This study investigated the effects of olfactory enrichment on the behavior of captive California sea lions. Researchers introduced natural and non-natural scents and recorded the sea lions' behavior before and after. They found that scent enrichment significantly increased habitat usage, reducing repetitive swimming behaviors. Both natural and non-natural scents had this effect, with sea lions spending more time out of the water and less time swimming in repetitive patterns. This suggests that olfactory enrichment can improve welfare for captive sea lions by encouraging more natural behaviors.
Bachelor's thesis _ Current and historical distribution of the endemic Santa ...DeannaRhoades
I investigated the current and past range of the endemic Santa Cruz kangaroo rat, Dipodomys venustus venustus, by surveying (via Sherman live trapping) localities with suitable habitat based on historical range records and GIS habitat mapping. Live-trapping captured no kangaroo rats at any of the sites chosen for suitability. Potential explanations and recommended conservation actions are discussed. Thesis advisor: Gage H. Dayton.
Received a $1000 grant from the Ken Norris Natural History Center to conduct research.
Few species are standardized and have been used as test organisms around the world in
ecotoxicological assays. In the case of sediment assessment, there are only two amphipod species
(Tiburonella viscana and Grandidierella bonnieroides) standardized protocols for toxicity test in South
Atlantic region.
Few species are standardized and have been used as test organisms around the world in
ecotoxicological assays. In the case of sediment assessment, there are only two amphipod species
(Tiburonella viscana and Grandidierella bonnieroides) standardized protocols for toxicity test in South
Atlantic region
Bachelor's thesis _ Current and historical distribution of the endemic Santa ...DeannaRhoades
I investigated the current and past range of the endemic Santa Cruz kangaroo rat, Dipodomys venustus venustus, by surveying (via Sherman live trapping) localities with suitable habitat based on historical range records and GIS habitat mapping. Live-trapping captured no kangaroo rats at any of the sites chosen for suitability. Potential explanations and recommended conservation actions are discussed. Thesis advisor: Gage H. Dayton.
Received a $1000 grant from the Ken Norris Natural History Center to conduct research.
Few species are standardized and have been used as test organisms around the world in
ecotoxicological assays. In the case of sediment assessment, there are only two amphipod species
(Tiburonella viscana and Grandidierella bonnieroides) standardized protocols for toxicity test in South
Atlantic region.
Few species are standardized and have been used as test organisms around the world in
ecotoxicological assays. In the case of sediment assessment, there are only two amphipod species
(Tiburonella viscana and Grandidierella bonnieroides) standardized protocols for toxicity test in South
Atlantic region
Disrupting the Balance - Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in California v2zq
Disrupting the Balance - Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in California - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
Diversity and dispersion patterns of echinoderms in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Mi...Angelo Mark Walag
Echinoderms are fundamentally good indicators of health and status of coralline communities in marine waters. In this study, the diversity and distribution of echinoderm species were determined in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Misamis Oriental. In total, 387 individuals were collected coming from classes Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, Asteroidea, and Ophiuroidea. The majority of individuals collected were Protoreaster nodusus, which is a good indicator of reef health while the least abundant echinoderm species was Acanthaster planci. The pattern of distribution of majority of echinoderms was a clumped distribution while the other groups followed regular/uniform distribution, which may be due to limited dispersal ability and availability and available food sources. Moderate species diversity was also observed and species were rather similar in abundance, shown by the evenness index. This suggests good marine health, even under the threat of gleaning activities, active fishing, and habitat destruction. It is recommended that follow-up studies are conducted especially regarding monitoring of echinoderm species, to further assess the health of the intertidal zone in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Misamis Oriental.
Student InstructionsIn this lab, you will determine how an inv.docxcpatriciarpatricia
Student Instructions
In this lab, you will determine how an invasive species—the zebra and quagga mussel—affects other species in the freshwater lake. Use the animation to help you come up with an answer to the following:
Why do you see increases and decreases in the invasive species population?
What are the implications associated with these alterations to the ecosystem as a whole?
The Effects of Zebra and Quagga Mussels Introduced into a Freshwater Lake
As you have learned, population dynamics are caused by the biotic potential of the population and the effects of environmental resistance. When there is minimal environmental resistance impacting a population, it will exhibit a population explosion. One reason for minimal resistance could be factors that no longer regulate a population (e.g., predator decline or resource increases). Another reason for a population explosion is the introduction of an invasive species.
Invasive species
are species foreign to an ecosystem and are not immediately regulated by the environmental restraints of the particular ecosystem that they invade. This in turn allows their populations to grow seemingly uncontrolled and to displace other indigenous populations. Examples of such an invasive species into North America are dreissenid mussels, commonly known as zebra and quagga mussels. Their introduction into the Great Lakes has caused economic hardship and a reorganization of the ecosystem. This has led, in part, to pollution-causing effects that can be linked to an alga known as
Cladophora
.
Ecosystems are webs of intricately balanced interactions, what happens when a new species is introduced that uses a disproportionate share of the ecosystem’s resources?
Using the M.U.S.E. link, review the background information and animation to complete your report.
Use the
Lab 5 worksheet
for assignment instructions and data collection.
Hi Everyone,
For your lab report this week, you will investigate the impact and spread of invasive species.
One of these described in your MUSE lab activity is the Zebra Mussel.
Just as you have done for the previous assignments, you will first review the background information, then collect the data. Your study will involve measurements showing how the mussels have spread and how they have impacted native species in an aquatic environment.
You will find that the number of mussels increases for 13 years and then begins to decrease. You are asked to explain this in your report.
Why do you see increases and decreases in the invasive species population?
What are the implications associated with these alterations to the ecosystem as a whole?
Use the notes in the animation to review the food chain in this ecosystem.
It will be very important to be able to describe which species are native and which are invasive. And to describe how even a native species, such as cladophora (algae) can result in ecological damage.
Next, review Chapter 4 of your eBook and refresh your memory on h.
Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research, Vol. 17 No. 1Wagner College
The Fall 2018 issue contains abstracts by Kevin Lipton, John Acquaviva, Lejla Bolevic, Anna Cios, Lauren Taibi, Samantha Susi & Jack Leighton, Mara Mineo, Tamar Amirov & Vinh Phuong, Kelsey Savje & Domenick Palmieri, Oskar Sundberg & Iireyel Gittens, Ellen Reidy, Derek Avery, Zachary Pandorf & Michelle Hernandez, Piper Skinner, Matthew Barreto & Victor Ruan, Monica Valero and Gent Prelvukaj. It also contains articles by Adam O’Brien, Cathryn Cantyne, Claire Johnson & Jacqueline Otake, Jordan Gonzales, Jacquelyn Thorsen, John Badagliacca, Elena Rotzokou, Ethan Meyer and Glen MacDonald.
Chemical communications among plant and animal components are fundamental elements for the functioning and the connectivity of ecosystems. In particular, wound-activated infochemicals trigger specific reactions of invertebrates according to evolutionary constraints, permitting them to identify prey cues, escape predators and optimize their behaviors according to specific life strategies.
A preliminary study on the toxic potentials of shea butter effluent using Cla...IOSR Journals
This study was conducted purposely to evaluate the effects of shea butter effluent (SBE) on the
freshwater inhabitant using Clarias gariepinus as a biological model. A prominent Local factory of shea butter
at Tede, ATISBO Local Government was chosen because the effluent flows directly into a near-by stream that
ends up at a popular Dam in the Local Government on which more than 120,000 people depend for domestic
use.Static bioassay was conducted to determine the LC50 of shea butter effluent to Clarias gariepinus. Ten fishes
each were exposed to 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, and 0.09ppt (lethal concentration) of SBE in separate water plastic
bowl of (40cmX29cmX28cm) of 60litres capacity.The lethal Concentration (LC50) value of SBE was 0.057ppt for
96hrs of exposure. Total mortality occurred in the concentrations of 0.08 and 0.09ppt within 24hours of
exposure period. Behavioural reactions exhibited by the fish include erratic movement, air gulping, loss of
reflex, molting, barbell deformation, hemorrhage, and excessive mucus secretion in fish exposed to higher
concentration of shea butter effluent.
The appreciable increase in the mean value of heavy metal, such as Manganese, Nickel, Cadmium,
Zinc, Copper and Lead revealed that the increase in the concentration of shea butter effluent leads to
bioaccumulation of the aforementioned heavy metals in the test organisms. The values for all the metals exceed
the permissible Criteria of the national and international regulatory body. Therefore, Shea butter effluent is
highly toxic to freshwater fishes, its discharged directly into water bodies, new fish farms or in areas close to
aquatic environment should not be encouraged.
Use of Radioactive Isotope in Tropical Fish feeding
sea lion Olfactor y
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Olfactory enrichment in California sea lions (Zalophus
californianus): An effective tool for captive welfare?
Journal: Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science
Manuscript ID HAAW-2016-0004
Manuscript Type: Zoo/Wildlife
Keywords: Animal Welfare, California sea lions, Enrichment, Olfaction, Pinnipeds
URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jaaws Email: ken.shapiro@animalsandsociety.org
Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science
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Running head: OLFACTORY ENRICHMENT IN CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS 1
Olfactory Enrichment in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus): An
Effective Tool for Captive Welfare?
In the wild, California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are exposed to a wide variety of
sensory information, which cannot be replicated in captive environments. Therefore,
unique procedures are necessary for the maintenance of physiological and psychological
health in captive animals. The effects of introducing of natural scents to captive
enclosures has been investigated in a variety of species, yet this has not been examined in
marine mammals. This project explores the behavioral effect of scent added to the
environment, with the goal of improving the welfare of captive sea lions. By introducing
two scent types: 1.) Natural scents, found in their native environment, and 2.) Non-
natural scents, not found in their native environment; this study examines not only scent
enrichment but the possible evolutionary underpinnings of pinniped olfaction. Scent
enrichment was found to significantly impact sea lion behavior as demonstrated by a
reduction in pattern swimming, an increase in habitat utilization, and a reduction in
stereotypical behavior. However, there were no differences in behavior between natural
and non-natural scent conditions.
Keywords: animal welfare, California sea lions, enrichment, olfaction, pinnipeds
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OLFACTORY ENRICHMENT IN CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS 2
Olfactory stimulation in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus): An effective
tool for captive welfare?
Introduction
In nature, wild animals encounter environmental stimulation from nearly infinite
sources. However, captive environments simply cannot compete with this diversity. As a
result, the environment must become more complex in order to maintain both the
physiological and psychological wellbeing of captive wildlife such as California sea lions
(Zalophus californianus; Carlstead, Seidensticker & Baldwin, 1991).
Scent is critical for effective foraging (Apfelbach, 1992; Gittleman, 1991;
Hughes, Price & Banks, 2010; Schwartz, Miller & Haroldson, 2003; Ylönen, Sundell,
Tiilikainen, Eccard, & Horne, 2003), navigation (Rogers, 1988), and social behaviors
(Beckoff, 1981; Rothman & Mech, 1979) within the caniform taxon, to which sea lions
belong. For the majority of caniform species, environmental enrichment has focused on
scent (i.e., Andrews & Ha, 2014; Kitchener & Asa, 2010; Leonard, 2008; Nelson, 2009;
Price, 2010; Rafacz & Santymire, 2014; Schneider, Nogge, & Kolter, 2014). Despite
extensive exploration of olfaction and scent enrichment in other caniform species, the
behavioral effects of scent enrichment has not previously been examined in pinnipeds.
Sea lions have maintained genes necessary for olfaction (Kishida, Kubota,
Shirayama, & Fukami, 2007), as well as extensive nasal turbinates (Van Valkenburgh,
Samuels, Bird, Fulkerson, Meachen Samuels, & Slater, 2011) indicating some need for
scent detection to survive in the wild. Therefore, it is likely that sea lions are biologically
prepared to obtain meaningful information from scents in their natural environment. For
example, South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus), closely related to California
sea lions, have been shown to possess the capability to distinguish between chemically
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OLFACTORY ENRICHMENT IN CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS 3
similar odorants when relevant to their natural environment (Laska, Lord, Selin, &
Amundin, 2010). Thus, the introduction of natural scents into the environment may have
a greater impact on behavior than would non-natural scents.
The present study investigated whether scent can be utilized to enhance the
captive environment for California sea lions by introducing both natural and non-natural
scents and recording instances of abnormal and repetitive behavioral repertoires, called
stereotypical behaviors. In this study, the following hypotheses were examined: (1) Scent
enrichment will increase habitat utilization, indicated by a change in habitat usage
patterns, and reduce stereotypic behavior patterns; (1a) If present, these trends will
continue to be evident at both the enclosure and individual level; (2) Natural scents will
have a greater effect on behavior than non-natural scents, as indicated by a stronger effect
on habitat utilization patterns and a statistically significant difference in instances of
stereotypical behaviors; (2a) These trends will continue to be evident at both the
enclosure and individual level.
Methodology
Research was conducted at the Institute for Marine Mammal Studies (IMMS) in
Gulfport, Mississippi. Subjects included four, two-year-old female California sea lions
(Zalophus californianus). The sea lions were housed in pairs, with each enclosure
displaying differences in pattern swims and stereotypical behaviors (Table 1).
Scent enrichment was of two types, natural scents and non-natural scents. Natural
scents were those that are likely to be present in the animals’ natural environment. Non-
natural odorants were those that would be introduced through exposure to humans (Table
2).
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OLFACTORY ENRICHMENT IN CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS 4
Baseline Procedure
To begin this study, researchers collected baseline data over the span of one week
(six days) at IMMS. Researchers filmed one thirty-minute session in the morning, and
one in the afternoon (to parallel the experimental pre- and post- sessions). To eliminate
the confounding effect of a visual cue, this process included the introduction of a chalk
mark on the wall (with no added scent) during baseline pre-sessions. No scent treatment
was applied during the baseline post-session. In addition obtaining baseline data, the
animals were able to habituate to the researchers’ presence prior to the experimental
trials.
Experimental Procedure: Natural and Non-Natural Scents
Each trial consisted of a pre- and post-session. The pre-session data collection
period consisted of video data taken thirty minutes prior to the introduction of scent
stimulus. Similarly, the post-session data collection period consisted of video data taken
thirty minutes after the introduction of the scent stimulus. This approach allowed for the
assessment of the animals’ behavioral state prior to the introduction of scent enrichment,
and any potential changes as a result of this intervention.
Experimental trials were split into two scent types: natural and non-natural scents.
A total of 8 scents were presented three times each, resulting in twenty-four trials for per
animal (n = 4). Each trial consisted of a baseline pre-session in which a chalk mark was
placed on the wall and a post-session in which the scent was applied on top of the chalk
mark.
The order of presentation and placement of these scents within the enclosure were
pseudo-randomized. Each scent was presented once per cycle, and excluded placement
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OLFACTORY ENRICHMENT IN CALIFORNIA SEA LIONS 5
on the fourth wall (which was located on the same wall as the researcher, and was
obscured from view due to the film angle; see Figure 1). Trials were run simultaneously
in both enclosures in order to avoid the scent being detected by animals in the adjacent
enclosure. After the trial, the scent location was cleaned with a bleach solution to ensure
the enclosure was free of the scent for the subsequent trial. One trial was executed each
day so that the scent had been eliminated prior to the subsequent scent trial.
Video data was collected on site by two researchers stationed outside of each
enclosure (Figure 1). Data was then coded onto a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet in fifteen-
second intervals to examine habitat usage, behavioral state, and stereotypic behaviors
before and after the introduction of the enrichment (Table 3). To guarantee reliability, an
independent coder was employed, reaching 92% agreement on 20% of the video data.
In order to assess the general impact of the study on individual animals, the
researchers planned to examine overall habitat usage and the exhibition of stereotypical
behaviors in all four sea lions housed at IMMS using an ANOVA with Tukey’s Post-Hoc
Test. Following this analysis, independent t-tests were utilized to examine pre-session
and post-session changes in behavior between in each scent condition. Data was
interpreted using an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis I Results
Hypothesis one was examined to determine if scent enrichment was effective in
increasing habitat utilization, decreasing pattern swimming, and reducing stereotypical
behaviors, for these captive California sea lions.
To assess the differences in the means for habitat utilization during the pre-
session and post-session experimental sessions (including both natural and non-natural
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scent sessions) a one-way ANOVA was utilized to compare the main effect of scent on
habitat utilization across the six locations (locations 0-5). This analysis indicated that
there was a main effect of scent in all locations except location 5 (center), with the sea
lions spending more time out of the pool and less time in the pool quadrants after the
scent enrichment was in place (Figure 2).
Both enclosures showed similar effects of scent on habitat utilization. Sea lions in
both enclosure one and two spent more time out of the water (enclosure one location 0
t(94)=-4.361, p = .000; enclosure two location 0 t(94) = -3.549, p =.001) and less time at
locations 1, 2, 3, and 4 (enclosure one location 1, t(94) = 5.335, p = .000, location 2 t(94)
= 2.506, p = .014, location 3 t(94) = 2.333, p = .022, location 4 t(94) = 3.875, p = .000;
enclosure two location 1 t(94) = 4.386, p = .000, 2 t(94) = 3.846, p = .000, 3 t(94) =
3.854, p = .000, and 4 t(94) = 4.303, p = .000). Time spent in the center of the pool
(location 5) did not differ significantly in either enclosure (see Figure 3).
These general findings held true for individual sea lions as well. Gabby, Sage, and
Kaytee all spent significantly more time out of the water (location 0) and less time in
locations 1-4. In contrast, Maya decreased time spent in location 1 (t(46) = 2.729, p =
.009), evenly dispersing that time spent across the other areas of the enclosure. However,
none of the animals significantly altered the amount of time spent in the center of the
pool (location 5; Figure 4).
Pattern Swimming
There was a reduction in pattern swimming (circle swimming t(189) = 6.728, p =
.000 and diagonal swimming t(189) = 2.338, p = .020) when scents were present for all
four animals. There was a significant reduction in both circle (t(94) = 4.548, p =.000) and
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diagonal swimming (t(94) = 2.647, p = .010) in enclosure one and sharp reduction in
circle swimming in enclosure two (t(94) = 5.214, p = .000).
Within enclosure one, the predominant swim pattern was diagonal swimming,
which decreased when scents are present (t(94) = 2.676, p = .009). Circle swimming,
although rarely observed, did reduce when scents are present (t(94) = 4.619, p = .000).
Circle swimming in enclosure two also decreased significantly in the experimental
sessions (t(94) = 5.214, p = .000). Diagonal swimming was not observed in enclosure two
throughout the duration of this study, and was therefore not investigated at the individual
level.
In enclosure one, both Gabby and Maya showed a reduction in circle swimming
(Gabby t(44) = 4.048, p = .000; Maya t(44) = 2.829, p = .007). However, only Gabby
showed a significant reduction in diagonal swimming (Gabby t(44) = . 2.657, p = .011;
Maya t(44) = 1.143, p = .260, d = .345). When scents were present, in enclosure two,
both sea lions exhibited reduced circle swimming (Sage t(44) = 3.098, p = .003; Kaytee
t(44) = 3.875, p = .000). This was the only pattern swim to show a reduction at the
enclosure level as diagonal swims were not observed in this enclosure.
Stereotypical Behaviors
Both Gabby and Sage exhibited unique stereotypies, as well as individualized
reactions to scent. Gabby exhibited an increase in pool wall sucking (t(44) = -2.733, p =
.012) in the presence of scent. Sage exhibited a slight increase in floor sucking (t(45) = -
.719, p =.476, d = .212), while reducing tail sucking (t(45) = .130, p = .898, d = .038),
regurgitation (t(45) = 1.026, p = .310, d = .302), and reingestion (t(45) = .864, p = .392, d
= .254); for operational definitions of these behaviors refer to Table 3).
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Hypothesis II Results
In evaluation of hypothesis two, the analysis demonstrated that the sea lions’
habitat usage did not significantly differ between natural scents and non-natural scents. In
addition, independent sample t-tests showed no differences for the enclosures, or for the
individual animals.
In the natural scent sessions, sea lions exhibited a reduction in both circle (natural
scent session t(94) = 5.047, p = .000; non-natural scent session t(94) = 4.528, p = .000)
and diagonal swimming (natural scent sessions t(94) = 1.986, p = .051, d = .41; non-
natural scent conditions, t(94) = 1.251, p = .215, d = .26). Within enclosure one, animals
were found to alter their habitat usage patterns in the presence of a natural scent, although
not significantly. Similarly, in enclosure two, a non-significant reduction in circle
swimming was found for both Sage and Kaytee when natural scents were present in the
enclosure. Although not statistically significant, it was noteworthy that diagonal
swimming did decrease in both sessions and was very near significance in the natural
scent sessions. This lack of significance may simply be due to the fact that this behavior
was only observed in one enclosure.
Pattern swimming in animals within enclosure one were not found to differ
significantly between natural and non-natural scent sessions (circle swimming, t(46) =
.499, p = .621, d = .147) and diagonal swimming (t(46) = -.089, p = .929, d = .026). In
enclosure two, animals were not found to differ significantly between natural and non-
natural scent sessions (t(46) = -.500, p = .617, d =.147). However, at the individual level
slight changes in behavior are evident.
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Although not significant, Gabby, Sage, and Kaytee demonstrated a reduction in
circle swimming when natural scents were present (Gabby t(22) = .834, p = .419, d =
.356; Sage t(22) = -.276, p = .785, d = .117; Kaytee t(22) = -.134, p = .895, d = .057).
Maya, alternately, spent more time circle swimming in the natural sessions (t(22) = -.502,
p = .621, d = .214). Similarly, Gabby and Maya both spent less time diagonal swimming
in the natural sessions, although these results were not significant (Gabby t(22) = -.398, p
=.694, d = .169; Maya t(22) = .327, p = .747, d = .139). Neither Sage nor Kaytee engaged
in diagonal pattern swimming during the course of the experimental session, therefore
statistical analysis for this behavior cannot be provided.
Individual variation was evident when stereotypical behaviors were observed in
Gabby and Sage, who exhibited non-significant decreases in individualized stereotypies
in natural scent sessions. Specifically, Gabby’s pool wall sucking behavior decreased,
albeit not significantly, in the natural scent sessions when compared with the non-natural
scent sessions (t(21) = -.334, p = .742, d = .142). Similarly, Sage exhibited non-
significant decreases in floor sucking behavior (t(22) = -.593, p = .559, d = .252), tail
sucking (t(22) = -.250, p =.806, d = .106), regurgitation (t(22) = -1.517, p = .147, d =
.646), and reingestion (t(22) =. 928, p = .373, d = .396).
Discussion
Overall, scent was found to be enriching as it caused an increase in habitat
utilization, a reduction in pattern swimming, and a reduction in the majority of
stereotypical behaviors both across and within individuals. While the second hypothesis -
that sea lions would react more strongly to natural scents than non-natural scents - was
not supported, sea lions responded to both types of scents in their environment in a
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positive manner by exhibiting a reduction in stereotypical behavior (e.g., pattern
swimming, oral stereotypies, and voluntary emesis). Although individual stereotypies,
such as regurgitation, were not found to be statistically significant, the large effect sizes
found in this analysis suggest that there was indeed a practical reduction in these
problematic behaviors.
Additionally, sea lions were observed by researchers to explore old scent markers
immediately upon discovering new scent markers, indicating that they may recall where
previous scents were placed. This unique observation supports the idea that sea lions are
responding to their environment using cognitive mechanisms, and are not solely attending
to scents pertinent to their natural environment. This finding suggests that there are many
unexplored avenues of research beyond the realms of environmental salient stimuli that
could be investigated for this species.
In addition to zoos and aquaria, rehabilitation facilities may benefit from this
research. Pinniped rehabilitation centers are often comprised of sterile environments that
do not allow for naturalistic enclosures and extensive enrichment procedures. This may
be due, in part, to the staff’s attempts to reduce human-animal interactions in order to
discourage habituation, facilitate disease control, and reduce cost. However scent
enrichment encourages species-typical behaviors, through increased habitat utilization,
(e.g. Fay & Miller, 2015). Moreover, this effect can be achieved at little or no cost to the
center and may be used to keep the animals cognitively engaged during their stay at the
rehabilitation center. Additionally, environmental enrichment has been demonstrated to
assist in the rehabilitation of animals suffering from a variety of conditions including:
brain lesions (De Bartolo, Leggio, Mandolesi, Foti, Ferlazzo & Pertosini, 2008; Paban,
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Jaffard, Chambon, Malafosse & Alescio-Lautier, 2004), lead poisoning (Guilarte,
Toscano, McGlothan & Weaver, 2002), domoic acid toxicosis (Cook, Bernard &
Reichmuth, 2011), and malnutrition (Rose, 1988).
Although currently classified as a species of least concern by the IUCN Redlist,
sea lion strandings are highly influenced by the effects of climate change (Greig,
Gulland, & Kreuder, 2005; Hui, 2011; Keledjian & Mesnick, 2013). As these effects
continue to escalate, sea lion rehabilitation programs will likely continue to be a necessity
for the maintenance of a healthy California sea lion population. Thus, information
relating to low-cost enrichment that may increase survival rates post-release will only
assist rehabilitators in these endeavors.
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Table 2. List of Scents
Scent Type Application Method
Sterilized potting soil (no
fertilizer added)
Natural 1 cup was rubbed on the
wall.
Sterilized playground sand Natural 1 cup was rubbed on the
wall.
Kelp Natural 100% human food grade
dried kelp: approximately 1
cup of dried sea kelp was
wet down with saltwater and
then rubbed on the wall.
Sardine oil Natural 100% biodegradable, water-
soluble, sardine bait oil scent
(1 tsp.) was applied to a
wall.
Orange Non-natural One large orange was cut in
half and rubbed on the wall.
Banana Non-natural One large banana was cut in
half and rubbed on the wall.
Vanilla extract Non-natural 1 tsp. of 100% food grade
vanilla extract was applied to
a wall.
Cinnamon Non-natural 1 tsp. of 100% dried food-
grade cinnamon was applied
to a wall.
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Table 3. Behavioral Ethogram
Behavior Description
Circle Swimming Swimming in a fixed pattern, which is the same at all points, in a clockwise or
counterclockwise fashion.
Diagonal
Swimming
Floor Sucking
Pacing
Pool Wall Sucking
Tail Sucking
Swimming in a fixed pattern, which is the same at all points, crossing diagonally across
the pool (including locations 1, 5, and 4 or 2, 5, and 3).
Placing the mouth directly on the floor in order to suck, audibly and visually, off of the
floor.
Walking in a fixed pattern, which is the same at all points.
Placing mouth directly on pool wall, and remaining in one location for more than a two
second increment.
Curling into an “o” shape to make contact with the tail using one’s mouth followed by an
audible sucking sound.
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