This document discusses immunodeficiency syndromes, including both primary (congenital) and secondary (acquired) types. Primary immunodeficiencies are inherited genetic disorders that impair innate or adaptive immunity. They are usually detected in infancy due to susceptibility to recurrent infections. Common variable immunodeficiency and isolated IgA deficiency are two relatively frequent primary immunodeficiencies. Secondary immunodeficiencies may result from cancer, infection, malnutrition, or immunosuppressive treatments. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a profound secondary immunodeficiency leading to opportunistic infections and cancers. HIV infects and depletes
HIV/AIDS is a disease that attacks and weakens the human immune system. It is caused by the HIV virus and develops into AIDS when untreated. Around 34 million people worldwide are currently infected. HIV is transmitted through contact with bodily fluids and there is no cure, though treatment can control it. Research continues on treatments and a potential vaccine due to HIV's ability to rapidly mutate.
The document discusses primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) in children, which are genetic defects that result in recurrent or unusual infections. It notes that PIDs should be considered when standard causes of infection have been ruled out in a child. The summary provides:
1) PIDs can present in infancy with a predominance in males, but many are not diagnosed until later in life. They occur in about 1 in 2,000 live births.
2) Accurate prevalence in South Africa is unknown, but international rates are likely similar, though some deficiencies may be more common.
3) Diagnosis of PIDs is often delayed, despite awareness of HIV. Late diagnosis can be tragic as effective
The document provides tips for using a PowerPoint presentation on HIV/AIDS. It recommends showing blank slides with learning objectives and asking students what they know before providing information. This active learning approach should be repeated three times for revision. The presentation includes sections on introduction/history, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, investigations, management, and more. Sample slides are provided on topics like demography, clinical conditions, CD4 counts, and antiretroviral therapy guidelines.
HIV and Opportunistic infections-WPS Office.pptxSudipta Roy
This document discusses HIV and opportunistic infections. It defines HIV as a virus that destroys immune cells, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Opportunistic infections are caused by various germs that typically do not cause disease in healthy individuals. Some common opportunistic infections in HIV patients include thrush, toxoplasmosis, and bacterial infections. The best way to prevent opportunistic infections is by taking antiretroviral drugs to suppress HIV and strengthen the immune system.
Learning Objectives
Define the recurrent infections and differentiate the patient with a primary immunodeficiency (PID) from the "normal person“.
Recognize infectious signs and symptoms, and opportunistic infections of primary immunodeficiency that warrant screening and referral to a specialist.
Understand noninfectious signs and symptoms that should raise concern for primary immunodeficiency.
Determine appropriate testing for patients for whom immunodeficiency is suspected.
Discuss the management of patients with primary immunodeficiency.
Appreciate secondary causes of immunodeficiency
Cytomegalovirus is a herpesvirus that commonly infects humans. It can cause enlarged cells (cytomegalic inclusion disease) and poses a risk for severe infections in infants during pregnancy or birth as well as immunosuppressed individuals. The virus replicates slowly in human fibroblasts and establishes lifelong latent infections. Primary infection is usually asymptomatic but can resemble mononucleosis. Congenital infection may cause death, growth problems, or long-term neurological and vision issues in infants. Polymerase chain reaction testing and antigen detection are now used to diagnose active cytomegalovirus infections.
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISORDERS GROUP 6A.pptxYvonneMwita
This document discusses immunodeficiency diseases. It defines immunodeficiency as a state where the immune system's ability to fight infections is compromised or absent. There are two types: primary immunodeficiency which is inherited and diagnosed in childhood, and secondary immunodeficiency which is acquired from diseases or environmental factors like HIV. Primary immunodeficiencies are classified into humoral deficiencies, cellular deficiencies, combined deficiencies, complement disorders, and phagocytosis disorders. Examples like X-linked agammaglobulinemia and common variable immunodeficiency are described. Nursing management focuses on infection assessment, patient teaching, and supportive care.
This document discusses immunodeficiency syndromes, including both primary (congenital) and secondary (acquired) types. Primary immunodeficiencies are inherited genetic disorders that impair innate or adaptive immunity. They are usually detected in infancy due to susceptibility to recurrent infections. Common variable immunodeficiency and isolated IgA deficiency are two relatively frequent primary immunodeficiencies. Secondary immunodeficiencies may result from cancer, infection, malnutrition, or immunosuppressive treatments. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a profound secondary immunodeficiency leading to opportunistic infections and cancers. HIV infects and depletes
HIV/AIDS is a disease that attacks and weakens the human immune system. It is caused by the HIV virus and develops into AIDS when untreated. Around 34 million people worldwide are currently infected. HIV is transmitted through contact with bodily fluids and there is no cure, though treatment can control it. Research continues on treatments and a potential vaccine due to HIV's ability to rapidly mutate.
The document discusses primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) in children, which are genetic defects that result in recurrent or unusual infections. It notes that PIDs should be considered when standard causes of infection have been ruled out in a child. The summary provides:
1) PIDs can present in infancy with a predominance in males, but many are not diagnosed until later in life. They occur in about 1 in 2,000 live births.
2) Accurate prevalence in South Africa is unknown, but international rates are likely similar, though some deficiencies may be more common.
3) Diagnosis of PIDs is often delayed, despite awareness of HIV. Late diagnosis can be tragic as effective
The document provides tips for using a PowerPoint presentation on HIV/AIDS. It recommends showing blank slides with learning objectives and asking students what they know before providing information. This active learning approach should be repeated three times for revision. The presentation includes sections on introduction/history, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, investigations, management, and more. Sample slides are provided on topics like demography, clinical conditions, CD4 counts, and antiretroviral therapy guidelines.
HIV and Opportunistic infections-WPS Office.pptxSudipta Roy
This document discusses HIV and opportunistic infections. It defines HIV as a virus that destroys immune cells, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Opportunistic infections are caused by various germs that typically do not cause disease in healthy individuals. Some common opportunistic infections in HIV patients include thrush, toxoplasmosis, and bacterial infections. The best way to prevent opportunistic infections is by taking antiretroviral drugs to suppress HIV and strengthen the immune system.
Learning Objectives
Define the recurrent infections and differentiate the patient with a primary immunodeficiency (PID) from the "normal person“.
Recognize infectious signs and symptoms, and opportunistic infections of primary immunodeficiency that warrant screening and referral to a specialist.
Understand noninfectious signs and symptoms that should raise concern for primary immunodeficiency.
Determine appropriate testing for patients for whom immunodeficiency is suspected.
Discuss the management of patients with primary immunodeficiency.
Appreciate secondary causes of immunodeficiency
Cytomegalovirus is a herpesvirus that commonly infects humans. It can cause enlarged cells (cytomegalic inclusion disease) and poses a risk for severe infections in infants during pregnancy or birth as well as immunosuppressed individuals. The virus replicates slowly in human fibroblasts and establishes lifelong latent infections. Primary infection is usually asymptomatic but can resemble mononucleosis. Congenital infection may cause death, growth problems, or long-term neurological and vision issues in infants. Polymerase chain reaction testing and antigen detection are now used to diagnose active cytomegalovirus infections.
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISORDERS GROUP 6A.pptxYvonneMwita
This document discusses immunodeficiency diseases. It defines immunodeficiency as a state where the immune system's ability to fight infections is compromised or absent. There are two types: primary immunodeficiency which is inherited and diagnosed in childhood, and secondary immunodeficiency which is acquired from diseases or environmental factors like HIV. Primary immunodeficiencies are classified into humoral deficiencies, cellular deficiencies, combined deficiencies, complement disorders, and phagocytosis disorders. Examples like X-linked agammaglobulinemia and common variable immunodeficiency are described. Nursing management focuses on infection assessment, patient teaching, and supportive care.
Immunodeficiency dis order [Repaired] FINAL.pptxNimonaAAyele
This document provides an overview of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV and SLE. It begins with introducing immunodeficiency and classifying primary immunodeficiencies. Signs and symptoms of immunodeficiency are described. Diagnosis involves medical history, physical exam, and laboratory tests. Management includes antibiotics, immunoglobulin replacement, bone marrow transplant, and addressing nutritional needs. HIV causes AIDS by attacking CD4 cells. SLE is an autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks its own tissues. Symptoms and treatments are discussed for both.
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and causes AIDS which is the late stage of HIV infection where the immune system is seriously damaged. Around 34 million people worldwide currently have HIV/AIDS. HIV attacks and destroys the human immune system over time by using immune cells for reproduction. It can be contracted through contact with bodily fluids from an infected person, usually through sharing needles or unprotected sex. There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS but treatment can control it through antiretroviral therapy.
This document discusses HIV/AIDS epidemiology in the Philippines. It notes that the number of new HIV cases per day in the Philippines has risen sharply in recent years. While overall HIV prevalence remains below 1%, prevalence among high-risk groups has also increased. Several factors put the Philippines at risk of a broader epidemic, including increasing mobility, sex work, unsafe sex, and injecting drug use. The document also outlines how HIV attacks and weakens the immune system.
This document discusses hypo-sensitivity (immunodeficiency) disorders and provides examples of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV/AIDS. It describes how HIV works by damaging the immune system, infecting cells which then replicate and spread HIV. People are initially HIV-positive before developing AIDS, a condition with no cure that is often fatal. Multiple sclerosis is provided as an example of an autoimmune disease.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and causes AIDS which is the late stage of HIV infection where the immune system is seriously damaged. Around 34 million people worldwide currently have HIV/AIDS which has killed over 25 million people since being discovered in 1981. HIV attacks and destroys the human immune system over time by using immune cells for reproduction and can be spread through contact with bodily fluids. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help manage the virus.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and can be transmitted through sexual contact, blood transmission, or from mother to child. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 being more prevalent. HIV progresses to AIDS by weakening the immune system over time. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) aims to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding through testing, treatment, and replacement feeding. Antiretroviral therapy can suppress HIV and slow disease progression.
Contents- Introduction to Immunodeficiency | Types | SCID | LAD
Immunodeficiency is the inability to produce an adequate immune response because of insufficiency or absence of antibodies, immune cells or both.
SCID & LAD are the two immunodeficiencies from primary immunodeficiency.
This document provides an overview of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and Hepatitis. It discusses the definition, incidence, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and prevention of AIDS. It also covers the classification, causes, pathology, features, investigations, and treatment of various types of Hepatitis including Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by infecting and destroying helper T cells. There are two strains of HIV, HIV-1 being more virulent and prevalent globally. HIV is transmitted via bodily fluids and replicates by entering immune cells and integrating its genetic material into the host cell. While there is no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS, highly active antiretroviral therapy can suppress the virus and prevent progression to AIDS if taken consistently.
1) There are various conditions that can cause severe immunosuppression including congenital immunodeficiencies, HIV infection, malnutrition, cancers, and immunosuppressive medications.
2) Live virus vaccines are contraindicated for severely immunocompromised individuals while killed/inactivated vaccines are generally safe but may require higher doses or boosters.
3) Immunocompromised patients can be divided into three groups - those severely immunocompromised not due to HIV, those with HIV infection, and those with limited immune deficits who may need special vaccines or doses.
This document provides an overview of poliomyelitis (polio), including its epidemiology, pathology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and the polio vaccines. It describes how the polio virus primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract but can spread to the central nervous system and cause paralysis. It discusses the routes of transmission, risk factors, incubation period, and the different clinical presentations from asymptomatic to paralytic forms of polio. It provides details on the inactivated polio vaccine and oral polio vaccine, including how each is produced, administered, and induces immunity. Worldwide immunization efforts using these vaccines have helped reduce polio cases dramatically.
This document provides an overview of the epidemiology of polio. It describes the polio virus and pathogenesis, including that it primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract and in rare cases the central nervous system. It discusses the various clinical presentations from asymptomatic to paralytic forms. At-risk groups like children are highlighted. Modes of transmission like the fecal-oral route are explained. It covers prevention through immunization with both inactivated and live, attenuated vaccines.
This document discusses primary immunodeficiency diseases, which are disorders where the immune system is intrinsically defective. It describes the main components of the immune system that can be affected, including B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and the complement system. Common clinical manifestations are recurrent infections in multiple sites, autoimmune diseases, gastrointestinal issues, and hematological abnormalities. Laboratory tests evaluate the function of B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and complement pathways to diagnose specific immunodeficiencies.
This document provides information on HIV/AIDS including:
- HIV causes AIDS by destroying CD4+ immune cells. It emerged in the 1930s from a virus in apes.
- HIV is treated through antiretroviral therapy which has transformed AIDS into a chronic disease. However, developing an effective vaccine remains a challenge.
- HIV transmission occurs sexually, through blood, and from mother to child. It disproportionately affects sex workers, men who have sex with men, injecting drug users, and those in developing countries.
This presentation provides an overview of HIV and AIDS, including:
1. Definitions of HIV as the virus that causes AIDS and weakens the immune system, and AIDS as the final stage of HIV infection.
2. HIV-1 is the most common type worldwide and generally causes AIDS faster than HIV-2, which is mostly found in West Africa.
3. HIV is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be spread through unprotected sex, blood contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Proper precautions can prevent transmission.
Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a disorder where patients have low levels of immunoglobulins and antibodies, leading to frequent bacterial infections. It results from defects in B cells that prevent their maturation into plasma cells capable of producing antibodies. CVID is diagnosed through low immunoglobulin levels and treated with immunoglobulin replacement therapy. While the cause is unknown in most cases, it can be inherited and involves defects in B and T cell function and communication.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which attacks CD4 T-cells and weakens the immune system. This leaves individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While there is no cure for AIDS, antiretroviral drug combinations can suppress the virus and allow immune recovery. However, HIV persists in reservoirs and treatment must continue to prevent resurgence. Prevention efforts focus on behavior changes like abstinence and condom use as well as reducing needle sharing. Access to treatment varies globally and developing nations often lack resources for advanced therapies available elsewhere. Education has helped curb transmission in some African countries but challenges remain in combating misinformation and harmful practices.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Immunodeficiency dis order [Repaired] FINAL.pptxNimonaAAyele
This document provides an overview of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV and SLE. It begins with introducing immunodeficiency and classifying primary immunodeficiencies. Signs and symptoms of immunodeficiency are described. Diagnosis involves medical history, physical exam, and laboratory tests. Management includes antibiotics, immunoglobulin replacement, bone marrow transplant, and addressing nutritional needs. HIV causes AIDS by attacking CD4 cells. SLE is an autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks its own tissues. Symptoms and treatments are discussed for both.
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and causes AIDS which is the late stage of HIV infection where the immune system is seriously damaged. Around 34 million people worldwide currently have HIV/AIDS. HIV attacks and destroys the human immune system over time by using immune cells for reproduction. It can be contracted through contact with bodily fluids from an infected person, usually through sharing needles or unprotected sex. There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS but treatment can control it through antiretroviral therapy.
This document discusses HIV/AIDS epidemiology in the Philippines. It notes that the number of new HIV cases per day in the Philippines has risen sharply in recent years. While overall HIV prevalence remains below 1%, prevalence among high-risk groups has also increased. Several factors put the Philippines at risk of a broader epidemic, including increasing mobility, sex work, unsafe sex, and injecting drug use. The document also outlines how HIV attacks and weakens the immune system.
This document discusses hypo-sensitivity (immunodeficiency) disorders and provides examples of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV/AIDS. It describes how HIV works by damaging the immune system, infecting cells which then replicate and spread HIV. People are initially HIV-positive before developing AIDS, a condition with no cure that is often fatal. Multiple sclerosis is provided as an example of an autoimmune disease.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and causes AIDS which is the late stage of HIV infection where the immune system is seriously damaged. Around 34 million people worldwide currently have HIV/AIDS which has killed over 25 million people since being discovered in 1981. HIV attacks and destroys the human immune system over time by using immune cells for reproduction and can be spread through contact with bodily fluids. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help manage the virus.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and can be transmitted through sexual contact, blood transmission, or from mother to child. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 being more prevalent. HIV progresses to AIDS by weakening the immune system over time. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) aims to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding through testing, treatment, and replacement feeding. Antiretroviral therapy can suppress HIV and slow disease progression.
Contents- Introduction to Immunodeficiency | Types | SCID | LAD
Immunodeficiency is the inability to produce an adequate immune response because of insufficiency or absence of antibodies, immune cells or both.
SCID & LAD are the two immunodeficiencies from primary immunodeficiency.
This document provides an overview of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and Hepatitis. It discusses the definition, incidence, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and prevention of AIDS. It also covers the classification, causes, pathology, features, investigations, and treatment of various types of Hepatitis including Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by infecting and destroying helper T cells. There are two strains of HIV, HIV-1 being more virulent and prevalent globally. HIV is transmitted via bodily fluids and replicates by entering immune cells and integrating its genetic material into the host cell. While there is no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS, highly active antiretroviral therapy can suppress the virus and prevent progression to AIDS if taken consistently.
1) There are various conditions that can cause severe immunosuppression including congenital immunodeficiencies, HIV infection, malnutrition, cancers, and immunosuppressive medications.
2) Live virus vaccines are contraindicated for severely immunocompromised individuals while killed/inactivated vaccines are generally safe but may require higher doses or boosters.
3) Immunocompromised patients can be divided into three groups - those severely immunocompromised not due to HIV, those with HIV infection, and those with limited immune deficits who may need special vaccines or doses.
This document provides an overview of poliomyelitis (polio), including its epidemiology, pathology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and the polio vaccines. It describes how the polio virus primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract but can spread to the central nervous system and cause paralysis. It discusses the routes of transmission, risk factors, incubation period, and the different clinical presentations from asymptomatic to paralytic forms of polio. It provides details on the inactivated polio vaccine and oral polio vaccine, including how each is produced, administered, and induces immunity. Worldwide immunization efforts using these vaccines have helped reduce polio cases dramatically.
This document provides an overview of the epidemiology of polio. It describes the polio virus and pathogenesis, including that it primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract and in rare cases the central nervous system. It discusses the various clinical presentations from asymptomatic to paralytic forms. At-risk groups like children are highlighted. Modes of transmission like the fecal-oral route are explained. It covers prevention through immunization with both inactivated and live, attenuated vaccines.
This document discusses primary immunodeficiency diseases, which are disorders where the immune system is intrinsically defective. It describes the main components of the immune system that can be affected, including B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and the complement system. Common clinical manifestations are recurrent infections in multiple sites, autoimmune diseases, gastrointestinal issues, and hematological abnormalities. Laboratory tests evaluate the function of B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and complement pathways to diagnose specific immunodeficiencies.
This document provides information on HIV/AIDS including:
- HIV causes AIDS by destroying CD4+ immune cells. It emerged in the 1930s from a virus in apes.
- HIV is treated through antiretroviral therapy which has transformed AIDS into a chronic disease. However, developing an effective vaccine remains a challenge.
- HIV transmission occurs sexually, through blood, and from mother to child. It disproportionately affects sex workers, men who have sex with men, injecting drug users, and those in developing countries.
This presentation provides an overview of HIV and AIDS, including:
1. Definitions of HIV as the virus that causes AIDS and weakens the immune system, and AIDS as the final stage of HIV infection.
2. HIV-1 is the most common type worldwide and generally causes AIDS faster than HIV-2, which is mostly found in West Africa.
3. HIV is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be spread through unprotected sex, blood contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Proper precautions can prevent transmission.
Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a disorder where patients have low levels of immunoglobulins and antibodies, leading to frequent bacterial infections. It results from defects in B cells that prevent their maturation into plasma cells capable of producing antibodies. CVID is diagnosed through low immunoglobulin levels and treated with immunoglobulin replacement therapy. While the cause is unknown in most cases, it can be inherited and involves defects in B and T cell function and communication.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which attacks CD4 T-cells and weakens the immune system. This leaves individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While there is no cure for AIDS, antiretroviral drug combinations can suppress the virus and allow immune recovery. However, HIV persists in reservoirs and treatment must continue to prevent resurgence. Prevention efforts focus on behavior changes like abstinence and condom use as well as reducing needle sharing. Access to treatment varies globally and developing nations often lack resources for advanced therapies available elsewhere. Education has helped curb transmission in some African countries but challenges remain in combating misinformation and harmful practices.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
2. • Immunodeficiency disorders result in partial or full impairment of the immune system
leaving the patient unable to effectively resolve infections or disease.
• Immunodeficiency disorders can either be primary or secondary in nature. There are
over 300 forms of primary immunodeficiency and, although rare, the condition can be
life threatening.
• Secondary immunodeficiencies are the result of disease or other environmental factors
weakening the immune system.
• Although affecting fewer patients than other classes of immune illness,
immunodeficiency patients may require expensive definitive therapy (e.g. bone
marrow transplant), or may remain lifelong patients with complex care needs, and the
cost-burden on the NHS is significant.
• Immunological research provides hope of improved curative therapies through the
development of new technologies. Continued and increased investment is critical to
ensure these potential advances are realised.
INTRODUCTION
3. • Primary immunodeficiencies are the result of genetic defects
• Secondary immunodeficiencies are caused by environmental
factors, such as HIV/AIDS or malnutrition
4. A condition that shows genetic predisposition symptoms include recurrent infection,
And the condition typically manifests in young adults who have very low but
detectable levels of total immunoglobulin with normal T-cell numbers and function.
However, some cases do involve T-cell defects, which may grow more severe as the
disease progresses.
The disease is generally treated by immunoglobulin therapy
Unlike the similar primary deficiencies , there is no evidence for genetic transmission
of this disease.
HYPOGAMMOGLOBULINEMA
5. Mothers with acquired hypogammaglobulinemia deliver normal infants.
However, at birth these infants will be defi cient in circulating
immunoglobulin due to the lack of IgG in maternal circulation that can be
passively transferred to the infant
Humoral immunological defects are frequent and important causes of
hypogammaglobulinemia, leading to recurrent infections, autoimmunity,
allergies, and neoplasias.
6. • Results from exposure to any of a number of environmental agents that induce an
immunosuppressed state.
• These could be :
1. Immunesupressive drugs
2. Corticosteroids
3. Cytotoxic drugs
4. Radiation treatment given to treat various forms of cancer.
5. Accidental radiation exposure.
AGENT INDUCED
IMMUNODEFICENCY
7.
8. • Frequently damage rapidly dividing cells in the body, including those of the
immune system, inducing a state of temporary immunodefi ciency as an
unwanted consequence
• The mechanism of action of these immunosuppressive agents varies, as do
the defects in immune function, although T cells are a common target
• Th e very young and elderly suff er from impairments to immune function
not typically seen during the remainder of the life span.
• Neonates, and especially premature babies, can be very susceptible to
infection, with degree of prematurity linked to the degree of immune
dysfunction.
• Although all the basic immune components are in place in full-term, healthy
newborns, the complete range of innate and adaptiveimmune functions take
some time to mature
9. • Along with presence of passive maternal antibody for about the first 6 months of
life, this is part of the reason for a gradual vaccination program against the
common childhood infectious diseases that peak around 1 year of age
• In later life, individuals again experience an increasing risk of infection, especially
by bacteria and viruses, as well as more malignancies.
10. • The single most common cause of acquired immunodeficiency is severe malnutrition,
aff ecting both innate and adaptive immunity.
• Hypoproteinemia are associated with depression in T-cell numbers and function,
although deleterious B cell eff ects may take longer to appear.
• Th e reason for this is unclear, although some evidence suggests a bias toward anti-
inflammatory immune pathways (e.g., IL-10 and TREG cells) when protein is scarce.
• In addition to protein, an insuffi ciency in micronutrients, such as zinc and ascorbic
acid, likely contributes to the general immunodefi ciency and increased susceptibility
to opportunistic infection that occurs with malnutrition.
• Th is can be further complicated by stress and infection, both of which may contribute
to diarrhea, further reducing nutrient absorption in the gut.
ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY
11. • Deficiency in vitamin D, required for calcium uptake and bone health,
has also been linked to an inhibition in the ability of macrophages to act
against intracellular pathogens, such as M.tuberculosis, endemic in many
regions of the world where people are at greatest risk of malnutrition.
12. • The causative agent of AIDS , now known as HIV-1, was discovered by Robert
Gallo and Mary Land.
• About 2 years later the infectious agent was found to be Retroviruse.
• Retrovirus carry genetic material in the form of RNA.
• When the virus enter the cell RNA is reverse transcribed in presence of enzyme
Reverse transcriptase.
• Viral DNA called provirus
• Pro virus integrated into the cell and is replicated along with cell DNA.
• When the provirus is expressed to new virion,the cell lysis
THE RETROVIRUS HIV -1 IS THE CAUSATIVE AGENT
OF AIDS
13. • Alternatively the pro-virus may remain latent in the cell until some regulating signal
start expression process.
• The discovery of a retrovirus as the cause of HIV was novel, since at the time only
one other human retrovirus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus I (HTLV-I), had been
identifi ed.
• Although comparisons of their genomic sequences revealed that HIV-1 is not a close
relative of HTLV-I, similarities in overall characteristics led to use of the name
HTLV-III for the AIDS virus in early reports.
• About 5 years aft er the discovery of HIV-1, a close retroviral cousin, HIV-2, was
isolated from some AIDS suff erers in Africa.
• Unlike HIV-1, its prevalence is mostly limited to areas of Western Africa, and
disease progresses much more slowly, if at all.
• Most of these individuals experience a nearly normal lifespan.
14. • There is some hope that scientists can gain a better understanding of HIV-1 from the
study of the more benign cohabitation of HIV-2 and its human host.
• Viruses related to HIV-1 have been found in nonhuman primates, and some of these
are believed to be the original source of HIV-1 and -2 in humans.
• These viruses, variants of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), can cause
immunodeficiency disease in certain infected monkeys.
• Typically, SIV strains cause no disease in their natural hosts but produce
immunodeficiency similar to AIDS when injected into another species.
• HIV-1 is believed to have evolved from a strain of SIV that jumped the species
barrier from African chimpanzees to humans, although HIV-2 is thought to have
arisen from a separate but similar transfer from SIVinfected sooty mangabeys.
• Both of these events are believed to have occurred some time during the twentieth
century, making this a relatively new pathogen for the human population.
15. • A number of other animal retroviruses more or less similar to HIV-1 have been
reported.
• These include the feline immunodefi ciency virus and bovine immunodefi ciency
virus (FIV and BIV, respectively) and the mouse leukemia virus.
• Study of these animal viruses has yielded information concerning the general
nature of retrovirus action and pathways to the induction of immunodefi ciency.
• Because HIV does not replicate in typical laboratory animals, model systems to
study it are few.
• Only the chimpanzee supports infection with HIV-1 at a level suffi cient to be
useful in vaccine trials, but infected chimpanzees rarely develop AIDS, which
limits the value of this model in the study of viral pathogenesis.
• In addition, the number of chimpanzees available for such studies is low, and both
the expense and the ethical issues
16. • Epidemiological data indicate that the most common means of transmission
include vaginal and anal intercourse,
• Receipt of infected blood or blood products.
• Passage from HIV infected mothers to their infants.
• Before routine tests for HIV-1 were in place, patients who received blood
transfusions and hemophiliacs who received blood products were at risk for
HIV-1 infection.
• Exposure to infected blood accounts for the high incidence of AIDS among
intravenous drug users, who oft en share hypodermic needles.
• Infants born to mothers who are infected with HIV-1 are at high risk of
infection; without prophylaxis, over 25% of these newborns may become
SPREAD OF HIV-1 AND PRECAUTIONS
17. • However, elective Cesarean section delivery and antiretroviral treatment
programs for HIV pregnant women and their newborns are making a real dent in
these numbers .
• In the worldwide epidemic, it is estimated that approximately 75% of the cases
of HIV transmission are attributable to sexual contact.
• The presence of other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) increases the
likelihood of transmission.
• The open lesions and activated inflammatory cells (some of which may express
receptors for HIV) associated with STDs favor the transfer and attachment of the
virus during intercourse.
• Estimates of transmission rates per exposure vary widely and depend on many
factors, such as the presence of STDs and number of virions.
•
18. • However, male-to-female transfer between discordant couples during vaginal
intercourse is approximately twice as risky to the female as to the male
• Based solely on anatomical considerations, and receptive partners in anal
intercourse are even more at risk.
• Data from studies in India and in Africa indicate that men who are circumcised
are at signifi cantly lower risk of acquiring HIV-1 via sexual contact, possibly
because foreskin provides a source of cells that can become infected or harbor
the virus.
• However, this did not work in reverse: circumcised males were equally likely to
transmit HIV-1 to their sexual partners.
• No similarly protective effect of circumcision was seen for other STDs,
including herpes simplex type 2, syphilis, or gonorrhea.
19. • Identifying the initial events that take place during HIV transmission is logistically
and ethically challenging,
• As we know that immediate antiviral treatment signifi cantly diminishes the odds of
infection.
• Nonetheless, hypotheses concerning the most likely sequence of events have been
pieced together based on observations in humans and animals, including in vitro
studies using explanted human tissue and in vivo studies in macaques, a nonhuman
primate.
• Based on these observations, we believe that free virus and virus-infected cells,
which can both be found in vaginal secretions and semen, contribute to infection.
20. • The female genital tract is a relatively robust barrier to most infectious agents
(with the adaptive immune response taking over from there), emerging evidence
based on viral sequence analysis suggests that a single HIV-1 virion may be
responsible for all or most of the systemic infection in many male-to-female
transfers.
• Because transmission of HIV-1 infection requires direct contact with infected
blood, milk, semen, or vaginal fluid.
21. • Preventive measures can be taken to block these events. Scientific researchers and
medical professionals who take reasonable precautions, which include avoiding
exposure of broken skin or mucosal membranes with fl uids from their patients,
signifi cantly decrease their chances of becoming infected.
• When exposure does occur, rapid administration of anti-HIV treatment can often
prevent systemic infection.
• The use of condoms when having sex with individuals of unknown infection
status also significantly reduces chances of infection.
• One factor contributing to the spread of HIV is the long period after infection
during which no clinical signs may appear but during which the infected
individual may infect others.
• Thus, universal use of precautionary measures is important whenever infection
status is uncertain
24. • HIV-1 carries three structural genes (gag, pol, and env) and six regulatory or
accessory genes (tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu).
• The structural genes and the proteins they encode were the first to be sequenced
and meticulously characterized.
• The gag gene encodes several proteins, including the capsid and matrix, which
enclose the viral genome and associated proteins.
• The pol gene codes for the three main enzymes (in addition to those supplied by th
host cell) that are required for the viral life cycle: protease, integrase, and reverse
transcriptase.
THE STRUCTURE OF HIV-1
25. • As we will see shortly, these uniquely viral enzymes are some of the main
targets for therapeutic intervention.
• The final structural gene, env, is the source of the surface proteins gp120 and
gp41, involved in attachment of the virus to the CD4 viral receptor and its
coreceptor, either CXCR4 or CCR5.
• The regulatory genes expressed by HIV-1, which took longer to characterize,
encode functions such as modulating CD4 and class I MHC expression,
inactivating host proteins that interfere with viral transcription, and facilitating
intracellular viral transport.
26. • The life cycle of HIV-1 from in vitro studies, where cultured human T cells have
been used to map out virus attachment and post-attachment intracellular events.
• HIV-1 infects cells that carry the CD4 antigen on their surface; in addition to
Tcells, these can include monocytes and macrophages, as well as other cells
expressing CD4.
• This preference for CD4 cellsis due to a high-affi nity interaction between gp120
and the CD4 molecule on the host cell.
• However, this interaction alone is not suffi cient for viral entry and productive
infection.expression of another cell-surface molecule, called a coreceptor, is
required for HIV-1 access to the cell.
• Each of the two known coreceptors for HIV-1, CCR5 and CXCR4, belongs to a
separate class of molecule known as a chemokine receptor.
LIFE CYCLE OF HIV -1
27. • The role of chemokine receptors in the body is to bind their natural ligands,
chemokines, which are chemotactic messengers driving the movement of leukocytes
.
• The infection of a T cell is assisted by the CXCR4 coreceptor, while the analogous
CCR5 seems to be the preferred coreceptor for viral entry into monocytes and macro-
phages, and is now a target for antiviral intervention.
• After HIV-1 has entered a cell, the RNA genome of the virus is reverse-transcribed
and a cDNA copy integrates into the host genome.
• The integrated provirus is transcribed, and the various viral RNA messages are
spliced and translated into proteins that, along with a complete new copy of the RNA
genome, are used to form new viral particles .
• These initial viral proteins are cleaved by the virally encoded protease into the forms
that make up the nuclear capsid in a mature infectious viral particle.
28. • Virus expression leads to newly formed virions that bud from the surface of
the infected cell, often causing cell lysis .
• However, HIV-1 can also become latent, or remain unexpressed, for long
periods of time in an infected cell.
• This period of dormancy makes the task of finding these latently infected cells
especially diffi cult for the immune response to HIV-1
• Latent infection is believed to aid in the establishment of HIV reservoirs, or
safe havens, where both drug therapy and antiviral immunity can have little
impact.
• Studies of the viral envelope protein gp120 identified a region called the V3
loop, which plays a role in the choice of receptors used by the virus.
• It is clear from these studies that a single amino acid difference in this region
of gp120 may be sufficient to determine which receptor is used.
29. • Moreover, a mutation in the CCR5 gene that occurs with varying frequency, imparts
nearly total resistance to infection with the strains of HIV-1 that are most commonly
encountered in sexual exposure.
• Individuals who are homozygous for this mutation express no CCR5 on the surface
of their cells, making them impervious to viral strains that require this coreceptor.
• The discovery that CXCR4 and CCR5 serve as coreceptors for HIV-1 on T cells and
macrophages, respectively, explained why some strains of HIV-1 preferentially
infect T cells (T-tropic strains), whereas others prefer macrophages (M-tropic
strains). T-tropic strains use the CXCR4 coreceptor, whereas M-tropic strains use
CCR5
• This also helped to explain some observed roles of chemokines in virus replication.
30. • It was known from in vitro studies that certain chemokines, such as RANTES,
had a negative effect on virus replication.
• CCR5 and CXCR4 cannot bind simultaneously to HIV-1 and to their natural
chemokine ligands.
• Competition for the receptor between the virus and the natural chemokine ligand
can thus block viral entry into the host cell.
31.
32. • Isolation of HIV-1 and its growth in culture allowed purification of viral proteins
and the development of tests for infection with the virus.
• The most commonly used test is an ELISA to detect the presence of antibodies
directed against proteins of HIV-1, especially the gag p24 protein, one of the most
immunogenic of the HIV proteins.
• These antibodies generally appear in the serum of infected individuals within 6 to
12 weeks after exposure, but can take up to 6 months to appear.
• When antibodies appear in the blood, the individual is said to have seroconverted
or to be seropositive for HIV-1.
• Positive p24 ELISA results are then confi rmed using the more specific Western
blot technique, which detects the presence of antibodies against several HIV-1
proteins.
INFECTION WITH HIV-1 LEADS TO GRADUAL
IMPAIRMENT OF IMMUNE FUNCTION
33. • Although the precise course of HIV-1 infection and disease onset varies
considerably in different patients,
• PROGRESSION OF AIDS
• First, there is the acute, or primary, stage of infection. This is the period
immediately after infection.
• Where there are often no detectable anti-HIV-1 antibodies.
• Estimates vary, but some reports fi nd that more than half of the individuals
undergoing primary infection experience fl u-like symptoms, including fever,
lymphadenopathy , and malaise approximately 2 to 4 weeks after exposure.
• During this acute phase, HIV-1 infection is spreading and the viral load in the
blood as well as in other body fl uids can be quite high, elevating the risk of
transfer to others
34. • This stage is followed by an asymptomatic period during which there is a gradual
decline in CD4+T cells .
• Although the infected individual normally has no clinical signs of disease at this
stage, viral replication continues, CD4 cell levels gradually fall, and viral load in the
circulation can be measured by PCR assays for viral RNA.
• These measurements of viral load have assumed a major role in the determination
of the patient’s status and prognosis.
• Even when the level of virus in the circulation is stable, large amounts of virus are
produced in infected CD4 T cells; as many as 10^9 virions are released every day
and continually infect and destroy additional host T cells.
35. • Low levels of virus in this period correlate with a longer asymptomatic period
and opportunistic pathogen-free window.
• Without treatment, most HIV-1 infected patients eventually progress to AIDS,
where opportunistic infection is the hallmark
• Diagnosis of AIDS occurs only once four criteria have been met:
1. Evidence of infection with HIV-1 (presence of antibodies or viral RNA in
blood)
2. Greatly diminished numbers of CD4 T cells
3. Impaired or absent delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions,
4. The occurrence of opportunistic infections
36. • . The first overt indication of AIDS is often opportunistic infection with the
fungus
Candida albicans, which causes the appearance of sores in the mouth (thrush) .
• In women, a vulvovaginal yeast infection that does not respond to treatment.
• A persistent hacking cough caused by P. carinii infection of the lungs is another
early indicator.
• A rise in the level of circulating HIV-1 in the plasma (viremia) and a concomitant
drop in the number of CD4T cells generally precedes this first appearance of
symptoms.
• Late-stage AIDS patients generally succumb to tuberculosis, pneumonia, severe
wasting diarrhea, or various malignancies.
• Without treatment, the time between acquisition of the virus and death from the
immunodeficiency averages 9 to 11 years.
37.
38. • Development of a vaccine to prevent the spread of AIDS is the highest priority
for immunologists.
• There are several strategies for the development of effective antiviral drugs that
take advantage of the life cycle of HIV.
• The key to success for such therapies is that they must bespecific for HIV-1 and
interfere minimally with normal cell processes.
• These anti retroviral drugs are classified into six classes:
THERAPEUTIC AGENTS INHIBIT RETROVIRUS
REPLICATION