of neural activity, even within the same brain regions, along with
the level of integration between different regions, could facilitate
alternative styles of cognitive deliberation.
Adolescents’ greater recklessness could be due to differences
in how they experience risk and reward. One explanation is that
human adolescents experience more negative affect and depressed
mood, and may feel less pleasure from stimuli of low or mod-
erate incentive value. Adolescents would therefore seek stimuli
of greater hedonic intensity to satisfy a deficiency in their expe-
rience of reward (see Spear, 2000). This is supported by studies
showing differences in the hedonic value of sucrose solutions to
adults versus adolescents. Once sucrose concentrations exceed a
critical point, the hedonic value sharply decreases; however such
decreases are less pronounced or non-existent in children and ado-
lescents (De Graaf and Zandstra, 1999; Vaidya et al., 2004). An
alternative explanation is that adolescents have greater sensitivity
to the reinforcing properties of pleasurable stimuli. Either possibil-
3. 1706 D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712
ity is consistent with animal models in which adolescents consume
more sucrose solution (Vaidya et al., 2004), prefer chambers pre-
viously associated with social interaction (Douglas et al., 2004),
and exhibit evidence of higher incentive value for drugs such as
nicotine, alcohol, amphetamine, and cocaine than adults (Badanich
et al., 2006; Brenhouse and Andersen, 2008; Shram et al., 2006;
Spear and Varlinskaya, 2010; Vastola et al., 2002). This is not always
seen, however (Frantz et al., 2007; Mathews and McCormick, 2007;
Shram et al., 2008), and increased adolescent drug preference could
also be related to reduced sensitivity to aversive side-effects and
withdrawal (Little et al., 1996; Moy et al., 1998; Schramm-Sapyta
et al., 2007, 2009). Similarly, adolescents might perform more risky
behaviors if their assessment of possible aversive consequences is
less motivating or salient (or if the excitement of risk-taking itself
makes such behavior more likely).
Another factor that could account for some adolescent behav-
ioral differences is the impact of emotions (valence, feelings,
arousal, and specific emotional states) on behavior. Behavioral dis-
parities may arise if adolescents experience emotions differently,
or if emotions differently influence decision making during this
period of heightened emotional intensity and volatility (Arnett,
1999; Buchanan et al., 1992). Emotion is often thought to cloud
rational decision making. While this may be true in some cases
(especially when emotional content is unrelated or irrelevant
to a decision context), recent work has examined how emo-
tions may improve certain decisions. For example, the somatic
marker hypothesis states that in ambiguous situations, emotional
processes can advantageously guide behavior (Damasio, 1994).
The Iowa Gambling Task was designed to test decision making
under conditions of uncertainty (Bechara et al., 1994). Individuals
with lesions of the ventromedial PFC or amygdala have difficulty
favoring the advantageous risk-avoiding strategy, suggesting that
deficiencies in integrating emotional information can lead to poor
decisions (Bechara et al., 1996, 1999). Adolescents and adults may
differ in the way they integrate emotional information in deci-
sions: adolescents may be less adept at interpreting or integrating
relevant emotional content, or less effective at forming such associ-
ations. Cauffman et al. (2010) recently tested children, adolescents,
and adults on a modified version of the Iowa Gambling Task; they
observed that while both adolescents and adults improved their
decision-making over time, adults did this more rapidly. Another
study demonstrated that only by mid- to late- adolescence did
subjects improve their gambling task performance, and that this
improvement coincided with the appearance of physiological cor-
relates of arousal (Crone and van der Molen, 2007). These results
suggest that adolescents may be less effective at forming or inter-
preting the sort of relevant affective information necessary to avoid
risky decisions.
According to Rivers et al. (2008) differences in effective gist
processing make adolescents more susceptible to potentially dele-
terious effects of arousal on decision making. In conditions of
heightened arousal, a reduction in behavioral inhibition may cause
one to switch from a “reasoned” to a “reactive” or impulsive mode.
They further argue that the adolescent tendency to perform more
verbatim-analytical processing makes this more likely, while the
values and biases of the simpler adult “gist” processing is more
impervious to arousal state (Rivers et al., 2008). Others have also
argued that adolescent behavior may be particularly sensitive to
conditions of high emotional arousal (Dahl, 2001; Spear, 2010). A
recent study by Figner et al. (2009) directly tested this hypothe-
sis using a task that measured risk taking under different affective
conditions. Adolescents and adults performed the Columbia Card
Task, in which the level of tolerated risk was examined under condi-
tions of greater/lesser arousal and while varying factors that could
be used to make more informed decisions (such as the magnitude
of gains/losses and their probability). Adolescents took more risks
Table 1
Adolescent behavioral differences and structural neurodevelopment. Several age-
related behavioral differences relevant to adolescent vulnerabilities are listed
along with some important neurodevelopmental changes. See text for details and
references.
Behavior (compared with adults) Neurodevelopmental changes
More risk taking Reductions in gray matter
More impulsive choice Augmentation of white matter
More sensation seeking Neurogenesis
More novelty preference Lifetime peak receptor
expression
More reward preference Increasing forebrain GABA
synthesis
Less inhibitory control Lifetime peak midbrain
dopamine activity
More catelepsy from neuroleptics D2 activation now increases
PFC interneuron spiking
Less activation from psychostimulants NMDA-mediated currents now
seen on PFC interneurons
than adults only in the high-arousal condition, and in this context,
adolescents were less affected by gain/loss magnitude and prob-
ability, suggesting simplified information usage by adolescents
under conditions of heightened arousal (Figner et al., 2009).
Collectively these studies indicate that although adolescents
often reason and behave like adults, in certain contexts there are
differences in their cognitive strategy and/or in their response
to risk and reward, especially under conditions of heightened
emotional arousal. These behavioral changes likely reflect the
substantial development of brain networks—including structures
in the PFC, basal ganglia, and neuromodulatory systems (e.g.,
dopamine)—that are critical to motivated behavior (Table 1).
3. Adolescent structural neurodevelopment
The adolescent brain undergoes dramatic changes in gross mor-
phology. Human structural imaging studies have demonstrated
that throughout the cerebral cortex there is a loss of gray matter
during adolescence, with gray-matter reductions in portions of the
temporal lobe and dorsolateral PFC occurring in late adolescence
(Gogtay et al., 2004; Sowell et al., 2001, 2002, 2003). Gray matter
reductions are also apparent in the striatum and other subcortical
structures (Sowell et al., 1999, 2002). These changes may be related
to a massive pruning of synapses observed during this period from
animal studies (Rakic et al., 1986, 1994), although some question
this connection as synaptic boutons make up only a small propor-
tion of cortical volume (Paus et al., 2008). Human imaging has also
revealed that white matter increase through adolescence in cortical
and subcortical fiber tracts (Asato et al., 2010; Benes et al., 1994;
Paus et al., 1999, 2001), resulting from increased myelination, axon
caliber, or both (Paus, 2010). Changes in the patterns of connectiv-
ity also occur during adolescence. For example, axonal sprouting
and growth have been observed in circuits connecting the amyg-
dala to cortical targets (Cunningham et al., 2002), and increasing
measures of white matter are observed between the PFC and stria-
tum and other areas (Asato et al., 2010; Giedd, 2004; Gogtay et al.,
2004; Liston et al., 2006; Paus et al., 2001; Sowell et al., 1999).
At a finer scale, rat and primate studies have demonstrated
numerous differences in adolescent neurotransmitter systems.
Adolescents tend to over-express dopaminergic, adrenergic, sero-
tonergic and endocannabinoid receptors across many regions
followed by pruning to adult levels (Lidow and Rakic, 1992;
Rodriguez de Fonseca et al., 1993). They express D1 and D2
dopamine receptors at higher levels in subcortical targets such as
the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens, although some have
not found reduced adult expression in this latter region (Gelbard
et al., 1989; Tarazi and Baldessarini, 2000; Tarazi et al., 1999;
4. D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712 1707
Teicher et al., 1995). During adolescence, there are also changes in
dopamine production and turnover, as well as evidence for changes
in downstream effects of receptor–ligand binding (Badanich et al.,
2006; Cao et al., 2007; Coulter et al., 1996; Laviola et al., 2001; Tarazi
et al., 1998). Functionally, there is evidence from anesthetized rats
that the spontaneous activity of midbrain dopamine neurons peaks
during adolescence and then decreases (McCutcheon and Marinelli,
2009). Developmental changes in mesocorticolimbic dopamine cir-
cuitry and activity may underlie some differences in motivated
behavior generally, as well as risk taking and addiction vulnerability
in particular. Several studies have observed reduced psychomotor
effects of stimulant drugs in adolescent animals but enhanced or
similar reinforcing effects (Adriani et al., 1998; Adriani and Laviola,
2000; Badanich et al., 2006; Bolanos et al., 1998; Frantz et al.,
2007; Laviola et al., 1999; Mathews and McCormick, 2007; Spear
and Brake, 1983). In contrast, adolescents are more sensitive to
the cataleptic effects of neuroleptics (e.g., haloperidol), which are
antagonists for dopamine receptors (Spear and Brake, 1983; Spear
et al., 1980; Teicher et al., 1993). Some have proposed that this
pattern, along with the increased exploration and novelty-seeking,
indicates that the adolescent dopamine system is near a “functional
ceiling” at baseline (Chambers et al., 2003).
Several lines of evidence suggest that the balance of large-scale
excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is vastly different
in adolescents compared to adults. Levels of GABA, the main
inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, increases linearly through
adolescence in rat forebrain (Hedner et al., 1984). The expression of
the activating glutamate NMDA receptors on fast-spiking neurons
(thought to be inhibitory interneurons) changes dramatically in the
PFC of adolescents. At this time the vast majority of fast-spiking
interneurons exhibit no synaptic NMDA receptor-mediated cur-
rents (Wang and Gao, 2009). Additionally the modulatory impact of
dopamine-receptor binding shifts during adolescence (O’Donnell
and Tseng, 2010). It is only by this time that the activation of
dopamine D2 receptors increases interneuron activity (Tseng and
O’Donnell, 2007). Furthermore, the synergistic interaction between
dopamine D1 receptor activation and the NMDA receptor changes
during adolescence, allowing for plateau depolarizations which
may facilitate context-dependent synaptic plasticity (O’Donnell
and Tseng, 2010; Wang and O’Donnell, 2001). These adolescent
dopamine, glutamate, and GABA signaling changes suggest funda-
mental neural activity differences in the adolescent brain. All of
these systems are essential to cognitive and emotional processes.
Their dysfunction is implicated in numerous psychiatric illnesses
ranging from mood disorders and addiction to schizophrenia.
4. Adolescent functional neurodevelopment
Neuroimaging studies have shown differences in human ado-
lescent functional activity in several forebrain regions. These
differences are primarily observed in brain regions that encode
emotional significance (e.g., the amygdala) integrate sensory and
emotional information for the computation of value expectations
(e.g., the orbitofrontal cortex), and play various roles in motiva-
tion, action selection, and association learning (e.g., the striatum).
Compared to adults, adolescents have a reduced hemodynamic
response in lateral orbitofrontal cortex and increased activity in
ventral striatum to rewards (Ernst et al., 2005; Galvan et al.,
2006). Others have found reduced activity in right ventral stria-
tum and right extended amygdala during reward anticipation, with
no observed age-related activity differences after gain outcome
(Bjork et al., 2004). In a decision-making task, adolescents had
reduced right anterior cingulate and left orbitofrontal/ventrolateral
PFC activation compared to adults during risky choices (Eshel
et al., 2007). Adolescents also activated their ventral striatum and
orbitofrontal cortex more strongly than did adults as they took
greater risks during a Stoplight driving game—an effect driven by
implicit peer pressure (Chein et al., 2011).
Several studies have observed immaturity of adolescent cog-
nitive control systems, along with poorer behavioral performance
(Luna et al., 2010). For example, during tasks that require the inhi-
bition of a prepotent response (the performance of which improves
with age), adolescents have increased PFC activity in some subre-
gions and decreased activity in others (Bunge et al., 2002; Rubia
et al., 2000; Tamm et al., 2002). During an antisaccade cognitive
control task, adolescent (but not adult) ventral striatum activity
was reduced while viewing a cue that indicated if reward was
available during a given trial, but it was more activated than its
adult counterpart during reward anticipation (Geier et al., 2009).
Thus adolescents generally activate similar cognitive and affective
structures as adults, although often with different magnitudes or
spatial and temporal patterns, or levels functional interconnectivity
(Hwang et al., 2010).
Maturation of intra- and inter-regional connectivity and neu-
ronal coordination may play a central role in adolescent behavioral
development. There is a direct relationship between measures
of frontostriatal white matter, which increases through adoles-
cence, and inhibitory control performance (Liston et al., 2006).
White-matter development is also directly related to improved
functional integration of gray matter regions, suggesting more-
distributed network activity through development (Stevens et al.,
2009). This is corroborated by a study that, using resting state func-
tional connectivity MRI along with graph analyses, observed a shift
from greater connectivity with anatomically proximal nodes to
networks that were more extensively integrated across all nodes
in adulthood regardless of distance (Fair et al., 2009). Similarly,
age-related increases in the functional integration of frontal and
parietal regions support improved top-down inhibitory control
performance in an antisaccade task (Hwang et al., 2010). White
matter development, the rapid pruning of synapses (which are
largely local excitatory connections), and developmental shifts in
local interneuron activity may together facilitate more extensive
functional coordination between brain regions through develop-
ment. Less widely distributed activity in adolescents has also been
demonstrated in another cognitive control task (Velanova et al.,
2008). At the same time, diffuse functional signal uncorrelated
with task-performance decreases through development (Durston
et al., 2006). Thus, the adult pattern of utilizing more-distributed
networks is coincident with reduced task-irrelevant activity, indi-
cating greater efficiency in the pattern and extent of cortical
processing.
Electrophysiological studies have also found evidence of further
development of neuronal responses and greater local and long-
range coordinated activity through adolescence. For example, the
Contingent Negative Variation, which is a negative voltage event-
related potential during response preparation, only develops in
late childhood and continues to become larger through adoles-
cence (Bender et al., 2005; Segalowitz and Davies, 2004). This is
thought to reflect age-related differences in the distribution of PFC
processing of attention and executive motor control (Segalowitz
et al., 2010). Another age-related electrophysiological change is
the development of strong positive peak (P300) approximately
300 ms after attending to a stimulus. A mature P300 pattern does
not appear until approximately age 13 (Segalowitz and Davies,
2004). Finally, the Error-Related Negativity is a negative voltage
centered over the anterior cingulate cortex during error trials of
different tasks. Although there is some variability in the age of its
appearance, it seems to arrive around mid-adolescence (Segalowitz
and Davies, 2004). These findings provide additional evidence for
the continued maturation of prefrontal cortical processing during
adolescence. Segalowitz and colleagues also found that the signal-
5. 1708 D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712
to-noise ratio of the electrical signals of children and adolescents
were often lower than that of adults. This could be due to functional
immaturity or intra-individual instability of brain regions produc-
ing these signals (Segalowitz et al., 2010). It might also reflect
reduced adolescent neural coordination within and between brain
regions. This interpretation is consistent with work performed by
Uhlhaas et al. (2009b), in which electroencephalograms (EEGs)
were recorded in children, adolescents, and adults during a facial
recognition task. They observed reduced theta (4–7 Hz) and gamma
band (30–50 Hz) oscillatory power in adolescents compared to
adults. Additionally there was greater long-range phase-synchrony
in theta, beta (13–30 Hz), and gamma bands, along with improved
task performance in adults. EEG oscillations are due to fluctuations
in neuronal excitability and are thought to fine-tune the timing of
spike output (Fries, 2005). Measures of synchrony in specific fre-
quency bands facilitate communication between neuronal groups,
and may be critical to numerous perceptual and cognitive pro-
cesses (Uhlhaas et al., 2009a). Thus, these findings are evidence
of enhanced coordinated local processing and improved inter-
regional communication from adolescence to adulthood (Uhlhaas
et al., 2009b).
Another useful approach for examining neural activity changes
through adolescence is with in vivo electrophysiological record-
ing from implanted electrode arrays in awake behaving animals.
This technique enables one to record the activity of individual neu-
rons as well as larger-scale field potentials. We recently carried
out such a study, in which adolescent and adult rats performed a
simple goal-directed behavior (Fig. 1a) as recordings were taken
from orbitofrontal cortex. While adolescents and adults performed
the same behavior, striking age-related neural encoding differences
were observed, especially to reward (Sturman and Moghaddam,
2011). This indicates that even when behavior may appear sim-
ilar, the adolescent prefrontal cortex is in a different state than
that of adults. Specifically, adolescent orbitofrontal cortex neurons
became far more excited to the reward, while the proportion of ado-
lescent inhibited neurons was substantially smaller at that time and
at other points in the task (Fig. 1b). As neural inhibition is critical
for controlling the precise timing of spikes and entraining synchro-
nized oscillatory activity (Cardin et al., 2009; Fries et al., 2007; Sohal
et al., 2009), reduced task-related adolescent orbitofrontal cortex
neuronal inhibition may be directly related to larger-scale neu-
ral encoding differences observed in this study and described by
others. Finally, throughout much of the task adolescents exhibited
greater cross-trial spike-timing variability, which could indicate
lower signal-to-noise in adolescent prefrontal cortex. Therefore,
as the prefrontal cortex develops, increased phasic inhibition at
the single-unit level could support greater intra- and inter-regional
neural coordination and processing efficiency.
5. Neurobehavioral hypotheses
With all of the neurodevelopmental changes of adolescence,
what accounts for the particular behavioral differences and vulner-
abilities of this period? The previous sections outline evidence for a
variety of adolescent neurodevelopmental changes and age-related
behavioral differences and vulnerabilities. Here we present several
hypotheses or models that explicitly connect adolescent differ-
ences in motivated behavior, social development, and behavioral
inhibition with the maturity of specific neural circuits (Table 2).
Adolescent refinement of a social information processing net-
work is one model connecting adolescent social development with
brain changes (Nelson et al., 2005). This framework describes three
interconnected functional nodes with distinct neural structural
underpinnings: the detection node (inferior occipital cortex, infe-
rior and anterior temporal cortex, intraparietal sulcus, fusiform
gyrus, and superior temporal sulcus), the affective node (amyg-
dala, ventral striatum, septum, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis,
hypothalamus, and orbitofrontal cortex in some conditions), and
the cognitive-regulatory node (portions of the prefrontal cortex).
The detection node determines whether stimuli contain social
information, which is further processed by the affective node which
imbues such stimuli with emotional significance. The cognitive-
regulatory node further processes this information, performing
more complex operations related to perceiving the mental states
of others, inhibiting prepotent responses, and generating goal-
directed behavior (Nelson et al., 2005). Adolescent changes in
the sensitivity and interaction of these nodes is hypothesized
to intensify social and emotional experiences, strongly influence
adolescent decision making, and contribute to the emergence of
psychopathologies during this period (Nelson et al., 2005).
The triadic node model (Ernst et al., 2006) posits that the spe-
cific developmental trajectory of brain regions subserving affective
processing and cognitive control, and the balance between them,
may underlie the risk-taking propensity of adolescents. This model
is also based on the activity of three nodes corresponding to specific
brain regions. In this case a node responsible for reward approach
(ventral striatum) is in balance with a punishment-avoidance node
(amygdala). A modulation node (prefrontal cortex) affects the rel-
ative influence of these countervailing forces, and risky behavior
will result from a final calculus favoring approach. According to
this model, in situations involving some probabilistic trade-off
between appetitive and aversive stimuli, the approach node is more
dominant in adolescents. Hyperactivity or hypersensitivity of a
reward-approach system might otherwise be adjusted by activity
in portions of the prefrontal cortex, however its underdevelop-
ment in adolescents does not permit adequate self monitoring and
inhibitory control (Ernst and Fudge, 2009).
Casey et al. hypothesize that differences in the developmen-
tal trajectory of adolescent prefrontal cortex versus subcortical
structures (e.g., ventral striatum and amygdala), along with the
connections between them, might account for adolescent behav-
ioral propensities (Casey et al., 2008; Somerville and Casey, 2010;
Somerville et al., 2010). During a task involving the receipt of differ-
ent reward values, the extent of adolescent activity in the nucleus
accumbens was similar to that of adults (although with greater
magnitudes) whereas the pattern of orbitofrontal cortical activity
looked more like that of children than adults (Galvan et al., 2006).
The relative maturity of subcortical systems and the immaturity of
the prefrontal cortex, which is critical to cognitive control, may lead
to a greater adolescent propensity toward sensation seeking and
risk taking. The key here, as in the triadic node model, is the concept
of a relative inter-regional imbalance during adolescence, in con-
trast to childhood when these regions are all relatively immature
and adulthood when they are all mature (Somerville et al., 2010).
This model is also similar to Steinberg’s framework, in which the
relative decrease in risk taking from adolescence to adulthood is
due to the development of cognitive control systems, connections
facilitating the integration of cognition and affect among cortical
and subcortical regions, and differences in reward salience or sen-
sitivity (Steinberg, 2008).
The central theme of these models is that in adolescents, there
are differences in the sensitivity, level, or effect of activity in cortical
and subcortical regions within networks that subserve emotional
processing and cognitive control. Based on our data and other evi-
dence, we hypothesize that such differences may be the result of
reduced neuronal coordination and processing efficiency in ado-
lescents which manifests as a result of less-effective information
transfer between regions and imbalances in neuronal excitation
and inhibition within critical brain regions, such as the orbitofrontal
cortex and portions of the basal ganglia. As described earlier, in vitro
work has demonstrated dramatic changes in the expression pat-
6. D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712 1709
Fig. 1. (A) Schematic of the behavioral task. Rats performed an instrumental behavior inside of a standard operant chamber. Each trial began with the onset of a cue light
within a nose-poke hole (Cue). If the rat poked into that hole while the light was on (Poke) the light turned off and a food pellet was delivered to a food trough on the
opposite wall. Once the animal poked into the food trough to retrieve the pellet (Pellet) a 5 s inter-trial interval (ITI) was triggered, followed by the next trial. Rats could
perform a maximum of 100 trials within a 30 min session. (B) Adolescent and adult unit firing-rate activity during pellet retrieval after learning the task. Each graph is the
activity of a representative adolescent or adult unit. Raster plots, which indicate the timing of spikes for each trial (row) are displayed above peri-event time histograms
which average across trials in 50 ms bins. Units that were significantly activated (upper plots) or inhibited (lower plots), relative to a baseline period, are shown around the
time of reinforcement. To the right of each plot is the proportion and percentage of units classified with the corresponding response pattern in a 500-ms window centered
at pellet retrieval. As indicated, adolescents had substantially larger proportions of units that were activated during this period. Conversely, adults had a larger proportion of
inhibited units. These age-related proportional differences were statistically significant (Chi-square test, p < 0.01).
Adapted from Sturman and Moghaddam (2011).
Table 2
Neurobehavioral hypotheses integrating adolescent behavioral changes with brain development.
Hypothesis Description References
Social information processing
network
Changes in adolescent social behavior reflect the development
of specific brain networks that integrate the detection of social
information with cognitive and affective processing regions.
Nelson et al. (2005)
Triadic node Adolescent risky behavior can be explained in terms of the
relative strength of ventral striatum-mediate approach versus
amygdala-mediated avoidance and an immature supervisory
prefrontal cortex.
Ernst et al. (2006)
Differential development of
limbic reward versus
top-down control systems
The relatively earlier development of bottom-up limbic
regions versus the prefrontal cortex, biases behavior toward
risk and reward.
Casey et al. (2008)
Arousal of socio-emotional
systems at puberty
Increased sensation-seeking and risk-taking during
adolescence are due to changes in reward salience and
sensitivity as a result of brain remodeling (e.g., changes in
dopamine and oxytocin systems) and immature cognitive
control systems.
Steinberg (2008)
Inefficient neuronal processing Adolescent neural processing is less well-distributed and
coordinated due to immature myelination, pruning,
interneuron development, and other factors. This leads to
imbalances in local activation and inhibition in systems that
underlie motivated behavior, and precipitate both altered
sensitivities to salient stimuli and less-effective top-down
control in certain contexts.
Sturman and Moghaddam
(2011)
7. 1710 D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712
terns of various receptors, and the effects of receptor activation,
including the response of inhibitory fast-spiking interneurons to
dopamine and NMDA receptor stimulation. Such changes would be
expected to affect both the balance of excitation and inhibition and
the coordination of neuronal groups. As fast-spiking interneuron
activity is critical to controlling the precise timing of neural activ-
ity and the entrainment of oscillations, the developmental shifts in
adolescent interneuron activity and their response to neuromodu-
lators like dopamine may be central to some of these age-related
processing differences. As a result of this, adolescent neural activ-
ity may be less well-coordinated, noisier, and more local, and also
perhaps more sensitive to the behaviorally activating effects of
rewards, novelty, or other salient stimuli. Reduced inter-regional
oscillatory coordination, further hampered by incomplete myeli-
nation, could together account for the less-distributed functional
activity observed in imaging studies. The previously mentioned
tendency for adolescents to favor risky choices in emotionally
charged contexts could also be related to a combination of reduced
inter-regional communication (e.g., failure of the prefrontal cortex
to effectively dampen subcortical “go” signals in the basal ganglia),
and exaggerated activation and/or reduced inhibition to salient
cues in the context of motivated behavior, as we observed during
reward anticipation in the orbitofrontal cortex.
6. Summary
As we have learned more about the specific brain and behav-
ioral changes of adolescence several neurobehavioral models have
been proposed. Central to most of these is the notion that immature
neuronal processing in the prefrontal cortex and other cortical and
subcortical regions, along with their interaction, leads to behav-
ior that is biased toward risk, reward, and emotional reactivity
during the adolescent period. Recent work on the development
of inhibitory interneuron circuits and their changing interaction
with neuromodulatory systems during adolescence may also shed
light on why illnesses like schizophrenia typically manifest at this
time. Using techniques like fMRI in humans and electrophysiolog-
ical recordings in laboratory animals, we are beginning to identify
more precisely how adolescents process reward and other aspects
of motivated behavior differently from adults. Doing so is a critical
step toward ascertaining the brain-based vulnerabilities of normal
adolescent behavior and in understanding the pathophysiology of
the psychiatric illnesses that develop during this period.
References
Acredolo, C., O’Connor, J., Banks, L., Horobin, K., 1989. Children’s ability to make prob-
ability estimates: skills revealed through application of Anderson’s functional
measurement methodology. Child Development 60, 933–945.
Adriani, W., Chiarotti, F., Laviola, G., 1998. Elevated novelty seeking and peculiar d-
amphetamine sensitization in periadolescent mice compared with adult mice.
Behavioral Neuroscience 112, 1152–1166.
Adriani, W., Granstrem, O., Macri, S., Izykenova, G., Dambinova, S., Laviola, G., 2004.
Behavioral and neurochemical vulnerability during adolescence in mice: studies
with nicotine. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 869–878.
Adriani, W., Laviola, G., 2000. A unique hormonal and behavioral hyporesponsivity
to both forced novelty and d-amphetamine in periadolescent mice. Neurophar-
macology 39, 334–346.
Adriani, W., Laviola, G., 2003. Elevated levels of impulsivity and reduced place con-
ditioning with d-amphetamine: two behavioral features of adolescence in mice.
Behavioral Neuroscience 117, 695–703.
Arnett, J., 1992. Reckless behavior in adolescence: a developmental perspective.
Developmental Review 12, 339–373.
Arnett, J.J., 1999. Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. The American Psychol-
ogist 54, 317–326.
Asato, M.R., Terwilliger, R., Woo, J., Luna, B., 2010. White matter development in
adolescence: a DTI study. Cerebral Cortex 20, 2122–2131.
Badanich, K.A., Adler, K.J., Kirstein, C.L., 2006. Adolescents differ from adults in
cocaine conditioned place preference and cocaine-induced dopamine in the
nucleus accumbens septi. European Journal of Pharmacology 550, 95–106.
Bechara, A., Damasio, A.R., Damasio, H., Anderson, S.W., 1994. Insensitivity to future
consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50, 7–15.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A.R., Lee, G.P., 1999. Different contributions of
the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making.
Journal of Neuroscience 19, 5473–5481.
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Damasio, A.R., 1996. Failure to respond auto-
nomically to anticipated future outcomes following damage to prefrontal cortex.
Cerebral Cortex 6, 215–225.
Bender, S., Weisbrod, M., Bornfleth, H., Resch, F., Oelkers-Ax, R., 2005. How do
children prepare to react? Imaging maturation of motor preparation and
stimulus anticipation by late contingent negative variation. NeuroImage 27,
737–752.
Benes, F.M., Turtle, M., Khan, Y., Farol, P., 1994. Myelination of a key relay
zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry 51,
477–484.
Bjork, J.M., Knutson, B., Fong, G.W., Caggiano, D.M., Bennett, S.M., Hommer, D.W.,
2004. Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: similarities and differ-
ences from young adults. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 1793–1802.
Bolanos, C.A., Glatt, S.J., Jackson, D., 1998. Subsensitivity to dopaminergic drugs in
periadolescent rats: a behavioral and neurochemical analysis. Brain Research
111, 25–33.
Brenhouse, H.C., Andersen, S.L., 2008. Delayed extinction and stronger reinstatement
of cocaine conditioned place preference in adolescent rats, compared to adults.
Behavioral Neuroscience 122, 460–465.
Buchanan, C.M., Eccles, J.S., Becker, J.B., 1992. Are adolescents the victims of raging
hormones: evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior
at adolescence. Psychological Bulletin 111, 62–107.
Bunge, S.A., Dudukovic, N.M., Thomason, M.E., Vaidya, C.J., Gabrieli, J.D., 2002. Imma-
ture frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: evidence from
fMRI. Neuron 33, 301–311.
Cao, J., Lotfipour, S., Loughlin, S.E., Leslie, F.M., 2007. Adolescent matura-
tion of cocaine-sensitive neural mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 32,
2279–2289.
Cardin, J.A., Carlen, M., Meletis, K., Knoblich, U., Zhang, F., Deisseroth, K., Tsai, L.H.,
Moore, C.I., 2009. Driving fast-spiking cells induces gamma rhythm and controls
sensory responses. Nature 459, 663–667.
Casey, B.J., Getz, S., Galvan, A., 2008. The adolescent brain. Developmental Review
28, 62–77.
Cauffman, E., Shulman, E.P., Steinberg, L., Claus, E., Banich, M.T., Graham, S., Woolard,
J., 2010. Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance
on the Iowa Gambling Task. Developmental Psychology 46, 193–207.
Chambers, R.A., Taylor, J.R., Potenza, M.N., 2003. Developmental neurocircuitry of
motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. The Amer-
ican Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1041–1052.
Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., Steinberg, L., 2011. Peers increase
adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry.
Developmental Science 14, F1–F10.
Coulter, C.L., Happe, H.K., Murrin, L.C., 1996. Postnatal development of the dopamine
transporter: a quantitative autoradiographic study. Brain Research 92,
172–181.
Crone, E.A., van der Molen, M.W., 2007. Development of decision making in school-
aged children and adolescents: evidence from heart rate and skin conductance
analysis. Child Development 78, 1288–1301.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Larson, R., Prescott, S., 1977. The ecology of adolescent activity
and experience. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 6, 281–294.
Cunningham, M.G., Bhattacharyya, S., Benes, F.M., 2002. Amygdalo-cortical sprout-
ing continues into early adulthood: implications for the development of normal
and abnormal function during adolescence. The Journal of Comparative Neurol-
ogy 453, 116–130.
Dahl, R.E., 2001. Affect regulation, brain development, and behavioral/emotional
health in adolescence. CNS Spectrums 6, 60–72.
Dahl, R.E., 2004. Adolescent brain development: a period of vulnerabilities and
opportunities, Keynote address. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1021, 1–22.
Damasio, A.R., 1994. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. Put-
nam, New York.
de Bruin, W.B., Parker, A.M., Fischhoff, B., 2007. Can adolescents predict significant
life events? The Journal of Adolescent Health 41, 208–210.
De Graaf, C., Zandstra, E.H., 1999. Sweetness intensity and pleasantness in children,
adolescents, and adults. Physiology & Behavior 67, 513–520.
Doremus-Fitzwater, T.L., Varlinskaya, E.I., Spear, L.P., 2009. Motivational systems in
adolescence: possible implications for age differences in substance abuse and
other risk-taking behaviors. Brain and Cognition.
Douglas, L.A., Varlinskaya, E.I., Spear, L.P., 2003. Novel-object place conditioning in
adolescent and adult male and female rats: effects of social isolation. Physiology
& Behavior 80, 317–325.
Douglas, L.A., Varlinskaya, E.I., Spear, L.P., 2004. Rewarding properties of social
interactions in adolescent and adult male and female rats: impact of social
versus isolate housing of subjects and partners. Developmental Psychobiology
45, 153–162.
Durston, S., Davidson, M.C., Tottenham, N., Galvan, A., Spicer, J., Fossella, J.A., Casey,
B.J., 2006. A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. Devel-
opmental Science 9, 1–8.
Elkind, D., 1967. Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development 38, 1025–1034.
Ernst, M., Fudge, J.L., 2009. A developmental neurobiological model of motivated
behavior: anatomy, connectivity and ontogeny of the triadic nodes. Neuro-
science and Biobehavioral Reviews 33, 367–382.
8. D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712 1711
Ernst, M., Nelson, E.E., Jazbec, S., McClure, E.B., Monk, C.S., Leibenluft, E., Blair,
J., Pine, D.S., 2005. Amygdala and nucleus accumbens in responses to
receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents. NeuroImage 25,
1279–1291.
Ernst, M., Pine, D.S., Hardin, M., 2006. Triadic model of the neurobiology of motivated
behavior in adolescence. Psychological Medicine 36, 299–312.
Eshel, N., Nelson, E.E., Blair, R.J., Pine, D.S., Ernst, M., 2007. Neural substrates of choice
selection in adults and adolescents: development of the ventrolateral prefrontal
and anterior cingulate cortices. Neuropsychologia 45, 1270–1279.
Fair, D.A., Cohen, A.L., Power, J.D., Dosenbach, N.U., Church, J.A., Miezin, F.M., Schlag-
gar, B.L., Petersen, S.E., 2009. Functional brain networks develop from a “local to
distributed” organization. PLoS Computational Biology 5, e1000381.
Fairbanks, L.A., Melega, W.P., Jorgensen, M.J., Kaplan, J.R., McGuire, M.T., 2001. Social
impulsivity inversely associated with CSF 5-HIAA and fluoxetine exposure in
vervet monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology 24, 370–378.
Falkner, F.T., Tanner, J.M., 1986. Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, 2nd ed.
Plenum Press, New York.
Figner, B., Mackinlay, R.J., Wilkening, F., Weber, E.U., 2009. Affective and deliberative
processes in risky choice: age differences in risk taking in the Columbia Card
Task. Journal of Experimental Psychology 35, 709–730.
Frantz, K.J., O’Dell, L.E., Parsons, L.H., 2007. Behavioral and neurochemical responses
to cocaine in periadolescent and adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 32,
625–637.
Fries, P., 2005. A mechanism for cognitive dynamics: neuronal communication
through neuronal coherence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, 474–480.
Fries, P., Nikolic, D., Singer, W., 2007. The gamma cycle. Trends in Neurosciences 30,
309–316.
Galvan, A., Hare, T.A., Parra, C.E., Penn, J., Voss, H., Glover, G., Casey, B.J., 2006. Earlier
development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie
risk-taking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Neuroscience 26, 6885–6892.
Geier, C.F., Terwilliger, R., Teslovich, T., Velanova, K., Luna, B., 2009. Immaturities
in reward processing and its influence on inhibitory control in adolescence.
Cerebral Cortex.
Gelbard, H.A., Teicher, M.H., Faedda, G., Baldessarini, R.J., 1989. Postnatal develop-
ment of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor sites in rat striatum. Brain Research 49,
123–130.
Giedd, J.N., 2004. Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, 77–85.
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J.N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K.M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A.C., Nugent
3rd, T.F., Herman, D.H., Clasen, L.S., Toga, A.W., Rapoport, J.L., Thompson, P.M.,
2004. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood
through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America 101, 8174–8179.
Hedner, T., Iversen, K., Lundborg, P., 1984. Central GABA mechanisms during post-
natal development in the rat: neurochemical characteristics. Journal of Neural
Transmission 59, 105–118.
Hwang, K., Velanova, K., Luna, B., 2010. Strengthening of top-down frontal cog-
nitive control networks underlying the development of inhibitory control: a
functional magnetic resonance imaging effective connectivity study. Journal of
Neuroscience 30, 15535–15545.
Laviola, G., Adriani, W., Terranova, M.L., Gerra, G., 1999. Psychobiological risk factors
for vulnerability to psychostimulants in human adolescents and animal models.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 23, 993–1010.
Laviola, G., Pascucci, T., Pieretti, S., 2001. Striatal dopamine sensitization to
d-amphetamine in periadolescent but not in adult rats. Pharmacology, Biochem-
istry, and Behavior 68, 115–124.
Lidow, M.S., Rakic, P., 1992. Scheduling of monoaminergic neurotransmitter receptor
expression in the primate neocortex during postnatal development. Cerebral
Cortex 2, 401–416.
Liston, C., Watts, R., Tottenham, N., Davidson, M.C., Niogi, S., Ulug, A.M., Casey, B.J.,
2006. Frontostriatal microstructure modulates efficient recruitment of cognitive
control. Cerebral Cortex 16, 553–560.
Little, P.J., Kuhn, C.M., Wilson, W.A., Swartzwelder, H.S., 1996. Differential effects
of ethanol in adolescent and adult rats. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental
Research 20, 1346–1351.
Luna, B., Garver, K.E., Urban, T.A., Lazar, N.A., Sweeney, J.A., 2004. Maturation of
cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Development 75,
1357–1372.
Luna, B., Padmanabhan, A., O’Hearn, K., 2010. What has fMRI told us about the
development of cognitive control through adolescence? Brain and Cognition
72, 101–113.
Macrì, S., Adriani, W., Chiarotti, F., Laviola, G., 2002. Risk taking during exploration
of a plus-maze is greater in adolescent than in juvenile or adult mice. Animal
Behaviour 64, 541–546.
Mathews, I.Z., McCormick, C.M., 2007. Female and male rats in late adolescence
differ from adults in amphetamine-induced locomotor activity, but not in con-
ditioned place preference for amphetamine. Behavioural Pharmacology 18,
641–650.
McCutcheon, J.E., Marinelli, M., 2009. Age matters. The European Journal of Neuro-
science 29, 997–1014.
Moy, S.S., Duncan, G.E., Knapp, D.J., Breese, G.R., 1998. Sensitivity to ethanol across
development in rats: comparison to [3H]zolpidem binding. Alcoholism, Clinical
and Experimental Research 22, 1485–1492.
Nelson, E.E., Leibenluft, E., McClure, E.B., Pine, D.S., 2005. The social re-orientation
of adolescence: a neuroscience perspective on the process and its relation to
psychopathology. Psychological Medicine 35, 163–174.
O’Donnell, P., Tseng, K.Y., 2010. Postnatal maturation of dopamine actions in the pre-
frontal cortex. In: Iversen, L.L., Iversen, S.D. (Eds.), Dopamine Handbook. Oxford
University Press, New York, pp. 177–186.
Paus, T., 2010. Growth of white matter in the adolescent brain: myelin or axon?
Brain and Cognition 72, 26–35.
Paus, T., Collins, D.L., Evans, A.C., Leonard, G., Pike, B., Zijdenbos, A., 2001. Maturation
of white matter in the human brain: a review of magnetic resonance studies.
Brain Research Bulletin 54, 255–266.
Paus, T., Keshavan, M., Giedd, J.N., 2008. Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge
during adolescence? Nature Reviews 9, 947–957.
Paus, T., Zijdenbos, A., Worsley, K., Collins, D.L., Blumenthal, J., Giedd, J.N., Rapoport,
J.L., Evans, A.C., 1999. Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and
adolescents: in vivo study. Science (New York, N.Y.) 283, 1908–1911.
Pine, D.S., 2002. Brain development and the onset of mood disorders. Seminars in
Clinical Neuropsychiatry 7, 223–233.
Rakic, P., Bourgeois, J.P., Eckenhoff, M.F., Zecevic, N., Goldman-Rakic, P.S., 1986. Con-
current overproduction of synapses in diverse regions of the primate cerebral
cortex. Science (New York, N.Y.) 232, 232–235.
Rakic, P., Bourgeois, J.P., Goldman-Rakic, P.S., 1994. Synaptic development of the
cerebral cortex: implications for learning, memory, and mental illness. Progress
in Brain Research 102, 227–243.
Rivers, S.E., Reyna, V.F., Mills, B., 2008. Risk taking under the influence: a fuzzy-trace
theory of emotion in adolescence. Developmental Review 28, 107–144.
Rodriguez de Fonseca, F., Ramos, J.A., Bonnin, A., Fernandez-Ruiz, J.J., 1993. Presence
of cannabinoid binding sites in the brain from early postnatal ages. Neuroreport
4, 135–138.
Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Williams, S.C., Simmons, A., Andrew,
C., Bullmore, E.T., 2000. Functional frontalisation with age: mapping neurode-
velopmental trajectories with fMRI. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
24, 13–19.
Schramm-Sapyta, N.L., Cha, Y.M., Chaudhry, S., Wilson, W.A., Swartzwelder, H.S.,
Kuhn, C.M., 2007. Differential anxiogenic, aversive, and locomotor effects of THC
in adolescent and adult rats. Psychopharmacology 191, 867–877.
Schramm-Sapyta, N.L., Walker, Q.D., Caster, J.M., Levin, E.D., Kuhn, C.M., 2009. Are
adolescents more vulnerable to drug addiction than adults? Evidence from ani-
mal models. Psychopharmacology 206, 1–21.
Schuster, C.S., Ashburn, S.S., 1992. The Process of Human Development: A Holistic
Life-Span Approach, 3rd ed. Lippincott, New York.
Segalowitz, S.J., Davies, P.L., 2004. Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: an
electrophysiological strategy. Brain and Cognition 55, 116–133.
Segalowitz, S.J., Santesso, D.L., Jetha, M.K., 2010. Electrophysiological changes during
adolescence: a review. Brain and Cognition 72, 86–100.
Shram, M.J., Funk, D., Li, Z., Le, A.D., 2006. Periadolescent and adult rats respond
differently in tests measuring the rewarding and aversive effects of nicotine.
Psychopharmacology 186, 201–208.
Shram, M.J., Funk, D., Li, Z., Le, A.D., 2008. Nicotine self-administration, extinc-
tion responding and reinstatement in adolescent and adult male rats: evidence
against a biological vulnerability to nicotine addiction during adolescence. Neu-
ropsychopharmacology 33, 739–748.
Sisk, C.L., Zehr, J.L., 2005. Pubertal hormones organize the adolescent brain and
behavior. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 26, 163–174.
Sohal, V.S., Zhang, F., Yizhar, O., Deisseroth, K., 2009. Parvalbumin neurons and
gamma rhythms enhance cortical circuit performance. Nature 459, 698–702.
Somerville, L.H., Casey, B., 2010. Developmental neurobiology of cognitive control
and motivational systems. Current Opinion in Neurobiology.
Somerville, L.H., Jones, R.M., Casey, B.J., 2010. A time of change: behavioral and neural
correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental
cues. Brain and Cognition 72, 124–133.
Sowell, E.R., Peterson, B.S., Thompson, P.M., Welcome, S.E., Henkenius, A.L., Toga,
A.W., 2003. Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nature Neuro-
science 6, 309–315.
Sowell, E.R., Thompson, P.M., Holmes, C.J., Jernigan, T.L., Toga, A.W., 1999. In vivo
evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions.
Nature Neuroscience 2, 859–861.
Sowell, E.R., Thompson, P.M., Tessner, K.D., Toga, A.W., 2001. Mapping continued
brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: inverse
relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. Journal of Neuroscience
21, 8819–8829.
Sowell, E.R., Trauner, D.A., Gamst, A., Jernigan, T.L., 2002. Development of cortical
and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: a structural MRI
study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 44, 4–16.
Spear, L.P., 2000. The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 417–463.
Spear, L.P., 2010. The Behavioral Neuroscience of Adolescence, 1st ed. W.W. Norton,
New York.
Spear, L.P., Brake, S.C., 1983. Periadolescence: age-dependent behavior and psy-
chopharmacological responsivity in rats. Developmental Psychobiology 16,
83–109.
Spear, L.P., Shalaby, I.A., Brick, J., 1980. Chronic administration of haloperidol during
development: behavioral and psychopharmacological effects. Psychopharma-
cology 70, 47–58.
Spear, L.P., Varlinskaya, E.I., 2010. Sensitivity to ethanol and other hedonic stim-
uli in an animal model of adolescence: implications for prevention science?
Developmental Psychobiology 52, 236–243.
Stansfield, K.H., Kirstein, C.L., 2006. Effects of novelty on behavior in the adolescent
and adult rat. Developmental Psychobiology 48, 10–15.
9. 1712 D.A. Sturman, B. Moghaddam / Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (2011) 1704–1712
Stansfield, K.H., Philpot, R.M., Kirstein, C.L., 2004. An animal model of sensation
seeking: the adolescent rat. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021,
453–458.
Steinberg, L., 2005. Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences 9, 69–74.
Steinberg, L., 2008. A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking.
Developmental Review 28, 78–106.
Steinberg, L., Albert, D., Cauffman, E., Banich, M., Graham, S., Woolard, J., 2008. Age
differences in sensation seeking and impulsivity as indexed by behavior and
self-report: evidence for a dual systems model. Developmental Psychology 44,
1764–1778.
Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., Banich, M., 2009. Age
differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development 80,
28–44.
Stevens, M.C., Skudlarski, P., Pearlson, G.D., Calhoun, V.D., 2009. Age-related cogni-
tive gains are mediated by the effects of white matter development on brain
network integration. NeuroImage 48, 738–746.
Sturman, D.A., Mandell, D.R., Moghaddam, B., 2010. Adolescents exhibit behavioral
differences from adults during instrumental learning and extinction. Behavioral
Neuroscience 124, 16–25.
Sturman, D.A., Moghaddam, B., 2011. Reduced neuronal inhibition and coordination
of adolescent prefrontal cortex during motivated behavior. Journal of Neuro-
science 31, 1471–1478.
Tamm, L., Menon, V., Reiss, A.L., 2002. Maturation of brain function associated with
response inhibition. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry 41, 1231–1238.
Tanner, J.M., 1990. Foetus Into Man: Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity,
Rev. and enl. ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Tarazi, F.I., Baldessarini, R.J., 2000. Comparative postnatal development of dopamine
D(1), D(2) and D(4) receptors in rat forebrain. International Journal of Develop-
mental Neuroscience 18, 29–37.
Tarazi, F.I., Tomasini, E.C., Baldessarini, R.J., 1998. Postnatal development of
dopamine and serotonin transporters in rat caudate-putamen and nucleus
accumbens septi. Neuroscience Letters 254, 21–24.
Tarazi, F.I., Tomasini, E.C., Baldessarini, R.J., 1999. Postnatal development
of dopamine D1-like receptors in rat cortical and striatolimbic brain
regions: an autoradiographic study. Developmental Neuroscience 21,
43–49.
Teicher, M.H., Andersen, S.L., Hostetter Jr., J.C., 1995. Evidence for dopamine recep-
tor pruning between adolescence and adulthood in striatum but not nucleus
accumbens. Brain Research 89, 167–172.
Teicher, M.H., Barber, N.I., Gelbard, H.A., Gallitano, A.L., Campbell, A., Marsh, E.,
Baldessarini, R.J., 1993. Developmental differences in acute nigrostriatal and
mesocorticolimbic system response to haloperidol. Neuropsychopharmacology
9, 147–156.
Tseng, K.Y., O’Donnell, P., 2007. Dopamine modulation of prefrontal cortical
interneurons changes during adolescence. Cerebral Cortex 17, 1235–1240.
Uhlhaas, P.J., Pipa, G., Lima, B., Melloni, L., Neuenschwander, S., Nikolic, D., Singer,
W., 2009a. Neural synchrony in cortical networks: history, concept and current
status. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 3, 17.
Uhlhaas, P.J., Roux, F., Rodriguez, E., Rotarska-Jagiela, A., Singer, W., 2009b. Neu-
ral synchrony and the development of cortical networks. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences 14, 72–80.
Vaidya, J.G., Grippo, A.J., Johnson, A.K., Watson, D., 2004. A comparative develop-
mental study of impulsivity in rats and humans: the role of reward sensitivity.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, 395–398.
Vastola, B.J., Douglas, L.A., Varlinskaya, E.I., Spear, L.P., 2002. Nicotine-induced con-
ditioned place preference in adolescent and adult rats. Physiology & Behavior
77, 107–114.
Velanova, K., Wheeler, M.E., Luna, B., 2008. Maturational changes in anterior cingu-
late and frontoparietal recruitment support the development of error processing
and inhibitory control. Cerebral Cortex 18, 2505–2522.
Volkmar, F.R., 1996. Childhood and adolescent psychosis: a review of the past 10
years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35,
843–851.
Wang, H.X., Gao, W.J., 2009. Cell type-specific development of NMDA receptors
in the interneurons of rat prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 34,
2028–2040.
Wang, J., O’Donnell, P., 2001. D(1) dopamine receptors potentiate nmda-mediated
excitability increase in layer V prefrontal cortical pyramidal neurons. Cerebral
Cortex 11, 452–462.
Zuckerman, M., 1979. Sensation seeking: beyond the optimal level of arousal. L.
Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J.
Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S., Eysenck, H.J., 1978. Sensation seeking in England and
America: cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 46, 139–149.