Sewage, or domestic/municipal wastewater, is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly of greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and detergents; and toilet paper (less so in regions where bidets are widely used instead of paper).
Membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatmentwwwtwastewater
Membrane bioreactor (MBR) is the combination of a membrane filtration process with a suspended growth bioreactor. It is a very advanced technology and is now widely used
for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment.
Deals with UASB reactors for the primary treatment of sewage, stabilization of sludge and removal of BOD. Various components of a UASB reactor are described and design details are included. Modifications to UASB such as UASB ponds, Anaerobic baffle reactors, migrating blanket reactors are also described here.
Membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatmentwwwtwastewater
Membrane bioreactor (MBR) is the combination of a membrane filtration process with a suspended growth bioreactor. It is a very advanced technology and is now widely used
for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment.
Deals with UASB reactors for the primary treatment of sewage, stabilization of sludge and removal of BOD. Various components of a UASB reactor are described and design details are included. Modifications to UASB such as UASB ponds, Anaerobic baffle reactors, migrating blanket reactors are also described here.
Deals with the biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus, Nitrification-denitrification removal of nitrogen, and Phosphate accumulating organisms and poly-hydroxibutirate in the phosphorus removal.
SBR-process (Sequencing-Batch-Reactor) is the combination of the procedural functions “Aeration” and “Clarification” in one reaction tank. Here from a stable and flexible process flow results. Furthermore the SBR-process enables a compact plant design and a minimization of the investment costs. Because of the flexible plant geometry (tanks with circular, quadratic or rectangular footprint) SBR-wastewater treatment plants of w-wwt can be simply realized also under hindered project conditions (tourism areas, recreation centers, tower buildings etc.).
Presentation contain Waste-water treatment technologies for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. It includes Eutrophication, Nitrogen Removal by Nitrification and denitrification, Phosphorus Removal by Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal and by Chemical Treatment.
Green Method Engineering (GME) is a reputed wastewater management company in Kerala who uses the advanced purification technology like MBBR for the wastewater treatment.
Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology, normally referred to as UASB reactor, is a form of anaerobic digester that is used in the treatment of wastewater.
The UASB reactor is a methanogenic (methane-producing) digester that evolved from the anaerobic clarigester. A similar but variant technology to UASB is the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) digester. A diagramatic comparison of different anaerobic digesters can be found here.
UASB uses an anaerobic process whilst forming a blanket of granular sludge which suspends in the tank. Wastewater flows upwards through the blanket and is processed (degraded) by the anaerobic microorganisms. The upward flow combined with the settling action of gravity suspends the blanket with the aid of flocculants. The blanket begins to reach maturity at around 3 months. Small sludge granules begin to form whose surface area is covered in aggregations of bacteria. In the absence of any support matrix, the flow conditions creates a selective environment in which only those microorganisms, capable of attaching to each other, survive and proliferate. Eventually the aggregates form into dense compact biofilms referred to as "granules".A picture of anaerobic sludge granules can be found here.
Biogas with a high concentration of methane is produced as a by-product, and this may be captured and used as an energy source, to generate electricity for export and to cover its own running power. The technology needs constant monitoring when put into use to ensure that the sludge blanket is maintained, and not washed out (thereby losing the effect). The heat produced as a by-product of electricity generation can be reused to heat the digestion tanks.
The blanketing of the sludge enables a dual solid and hydraulic (liquid) retention time in the digesters. Solids requiring a high degree of digestion can remain in the reactors for periods up to 90 days. Sugars dissolved in the liquid waste stream can be converted into gas quickly in the liquid phase which can exit the system in less than a day.
Reverse Osmosis module design and engineering emerged with membrane technology
evolution. In order to understand module design, first membrane configuration needs to be
explored, since the module design is always tailored according to the membrane
characteristics. There is a significant difference between membrane chemistries (most
important ones being cellulose acetate and thin film composite with polyamide barrier
layer), and more importantly, between the different membrane configurations (hollow fine
fiber and flat sheet). Therefore, before looking into detail on the module configuration, the
membrane development needs to be considered.
Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) is a process used for nitrogen and phosphorus removal from wastewater before it is discharged into surface or ground water.To control eutrophication in receiving water bodies, biological nutrient removal (BNR) of nitrogen and phosphorus has been widely used in wastewater treatment practice, both for the upgrade of existing wastewater treatment facilities and the design of new facilities.
Deals with the biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus, Nitrification-denitrification removal of nitrogen, and Phosphate accumulating organisms and poly-hydroxibutirate in the phosphorus removal.
SBR-process (Sequencing-Batch-Reactor) is the combination of the procedural functions “Aeration” and “Clarification” in one reaction tank. Here from a stable and flexible process flow results. Furthermore the SBR-process enables a compact plant design and a minimization of the investment costs. Because of the flexible plant geometry (tanks with circular, quadratic or rectangular footprint) SBR-wastewater treatment plants of w-wwt can be simply realized also under hindered project conditions (tourism areas, recreation centers, tower buildings etc.).
Presentation contain Waste-water treatment technologies for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. It includes Eutrophication, Nitrogen Removal by Nitrification and denitrification, Phosphorus Removal by Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal and by Chemical Treatment.
Green Method Engineering (GME) is a reputed wastewater management company in Kerala who uses the advanced purification technology like MBBR for the wastewater treatment.
Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology, normally referred to as UASB reactor, is a form of anaerobic digester that is used in the treatment of wastewater.
The UASB reactor is a methanogenic (methane-producing) digester that evolved from the anaerobic clarigester. A similar but variant technology to UASB is the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) digester. A diagramatic comparison of different anaerobic digesters can be found here.
UASB uses an anaerobic process whilst forming a blanket of granular sludge which suspends in the tank. Wastewater flows upwards through the blanket and is processed (degraded) by the anaerobic microorganisms. The upward flow combined with the settling action of gravity suspends the blanket with the aid of flocculants. The blanket begins to reach maturity at around 3 months. Small sludge granules begin to form whose surface area is covered in aggregations of bacteria. In the absence of any support matrix, the flow conditions creates a selective environment in which only those microorganisms, capable of attaching to each other, survive and proliferate. Eventually the aggregates form into dense compact biofilms referred to as "granules".A picture of anaerobic sludge granules can be found here.
Biogas with a high concentration of methane is produced as a by-product, and this may be captured and used as an energy source, to generate electricity for export and to cover its own running power. The technology needs constant monitoring when put into use to ensure that the sludge blanket is maintained, and not washed out (thereby losing the effect). The heat produced as a by-product of electricity generation can be reused to heat the digestion tanks.
The blanketing of the sludge enables a dual solid and hydraulic (liquid) retention time in the digesters. Solids requiring a high degree of digestion can remain in the reactors for periods up to 90 days. Sugars dissolved in the liquid waste stream can be converted into gas quickly in the liquid phase which can exit the system in less than a day.
Reverse Osmosis module design and engineering emerged with membrane technology
evolution. In order to understand module design, first membrane configuration needs to be
explored, since the module design is always tailored according to the membrane
characteristics. There is a significant difference between membrane chemistries (most
important ones being cellulose acetate and thin film composite with polyamide barrier
layer), and more importantly, between the different membrane configurations (hollow fine
fiber and flat sheet). Therefore, before looking into detail on the module configuration, the
membrane development needs to be considered.
Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) is a process used for nitrogen and phosphorus removal from wastewater before it is discharged into surface or ground water.To control eutrophication in receiving water bodies, biological nutrient removal (BNR) of nitrogen and phosphorus has been widely used in wastewater treatment practice, both for the upgrade of existing wastewater treatment facilities and the design of new facilities.
ASSESSMENT OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN CANAANLAND, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.O...Felix Oginni
Effluent from a sewage treatment plant in Covenant University, Canaanland is made to pass through a series of constructed wetland before discharging into a gully that drains into River Iju (also known as Atuara). This river is used as a source of drinking water and also provides food in form of fish for hundreds of thousands of people downstream and eventually enters the lagoon, some 60km away. Effectiveness and adequacy of the wastewater treatment facility in place was assessed in order to improve sanitation within this watershed, thereby alleviating environmental challenges in this coastal region of Nigeria. Waste water is gravity drained to the southwest portion of the campus where the solid is removed and the liquid is allowed to flow through six sets of constructed wetlands, each with four chambers. Within each chamber are water hyacinth plants put in place to remove nutrients from the waster water.
A quick survey of the facility shows the system to be effective in reducing and removing solids and dissolved solids from the waste water. The pH ranged between 6.6 and 6.8, conductivity from 530 to 600, and total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 360 – 400 ppm. The data obtained indicate that some modifications need to be made as the waste water treatment system is not very efficient in reducing the amount of TDS and nutrients. The flow rate is considered to be very high from cell to cell, thereby not allowing time for the plants and microbes to reduce the TDS. It is suggested that some method be devised to slow down the flow rate to allow the plants and microbes to work on reducing the TDS. Parameters also also considered included DO, E. Coli. Nitrate and Phosphates.
Prof Graham Mills - The Fate of Pharmaceutical Residues in the Aquatic Enviro...onthewight
Professor Graham Mills presented his talk "The Fate of Pharmaceutical Residues in the Aquatic Environment"
A full background of what contaminates water, from Pharmacology and Agriculture. People passing medicines they have taken or disposing of them by throwing them down the toilet are causing major changes to fish and other water dwelling creatures.
- October 2014 - Cafe Scientifique Isle of Wight
Marine fisheries regulation act (mfra), and its amendments of gujrat and dama...Ashish sahu
Marine Fisheries Regulation Act
An Act to provide for the regulation of fishing by fishing vessels in the sea along the coast line of the State. (1) This Act may be called the Kerala Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1980. (2) It extends to the whole of the State of Kerala.
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the atmosphere. ... When carbon dioxide dissolves into seawater, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Ocean acidification impacts many species, especially organisms like oysters and corals.
Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve. ... The impacts of ocean acidification are not uniform across all species.
Mangroves and their importance with Threats iucn pptAshish sahu
A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. ... Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action.
Mangroves are defined as assemblages of salt tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal regions of the tropical and subtropical coastlines. They grow luxuriantly in the places where freshwater mixes with seawater and where sediment is composed of accumulated deposits of mud.
Fisheries crime and their sollution pptAshish sahu
What is fisheries crime?: Fisheries crime is an ill-defined legal concept referring to a range of illegal activities in the fisheries sector. These activities – frequently transnational and organized in nature – include illegal fishing, document fraud, drug trafficking, and money laundering.
Illegal fishing is a key driver of global overfishing, it threatens marine ecosystems, puts food security and regional stability at risk, and is linked to major human rights violations and even organized crime.
Iconic species are socially, culturally and economically important, and the community expects them to be effectively managed and protected.
What is a flagship species? A flagship species is a species selected to act as an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat, issue, campaign or environmental cause. ... Flagship species are usually relatively large, and considered to be 'charismatic' in western cultures.
Collection device of fish eggs and larvae pdfAshish sahu
First, an incision is made in her abdomen and then a small tube is inserted. The farmer then puts his mouth on the tube and sucks out a sWhen the internal ovaries or egg masses of fish and certain marine animals are ripe for spawning they are called roe.mall quantity of eggs for examination. If they're the right color and consistency, he'll kill the animal and harvest the caviar.When the internal ovaries or egg masses of fish and certain marine animals are ripe for spawning they are called roe. I think the best way is to use a toothpick and place them on something flat like a small chunk of marble or any flat ornament. Then place in a submerged container. Don't let the eggs hit open air. Well, the eggs in my breeding tank hatched, but overnight the fry either escaped or died
Mollusca of India and need for conservationAshish sahu
Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals after the Arthropoda. The members are known as molluscs or mollusks. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 additional species
Goodbye, Gillnets Belize bans deadly fishing gear, protecting countless marine animals Magazine Opting Out Amazon packages are awash in plastic, and shoppers want alternatives Q&A with Sam Waterston On cod, climate change, and his ... Ocean Council Susan Rockefeller, Founder Kelly Hallman, Vice Chair Dede McMahon, Vice Chair Anonymous Samantha Bass Violaine and John Bernbach Rick Burnes Vin Cipol
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology is a university located in Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India, established in 1975. It is named after the politician and educator Narendra Deva, who served as vice chancellor of the University of Lucknow and Banaras Hindu University. It also has constituent colleges in Ambedkar Nagar district and Azamgarh district, as well as a planned college in Gonda district.
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and TechnologyAshish sahu
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology is a university located in Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India, established in 1975. It is named after the politician and educator Narendra Deva, who served as vice chancellor of the University of Lucknow and Banaras Hindu University. It also has constituent colleges in Ambedkar Nagar district and Azamgarh district, as well as a planned college in Gonda district.
Impact of climate change in atmosphere of oceanAshish sahu
How does climate change effect the ocean?
5 ways that climate change affects the ocean
Higher temperatures are bad for fish — and for us.
Polar ice is melting.
Rising sea levels represent a slow, seemingly unstoppable threat.
Warming oceans alter currents.
Climate change is affecting the chemistry of seawater.
Three main methods for pond management are adding aeration, water treatments like beneficial bacteria, and weed and algae controls. The single best water management strategy you can implement is adding pond aeration.
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Matt Rife Cancels Shows Due to Health Concerns, Reschedules Tour Dates.pdfAzura Everhart
Matt Rife's comedy tour took an unexpected turn. He had to cancel his Bloomington show due to a last-minute medical emergency. Fans in Chicago will also have to wait a bit longer for their laughs, as his shows there are postponed. Rife apologized and assured fans he'd be back on stage soon.
https://www.theurbancrews.com/celeb/matt-rife-cancels-bloomington-show/
_7 OTT App Builders to Support the Development of Your Video Applications_.pdfMega P
Due to their ability to produce engaging content more quickly, over-the-top (OTT) app builders have made the process of creating video applications more accessible. The invitation to explore these platforms emphasizes how over-the-top (OTT) applications hold the potential to transform digital entertainment.
Barbie Movie Review - The Astras.pdffffftheastras43
Barbie Movie Review has gotten brilliant surveys for its fun and creative story. Coordinated by Greta Gerwig, it stars Margot Robbie as Barbie and Ryan Gosling as Insight. Critics adore its perky humor, dynamic visuals, and intelligent take on the notorious doll's world. It's lauded for being engaging for both kids and grown-ups. The Astras profoundly prescribes observing the Barbie Review for a delightful and colorful cinematic involvement.https://theastras.com/hca-member-gradebooks/hca-gradebook-barbie/
Experience the thrill of Progressive Puzzle Adventures, like Scavenger Hunt Games and Escape Room Activities combined Solve Treasure Hunt Puzzles online.
At Digidev, we are working to be the leader in interactive streaming platforms of choice by smart device users worldwide.
Our goal is to become the ultimate distribution service of entertainment content. The Digidev application will offer the next generation television highway for users to discover and engage in a variety of content. While also providing a fresh and
innovative approach towards advertainment with vast revenue opportunities. Designed and developed by Joe Q. Bretz
Tom Selleck Net Worth: A Comprehensive Analysisgreendigital
Over several decades, Tom Selleck, a name synonymous with charisma. From his iconic role as Thomas Magnum in the television series "Magnum, P.I." to his enduring presence in "Blue Bloods," Selleck has captivated audiences with his versatility and charm. As a result, "Tom Selleck net worth" has become a topic of great interest among fans. and financial enthusiasts alike. This article delves deep into Tom Selleck's wealth, exploring his career, assets, endorsements. and business ventures that contribute to his impressive economic standing.
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Early Life and Career Beginnings
The Foundation of Tom Selleck's Wealth
Born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, Tom Selleck grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. His journey towards building a large net worth began with humble origins. , Selleck pursued a business administration degree at the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. But, his interest shifted towards acting. leading him to study at the Hills Playhouse under Milton Katselas.
Minor roles in television and films marked Selleck's early career. He appeared in commercials and took on small parts in T.V. series such as "The Dating Game" and "Lancer." These initial steps, although modest. laid the groundwork for his future success and the growth of Tom Selleck net worth. Breakthrough with "Magnum, P.I."
The Role that Defined Tom Selleck's Career
Tom Selleck's breakthrough came with the role of Thomas Magnum in the CBS television series "Magnum, P.I." (1980-1988). This role made him a household name and boosted his net worth. The series' popularity resulted in Selleck earning large salaries. leading to financial stability and increased recognition in Hollywood.
"Magnum P.I." garnered high ratings and critical acclaim during its run. Selleck's portrayal of the charming and resourceful private investigator resonated with audiences. making him one of the most beloved television actors of the 1980s. The success of "Magnum P.I." played a pivotal role in shaping Tom Selleck net worth, establishing him as a major star.
Film Career and Diversification
Expanding Tom Selleck's Financial Portfolio
While "Magnum, P.I." was a cornerstone of Selleck's career, he did not limit himself to television. He ventured into films, further enhancing Tom Selleck net worth. His filmography includes notable movies such as "Three Men and a Baby" (1987). which became the highest-grossing film of the year, and its sequel, "Three Men and a Little Lady" (1990). These box office successes contributed to his wealth.
Selleck's versatility allowed him to transition between genres. from comedies like "Mr. Baseball" (1992) to westerns such as "Quigley Down Under" (1990). This diversification showcased his acting range. and provided many income streams, reinforcing Tom Selleck net worth.
Television Resurgence with "Blue Bloods"
Sustaining Wealth through Consistent Success
In 2010, Tom Selleck began starring as Frank Reagan i
Young Tom Selleck: A Journey Through His Early Years and Rise to Stardomgreendigital
Introduction
When one thinks of Hollywood legends, Tom Selleck is a name that comes to mind. Known for his charming smile, rugged good looks. and the iconic mustache that has become synonymous with his persona. Tom Selleck has had a prolific career spanning decades. But, the journey of young Tom Selleck, from his early years to becoming a household name. is a story filled with determination, talent, and a touch of luck. This article delves into young Tom Selleck's life, background, early struggles. and pivotal moments that led to his rise in Hollywood.
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Early Life and Background
Family Roots and Childhood
Thomas William Selleck was born in Detroit, Michigan, on January 29, 1945. He was the second of four children in a close-knit family. His father, Robert Dean Selleck, was a real estate investor and executive. while his mother, Martha Selleck, was a homemaker. The Selleck family relocated to Sherman Oaks, California. when Tom was a child, setting the stage for his future in the entertainment industry.
Education and Early Interests
Growing up, young Tom Selleck was an active and athletic child. He attended Grant High School in Van Nuys, California. where he excelled in sports, particularly basketball. His tall and athletic build made him a standout player, and he earned a basketball scholarship to the University of Southern California (U.S.C.). While at U.S.C., Selleck studied business administration. but his interests shifted toward acting.
Discovery of Acting Passion
Tom Selleck's journey into acting was serendipitous. During his time at U.S.C., a drama coach encouraged him to try acting. This nudge led him to join the Hills Playhouse, where he began honing his craft. Transitioning from an aspiring athlete to an actor took time. but young Tom Selleck became drawn to the performance world.
Early Career Struggles
Breaking Into the Industry
The path to stardom was a challenging one for young Tom Selleck. Like many aspiring actors, he faced many rejections and struggled to find steady work. A series of minor roles and guest appearances on television shows marked his early career. In 1965, he debuted on the syndicated show "The Dating Game." which gave him some exposure but did not lead to immediate success.
The Commercial Breakthrough
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Selleck began appearing in television commercials. His rugged good looks and charismatic presence made him a popular brand choice. He starred in advertisements for Pepsi-Cola, Revlon, and Close-Up toothpaste. These commercials provided financial stability and helped him gain visibility in the industry.
Struggling Actor in Hollywood
Despite his success in commercials. breaking into large acting roles remained a challenge for young Tom Selleck. He auditioned and took on small parts in T.V. shows and movies. Some of his early television appearances included roles in popular series like Lancer, The F.B.I., and Bracken's World. But, it would take a
Unveiling Paul Haggis Shaping Cinema Through Diversity. .pdfkenid14983
Paul Haggis is undoubtedly a visionary filmmaker whose work has not only shaped cinema but has also pushed boundaries when it comes to diversity and representation within the industry. From his thought-provoking scripts to his engaging directorial style, Haggis has become a prominent figure in the world of film.
Orpah Winfrey Dwayne Johnson: Titans of Influence and Inspirationgreendigital
Introduction
In the realm of entertainment, few names resonate as Orpah Winfrey Dwayne Johnson. Both figures have carved unique paths in the industry. achieving unparalleled success and becoming iconic symbols of perseverance, resilience, and inspiration. This article delves into the lives, careers. and enduring legacies of Orpah Winfrey Dwayne Johnson. exploring how their journeys intersect and what we can learn from their remarkable stories.
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Early Life and Backgrounds
Orpah Winfrey: From Humble Beginnings to Media Mogul
Orpah Winfrey, often known as Oprah due to a misspelling on her birth certificate. was born on January 29, 1954, in Kosciusko, Mississippi. Raised in poverty by her grandmother, Winfrey's early life was marked by hardship and adversity. Despite these challenges. she demonstrated a keen intellect and an early talent for public speaking.
Winfrey's journey to success began with a scholarship to Tennessee State University. where she studied communication. Her first job in media was as a co-anchor for the local evening news in Nashville. This role paved the way for her eventual transition to talk show hosting. where she found her true calling.
Dwayne Johnson: From Wrestling Royalty to Hollywood Superstar
Dwayne Johnson, also known by his ring name "The Rock," was born on May 2, 1972, in Hayward, California. He comes from a family of professional wrestlers, with both his father, Rocky Johnson. and his grandfather, Peter Maivia, being notable figures in the wrestling world. Johnson's early life was spent moving between New Zealand and the United States. experiencing a variety of cultural influences.
Before entering the world of professional wrestling. Johnson had aspirations of becoming a professional football player. He played college football at the University of Miami. where he was part of a national championship team. But, injuries curtailed his football career, leading him to follow in his family's footsteps and enter the wrestling ring.
Career Milestones
Orpah Winfrey: The Queen of All Media
Winfrey's career breakthrough came in 1986 when she launched "The Oprah Winfrey Show." The show became a cultural phenomenon. drawing millions of viewers daily and earning many awards. Winfrey's empathetic and candid interviewing style resonated with audiences. helping her tackle diverse and often challenging topics.
Beyond her talk show, Winfrey expanded her empire to include the creation of Harpo Productions. a multimedia production company. She also launched "O, The Oprah Magazine" and OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network, further solidifying her status as a media mogul.
Dwayne Johnson: From The Ring to The Big Screen
Dwayne Johnson's wrestling career took off in the late 1990s. when he became one of the most charismatic and popular figures in WWE. His larger-than-life persona and catchphrases endeared him to fans. making him a household name. But, Johnson had ambitions beyond the wrestling ring.
In the early 20
1. Submitted to, Dr. Anu Gopinath
Classification & characteristics of sewage and industrial
effluents
ASSIGNMENT
Submitted by, Ashish sahu
FSM-2019-20-04
KUFOS, Kerala
2. PAGE 1
Classification & characteristics of sewage and industrial effluents
Introduction:-
• The production of fish in pond fertilized with waste water is a common practice in many
part of Asia and was also know in medieval Europe.
• Sewage fed fishery was developed in Germany at the end of nineteenth century and in India
(1930).
• Although satisfactory as source of nutrient, sewage present problems such as toxicity to fish,
accumulation of heavy metals and toxic substances in fish muscles and it also contains
various pathogenic microorganisms.
• With the launching of the Ganga action plan in 1985 there has been a renewed interest as
also vigor among engineers, scientist, and environmentalists.
• According to official view of central board for prevention and control of water pollution the
stop page of discharge of sewage in to river Ganga would reduce pollution to the extent to
75% further.
Treatment of sewage in low cost treatment plants such as stabilization ponds which do not
require high degree of skill and reuse of treated sewage and sludge for raising fish and vegetable
crops.
1. SEWAGE: MEANING, COMPOSITION AND DISPOSAL:
Meaning of Sewage:
‘Sewage’ is a collective noun used to represent liquid or solid wastes carried in sewers. It
consists of domestic water-borne wastes including human and animal excrete, washing waters and
everything that goes down the drains of a town or a city. It also consists of industrial water-borne
wastes as well as ground, surface and atmospheric waters which enter the sewerage system.
Sewage is the liquid waste discharged from domestic and industrial source within an area.
It is considered to be good fertilizer for ponds, having nitrogen and phosphorus as its main
constituents sewage contains bacteria and protozoa, manganese and nickel are also present, along
with some quantity of detergents. Sewage differs from sludge which consists of liquid wastes from
kitchen, and bathroom, but excludes faucal matter and urine.
The amount of sewage produced in our country is of the order of 3.61 million cubic
meters/day (about 800 million gallons/day). About 30% of the above amount comes from urban
areas. It is estimated that only about 20% of one day sewage production of our country is treated
and utilized, and the rest (about 80%) still remains untreated and unutilized.
Composition of Sewage: The composition of sewage mainly depends upon per capita
consumption of water and varies from place to place and season to season.
The sewage composition can be studied under following two heads:
3. PAGE 2
1. Chemical Composition: Chemically, the sewage consists of approximately 99% water and
1% inorganic and organic matter in suspended and soluble forms. Lignocellulose, cellulose,
proteins, fats, and various inorganic particulate matter exist in suspended state, whereas
sugars, fatty acids, alcohols, amino acids, and inorganic ions constitute the soluble forms.
However, on an average, the sewage of towns in our country contains about 350 ppm
biodegradable organic matter, 52 ppm N2, 45 ppm potassium and 16 ppm phosphorus. Salts
of several heavy metals such as Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, etc. are also present above permissible levels
in sewage.
.
2. Microbial Composition: The microbial population per milli litre of sewage may vary from a
few lacs to several millions. Various types of microorganisms, viz., micro-fungi, bacteria and
protozoa, collectively called ‘sewage fungus’, are known to grow profusely in sewage. In
addition, viruses and many micro-algal genera have also been recorded from sewage.
Bacteria occurring in sewage are mainly intestinal and soil inhabiting and their common
types are coliforms, streptococci, Clostridia, micrococci, Proteus, Pseudomonas, and
lactobacilli.
According to Saha et al (1958), Sewage of Kolkata has the following composition:-
• Dissolved oxygen
• Dissolved carbon
dioxide
• Alkalinity
• Free ammonia
• Nitrite
• Phosphate
• Suspended matter
• pH
• Nil
• 20.96 ppm
• 170-490 ppm
• 12.0-63.6 ppm
• 0.08 ppm
• 0.01-0.33 ppm
• 160-420 ppm
• 6.9-7.3
Classification of Sewage:
Sewage may be classified mainly into two types, namely, domestic and industrial. All
household wastes and human and animal excrete constitute domestic sewage, whereas the
industrial wastes constitute industrial sewage.
Since industrial wastes vary greatly in their composition (some may be highly alkaline such
as soda wastes, some highly acidic such as acid-mine drainage, and others toxic because of presence
of heavy metals, antibiotics, pesticides, etc.), the treatment of industrial sewage proves highly
difficult in comparison to domestic sewage.
Characteristics of Sewage:
4. PAGE 3
(i) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Oxygen Consumption (OC) values are
extremely high in sewage.
(ii) The sewage organic matter undergoes anaerobic or partial decomposition resulting in
the production of obnoxious gases, namely, CH3, CO and H2S due to anoxic condition.
Besides being toxic, these gases react with water and produce acids.
(iii) Production of acids in large quantity make the sewage more acidic thus making it unfit
for supporting life activities.
(iv) Heavy metals are generally present in abnormal concentration in sewage.
All these characteristics of sewage, viz., anoxic condition, high acidity, high heavy metal
concentration, and reduced photosynthetic rate due to poor illumination cause death of oxygen-
dependent organisms such as aerobic microorganisms, plants and animals in sewage. This is the
reason why sewage is dominated by organisms capable of growing in anaerobic environments.
Disposal of Sewage:
Sewage disposal has become of prime importance now-a-days as it brings undesirable and
harmful effects on living beings. Untreated or inadequately treated sewage is generally disposed
of into natural water reservoirs without taking its pros and cons into account. It is so either
because we are indifferent to the consequences or because we assume that the water reservoirs
are sufficiently large and so located that sewage-dilution prevents hazards.
However, we can no longer rely on disposed-sewage dilution in our natural water reservoirs;
the solution of sewage pollution is not its dilution. It is necessary, therefore, that the sewage must
be treated before its disposal so that we can, on one hand, save organisms including men from bad
effects and, on the other hand, can utilized it to the maximum for our welfare.
Disposal of sewage as such or inadequately treated one, generally leads to following consequences:
1. Frequent dissemination of water-borne disease causing microorganisms in large number.
2. Depiction of dissolved oxygen in water leading to anoxic (oxygen-less) condition which may
ultimately kill O2 dependent aquatic life.
3. Creation of offensive odour and debris-accumulation due to which value of property decreases.
4. Increased danger of swimming in water and diminished value of water for other recreational
purposes.
Problems related to sewage-fed culture systems:
Accumulation of silt and high organic matter at pond bottom.
Incidence of parasites and fish diseases.
Possibilities of pathogens being transferred to human.
Accumulation of heavy metal in the system.
Heavy metal in sewage-fed system:-
5. PAGE 4
Jnnapura Lake is a perennial fresh water body located at the outskirt of Bhadravathi
township of Karnataka state, India. Lake water is used for irrigation and aquaculture practices.
This water body is located at 130 42N latitude and 750 38E longitudes. It receives untreated
sewage from residential areas, wastes from small scale industries and agricultural runoff from the
surrounding areas. Various (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, and Co) heavy metal levels were measured in
jannapura lake water b/w October 2004 and June 2005. Concentrations of heavy metal in the
water, sediment, fish and plankton samples were are analyzed by atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer. The copper values varied from 1.04-1.30mg/L. the concentration of Zn, Pb, 0.
Cd, Ni, and Co deviated from 0.35-0.92, 1.3-2.8, 0.06-0.094, 0.009-0.098 and 0025-0.046mg/L
respectively. The metals present in water were in the order of Pb>Cu>Zn>Cd>Ni>Co. metals
leaves in the sewage inlet drain; lake sediment and water were compared with published criteria.
All the heavy metals concentrations in the water and sediment exceeded the permissible limits as
per WHO standards. The comparison revealed that the metal load in the sediment ranged from
the moderate to heavy pollution categories.
Solutions:
Regulate sewage intake the pond.
Provide freshwater for dilution and use of prophylactic.
Depuration of fish in freshwater before marketing
Treatment of Sewage:
Our objectives behind the sewage treatment would be to kill pathogenic microorganisms,
prevent anoxia, raise the pH to alkaline side, increase photosynthetic rate, reduce organic content,
etc. When these objectives are achieved by the way of treating the sewage, the conditions
prevailing in a natural water reservoir are induced in sewage water and the latter can be reused.
Sewage treatment processes are many and varied. We will discuss only those sewage treatment
processes which are generally applied in single dwelling unit situations and municipal situations.
Single Dwelling Unit Treatment Processes:
1. Outdoor Toilets:
Where plumbing installations cannot be undertaken for any reason, the toilets or water
closets may be constructed outdoors. While this arrangement is undertaken, care could be taken
to see that flies have no access to these and changes of drainage from these, joining water supplies,
are eliminated.
2. Septic Tanks:
These are used for residential quarters. All the residential sewage is passed through
suitable pipes leading to a tank located at a suitable place and made of metal or concrete. The
heavy particles of sewage settle down and undergo anaerobic decomposition whereas the gases
and clear water are allowed to go out through perforated pipes ramified within the ground.
The septic tank device should be so fitted that the sewage does not drain by any chance into
water supply of the residence. The sludge in the tanks must be periodically removed to prevent
clogging of the pipes.
6. PAGE 5
3. Imhoff Tank:
This is, in fact, a modification of septic tank and is generally used to treat larger community
sewage. It consists of two chambers, one above the other. The top chamber receives sewage and
the heavier particles settle into the lower chamber and slowly decompose under anaerobic
conditions.
The gas liberated (mainly methane) can be drawn out through a passage and utilized as
fuel. The sewage effluent (remaining sewage water) is either let into larger body of water, or is
subjected to aerobic decomposition. The sludge is periodically removed, aerated and used as
manure.
Municipal Treatment Processes:
Municipal sewage treatment systems carry out various steps involved (Fig. 32.3). These steps are,
namely, primary (or mechanical) treatment, secondary (or biological) treatment, and tertiary (or
final) treatment.
7. PAGE 6
1. Primary (or Mechanical) Treatment:
When the sewage arrives at a sewage treatment plant, it is first subjected to mechanical (or
physical) means, viz., flowing, dilution and sedimentation to remove its coarse solid materials. The
sewage is passed through a series of filters of graded openings and then allowed to flow through
sedimentation units (tanks, basins, etc.).
The mechanical process consists of screening and filtration, so as to remove coarse
suspended matter. Floating solids including fats and oils, as well fine suspended material are
removed by skimming and sedimentation. Sedimentation is done by letting the sewage into a tank
at a high velocity. When the sewage enters a large tank from a sewage channel, there is sudden
drop of velocity, resulting in sedimentation.
8. PAGE 7
Coarse solid materials are concentrated in and collected from sedimentation units; these
particulate materials are collectively called ‘sludge’. Following sedimentation, the sludge and
liquid affluent are processed separately during secondary treatment.
2. Secondary (or Biological) Treatment:
This is purely a biological treatment of mechanically treated sewage and concerns microbial
activity which biodegrades organic substrates and oxidizable inorganic compounds. This treatment
accomplishes two important phases, namely, aerobic phase and anaerobic phase.
The aerobic phase consists of aerobic digestion of sludge by various filters (e.g., trickling
filters), oxidation ponds and activated sludge process, and the anaerobic phase is represented by
anaerobic digestion of sludge.
The biological treatment of sewage consists of oxidation of organic matter into Co2, H2O,
sulphate etc., by using bacteria.
Before sewage is added to a pond, it is diluted with fresh water so as to maintain the
dissolved oxygen content, and reduce co, NH3, H2S etc. below the danger level. After
sedimentation and dilution, sewage is stored in tanks so as to allow bacterial action for oxidizing
organic matter.
9. PAGE 8
City sewage is extensively used for fish culture in Kolkata. The sewage is diverted through
a system of drains, to sedimentation tanks. After sedimentation and dilution at 1:4 with fresh
water, it is added to fishery pond at monthly intervals. Fingerlings of Rohu, Catla and Marigal are
stocked in the ratio of 1:2:1 giving an average yield of 1,850 kg/ha of fish.
Tilapia:
Tilapia is the most suitable species for culture in sewage irrigated ponds because it grows fast and has lesser
demand of DO. Air breathing fishes can also be easily cultured in such ponds. Carps are highly sensitive to chemical
changes in water. Hence they are cultured in ponds receiving diluted sewage water. Fresh water prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii) has also been reported to grow fast in paddy fields receiving sewage water. Studies have
shown that fish cultured that fish cultured in sewage water pond do not have any bacterial infection that may be
harmful to man. On the other hand they have taste and higher nutritive value.
I. Aerobic Phase of Secondary Treatment:
(i) Aerobic Digestion in Trickling Filters:
Trickling filter consists of generally 6-10 feet deep bed of crushed stone, gravel, slag, or
similar material. The sewage effluent is sprayed over the surface of the bed; the spraying saturates
the effluent with oxygen. The bed surface becomes coated with aerobic microbial flora consisting
of microalgae, micro-fungi, bacteria, and protozoa.
As the effluent seeps over, the aerobic microbes degrade the organic matter. However, the
treated effluent collected at the bottom of the tank is passed to sedimentation tank and, like
activated sludge process, the effluent follows tertiary treatment. Aerobic digestion of sewage
organic matter in a trickling filter is a very slow process.
(ii) Oxidation Ponds:
Oxidation pond sewage-treatment is recommended for small communities in rural areas
where suitable and sufficient land is available. Oxidation ponds (also called Lagoons or
10. PAGE 9
Stabilization Ponds) are generally 2-5 feet deep shallow ponds designated to allow direct wind
action and algal growth on the sewage effluent.
Oxygen supplied from air and produced as a result of algal photosynthesis fulfils
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of sewage effluent and thus helps in maintaining aerobic
condition in sewage effluent. In such condition the aerobic microbes grow rapidly and digest
organic matter. Chlorella pyrenoidosa is a common algal representative grown in oxidation ponds.
(iii) Activated Sludge Process:
In this process, the mechanically treated sewage effluent (serge liquid) is pumped into a
sedimentation or settling tank wherein the sewage floes and settles out. A portion of sewage ‘floe’
is returned to activate a new batch of mechanically treated sewage effluent, and the rest is pumped
to activated sludge digester where air is blown by several jets.
Thus, in the presence of plentiful oxygen, oxidation of sewage effluent is brought about by
aerobic microorganisms which break down organic matter to CO2 and H2O. Now the effluent is
passed through a sedimentation tank. Though about 90% of the organic matter of the effluent is
digested via this process, the effluent still contains considerable amount of nitrate and phosphate,
etc.
It is, therefore, not safe to discharge effluent at this stage into a large body of water ds both
nitrate and phosphate can cause eutrophication. Now the effluent, which looks clear at this stage,
is subjected to tertiary (final) treatment for further purification.
II. Anaerobic Phase of Secondary Treatment (Anaerobic Digestion of Sludge):
The sludge collected after primary (mechanical) treatment of sewage is subjected to
anaerobic (oxygen- free) digestion in separate tank designed especially for the purpose. Since
anaerobic condition prevails in this tank, the anaerobic microbes bring about digestion of organic
matter by degrading them to soluble substances and gaseous products (methane, 60-70%; CO2, 20-
30%; and smaller amounts of H2 and N2).
This gas mixture can be used for operating power for the sewage plant or as a fuel. Recently,
Municipal Corporation of Delhi has started supplying this gas mixture to about 100,000 people for
cooking purposes.
11. PAGE 10
3. Tertiary (or Final) Treatment:
Since the sewage-effluent treated during secondary treatment process still contains non-
biodegradable organic pollutants (if sewage contains industrial wastes) and mineral nutrients
particularly nitrogen and phosphorus salts, it is subjected to tertiary (or final) treatment for their
removal.
If not so, the sewage effluents containing nitrogen and phosphorus salts can cause serious
eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems. Non-biodegradable organic pollutants are normally removed
by using activated carbon filters whereas phosphorus and nitrogen salts by chemical treated.
Phosphorus salts are precipitated by liming and the nitrogen present mainly as ammonia is
removed by volatilization (vigorous aeration at elevated temperature) at a high pH. These
treatments result in a high-quality effluent which does not cause eutrophication.
The find step of tertiary treatment is disinfection which is commonly accomplished by
chlorination using either sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or CaOCl2 respectively) or
chlorine. Now the effluent is a clean water and is considered microbiologically safe even for human
consumption.
12. PAGE 11
Another methods:
Radiation / Ozone: Ultraviolet radiation is used for disinfection of water. Many
pathogens, including viruses can be killed with relatively low levels of radiation. For UV treatment
to be effective the solids must be removed before treatment. UV systems are a low maintenance,
low risk method of disinfection.
Low levels of ozone dissolved in the water will also remove most pathogens. Ozone will
improve particulate filtration and reduce the dissolved organic waste in the water. Low levels of
ozone in the air are detrimental to human health. Residual ozone is toxic to fish at low levels and
should be monitored.
Sewage utilization in aquaculture
The sewage effluents in fish pond act in the same manner as organic fertilizers and liberate
nitrogen phosphorus and trace element which stimulated the production of fish food
organism in the culture system.
Phytoplankton starts appearing within 3-5 days of sewage application and generally
continues to grow up to 15-20 days. Depending on the availability.
The small particles the micro fines which are basically assemblage of bacterial colony.
Provide direct source of food to the zooplankton and benthos and they solar energy
dependent food cycle is by passed.
Carp culture in sewage:-
An aquaculture sewage treatment plant comprising duckweed and fish culture has been
recently developed by central institute of fresh water aquaculture, Bhubaneswar (Orissa) the
aquatic macrophytes used for treatment of domestic sewage are Azolla spp. Spirodella spp. Wolffia
and Lemna spp. The plant consists of two sewage fed fish ponds (50m 20m 2m) for stocking fish
13. PAGE 12
species. Two marketing pond are constructed 940m 20m 2m) for stocking harvested fish the treated
sewage water is drained into the river for recycling through an outlet from the fish pond.
The sewage after sedimentation and stabilization is let into the duckweed ponds. Where it
is retained for 2-3 days and emptied and dried to remove the sludge that accumulates at the
bottom. After chemical analysis of effluent and estimation of plankton population, this is let into
the fish pond. Carp fry and fingerlings are introduced into the pond for polyculture. The following
proportion of species is recommended:
• Catla 25%
• Rohu 25%
• Mrigal 25%
• Silver carp 15%
• Common carp 10%
Wastewater-fed aquaculture in India:-
• It is estimated that at present there are more than 130 wastewater aquaculture units in
India covering about 10,000ha, Almost 80% of these are located in west Bengal. In west
Bengal, sewage is extensively used as a fertilizer for fish pond.
• One of the major sewage irrigated fisheries is in Kolkata, popularly known as Vidyanathi
spill area.
• Simultaneously sewage-fed fish culture started at four sites in India namely- Nagpur,
Bhilai, Madras, Bhopal.
• Population covered by the outfall channel capacity was 4 million Kolkatans over an area of
94.50 Km2 the DWF channel starting from the Tapsia covers a length of 32 km to reach to
the river Kulti Gong at Ghusighata.
Global scenario of wastewater aquaculture:-
The use of organic wastes in fish culture has been in vogue much before history. Silkworm
wastes were used in fish pond in china more than 4,000 years ago. The earliest published work
on the use of wastes in fish culture was by fan lai in china around 460 BC this may be equally
true for ancient civilization like India and Egypt. Subsequently in recent year wastewater
based fish culture gained momentum in china, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, Hong Kong,
Hungary, Malaysia, Israel, USA, Germany, Australia and Canada.
Biotic community in wastewater aquaculture:-
Rich nutrient status of sewage fish ponds is reflected in the occurrence of high
phytoplankton density since the nutrient released from the sewage effluents are directly utilized
by these organisms. Phytoplankton consists mainly of chorophyeoae with following predominated
genera.
Chemical properties of sewage-enriched fish pond:-
14. PAGE 13
Sewage is a dark coloured foul-smelling fluid organic and inorganic solid in dissolved and
suspended forms. Contain 90-99% water, 10-70 mg/liter nitrogen, 7-20 mg/liter phosphorus and
12-30 mg/liter potassium. One of the major change that occurs in sewage-fed fish pond due to high
BOD value of water reduction DO level. Fluctuation of DO is reported during day and night time
due to the presence of high density of phytoplankton in the system. Low value for during night
hours supported decomposition activities.
In spite of that spread of this fish farming system remains as a Kolkata affair mainly because of
two major fear psychosis of pathogens from the system to handlers and consumer through fish,
and presence of heavy metals in the system.
Aquaculture and sewage treatment:-
An aquaculture- based sewage treatment plant (ASTP) designed in India has incorporated
cultivation of duckweed prior to application of fish pond and post-fish culture depuration, with the
objective of refinement of sewage-fed fish culture and sewage treatment through aquaculture
practiced.
Design and construction model to treat 1 MLD sewage:- A model for treating one million
liters/day of sewage, from a population of about 20,000 is described here.
Source: A receiving chamber for sewage feeds the effluent to the ASTP.
15. PAGE 14
Duckweed culture complex: It comprises 18 ponds with brick lining (25mX8mX1m), with three
series of six ponds in a row. The sewage is retained here for a period of two days, with free passage
b/w the series.
Fish ponds:- Two fish ponds (50mX20mX2m) receive the treated sewage from the duckweed
ponds and retain it for three days.
Depuration ponds:- Two depuration ponds (40mX20mX2m ) with freshwater, also used as
marketing ponds, provide for depuration of fish for a week before marketing. As the fish harvest
is occasional, these ponds are also used for the culture of grass carp, fed with duckweeds from the
system.
Outlet: Sewage outlet drains are provided from the fish and depuration ponds for drainage into
natural waters.
Candidate fish species for sewage fed fish culture: Depending on the area of operation,
different fish species could be used. Tilapia (Oreochromis spp) and mandarin fish (Siniperca
chautsi) are some of the species that are cultured in sewage fed water in China and other countries.
The ASTP provide for retention of sewage for two days in duckweed ponds and three days in fish
ponds.
The models as shown in have been used in several Indian villages for community sanitation and
aquaculture, with modification. Typically, one –third of the pond of the size of 0.2-0.4 ha, at the
inlet end serves as the receptor of sewage from soiled waste from community latrines.
Ganga action plan sewage treatment – kalyani model
Kalyani sewage-fed fish farm represents a small model of sewage treatment through
aquaculture. The entire system involved two stabilization pond of 0.5 ha each two facultative or
oxidation ponds of 1.00 ha each and series of four maturation ponds (fish ponds) of 1 ha each,
located in such way that inlets and outlets of ponds placed diagonally facilitating the water course
in zig-zag way leading to the river Hooghly .
16. PAGE 15
Application of duckweed-fish-based treatment method:-
• Duckweed wastewater treatment is potentially suitable for small- scale application at rural
level and for medium-sized facilities at community, (Peri) urban and industrial level.
• The duckweed treatment plants installed so far almost exclusively treat domestic or
agricultural wastewaters. Hardly any literature is available on the treatment of specific
industrial wastewaters (Gijzen and Khondker 1997).
Advantages of duckweed-fish based system:
• Resource recovery: besides treatment of sewage, the system helps in conversion of nutrient
from sewage to protein in the form of fish flesh and duckweed biomass. The revenue
generated can support more than 30% of the recurring expenditure of the system.
• Less sophisticated technology with easy adaptability.
• Flexibility of establishment as decentralized treatment system depending on land
availability and sewage volume, thus making it suitable for small towns and cities.
• Environmental-friendly system utilizing minimum energy input.
• Cost-effective biological treatment system.
Limitation of duckweed-fish-based system:-
• Fish being one of the components of the system, it is suitable only for treating domestic
sewage. The system may not be applicable for wastewater containing industrial effluents.
• Relatively larger land requirement.
• Applicable only for weak sewage with maximum BOD levels of 140-150 mg/liter thus require
a separate pre-treatment system for treatment of strong sewage.
• Possible problem of pests for duckweed.
• The retention time defendant on sewage concentration and temperature.
Economic and financial implication of wastewater treatment:-
• Although the responsibility for collecting treating and disposing of urban wastewater will
normally lie with a local water or sewage authority or municipality. Farmers wishing to
take advantage of the effluent are often able and willing to pay for what they use but are
not prepared to subsidize generally disposal costs.
• Since wastewater treatment is a major cost in effluent use system, accepting that local
authorities are fully responsible for wastewater collection, it is essential that treatment
process selection is made in conjunction with decisions on crop and irrigation system
selection.
Policy issues:-
• The legislative framework for effluent use in agriculture can have a significant influence on
project feasibility. A coherent national policy for wastewater use in agriculture is essential.
17. PAGE 16
This must define the division of responsibilities among involved ministries and authorities
and provide for their collaboration.
• Realistic standards must be adopted to safeguard public health and protect against adverse
environmental impacts. Environmental issues associated with wastewater use are the main
subject of a UNEP (1991) document.
• The national water policy (NWP) is the position of the government of India on water
resource issues ranging from drought and flood management to drinking water provision.
The NWP, 2002 calls for intensifying research through recycling and re-use of water.
Relevant problems:
• There are three fundamental problems with the wastewater aquaculture. Frist, most of the
potential benefits as specified are in the nature of public goods and hence are subject to free
riders problem. The benefits flow to the country as a whole or even to the humanity at large-
in fact, both present and future generation.
• The second major problem is that the current yield rate of most wastewater resource in this
region.
• Third, the weak economics of aquaculture on wetland and the consequent lack of economic
strength of the traditional dweller on wetland make them very susceptible to various
negative externality effects from non-aquaculture activitis.
• The legal framework governing use of wetland in west Bengal that although the government
had initially started protecting the private property rights in wetland and water bodies so
as to promote aquaculture.
Industrial Waste Water
Industrial waste water is responsible for as much as 16%
of the world’s annual freshwater withdrawals. This
effluent is typically comprised of particulate media,
microorganisms, and chemicals which can harm
ecosystems and infiltrate the human drinking water
supply. Crystar® FT is poised to interrupt this cycle of
consumption and pollution by providing a cost-effective
solution for the filtration of aggressive industrial
wastewater as part of the water recycling process.
18. PAGE 17
Reference:
• Second edition Handbook of fisheries and aquaculture (Dr. S.Ayyappan) (Page No. 449-468
Published by New Delhi).
• An introduction to fisheries (Dr. S.S.Khanna)
• (Page No. 498-500 Published by Silver line publication, 1683-956, Kalyani Devi, Allahabad-
211003 UP).
• Google.
• Wikkipedia.