The document discusses the development of a music-based portal using linked data technologies and explores various mechanisms for managing and processing large volumes of linked data. It highlights the importance of semantic technologies in big data management, providing an overview of NoSQL databases, Hadoop, and stream processing relevant to linked data. The chapter aims to address challenges in linked data integration, querying, and scalability through the use of contemporary technologies and methodologies.

1. Scaling up Linked Data
Presented by:
Marin Dimitrov (Ontotext)

2. EUCLID Objective
2
Visualization
Module
Metadata
Streaming providers
Physical Wrapper
Downloads
Dataacquisition
R2R Transf.LD Wrapper
Musical Content
Application
Analysis &
Mining Module
LDDatasetAccess
LD Wrapper
RDF/
XML
Integrated
Dataset
Interlinking Cleansing
Vocabulary
Mapping
SPARQL
Endpoint
Publishing
RDFa
Other content
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

3. • Our aim: build a music-based portal using Linked
Data technologies
• So far, we have studied different mechanisms for:
• Linked Data management via SPARQL queries
• Reasoning over Linked Data
• Linked Data access (RDF dumps, endpoints, RDFa)
• Linked Data storage in repositories
• In this chapter, we will study current research and
technologies to scale up to very large volumes of
Linked Data
Motivation: Music!
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data 3
CH 2
CH 3
CH 1
CH 5

4. Agenda
1. Introduction to Big (Linked) Data
2. NoSQL databases for Linked Data
3. Hadoop for Linked Data
4. Stream processing for Linked Data
5. … and more
4EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

5. INTRODUCTIONTO BIG (LINKED)
DATA
5EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

6. Introduction to Big Data
6
Big
Data
Management of data which is “too
complex” for being processed with
traditional solutions
• Big does not stand primarily for size,
but as an analogy for “overwhelming”
• Big can mean “high variety”, “high
volume” or “high velocity”
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

7. The 3Vs of Big Data
7
Big
Data
Variety
Velocity
Volume
Different forms of data
Petabytes of data
Real-time data streams
Big
Data
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

8. Variety Volume Velocity
Data
characteristic
Structured, semi-
structured and
unstructured
Large volumes of
data
Streams, sensors,
near real-time
data, IoT
Challenge Data integration Reasoning and
querying
Reasoning &
querying
Solution Semantic
technologies are
a good fit
Distributed
storage &
processing,
parallel
processing
Stream reasoning
& querying
The 3Vs of Big Data
8
time
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

9. The ExtendedVs of Big Data
9
• Veracity: Uncertainty of the data
• Variability: Variation in meaning in different contexts
• Value: turning data into information into insight
• Not easy measure
• Depend on context and intended use
• Linked Data & Semantic Technologies can help
Variety VelocityVolume
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

10. Beyond Big Data
10EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

11. 11
Source: Gartner Inc. “Gartner Identifies Top Technology Trends Impacting Information
Infrastructure in 2013”
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Semantic Technologies
Semantic technologies extract meaning from data, ranging from quantitative
data and text, to video, voice and images. Many of these techniques have
existed for years and are based on advanced statistics, data mining, machine
learning and knowledge management. One reason they are garnering more
interest is the renewed business requirement for monetizing information as a
strategic asset. Even more pressing is the technical need. Increasing volumes,
variety and velocity — big data — in IM and business operations, requires
semantic technology that makes sense out of data for humans, or
automates decisions
Beyond Big Data (2)

12. Towards Big Linked Data
12
• This characteristic is the most inherent to Linked Data
• Agile data model
• Different vocabularies
Variety
Velocity
Volume
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
• RDF Streams
• Semantic Sensors
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

13. Towards Big Linked Data (2)
13EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

14. Big Linked Data &
Linked Big Data
14
• Exponential growth of Linked
Data in the last five years
• Big Data approach adopted by
the Linked Data community,
especially to handle
Source: M. Dimitrov. “Semantic Technologies for Big Data”
VelocityVolume
Big Linked Data Linked Big Data
• Linked Data approach
adopted by the Big Data
community
• RDF data model for
• Enrich Big Data with metadata
and semantics
• Interlink Big Data sets &
reduce duplication
• Simplify data access,
discovery & integration
Variety
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

15. NOSQL DATABASES FOR
LINKED DATA
15EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

16. RDF Databases
16
• Native or RDBMS based RDF databases
– OWLIM (http://www.ontotext.com/owlim)
– Virtuoso Universal Server (http://virtuoso.openlinksw.com/ )
– Stardog (http://stardog.com)
– AllegroGraph (http://www.franz.com/agraph/allegrograph/ )
– Systap Bigdata (http://www.systap.com/)
– Jena TDB (http://jena.apache.org/documentation/tdb/)
– Oracle, DB2
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

17. RDF Database Advantages
17
• RDF (graph) based data model
– Global identifies of resources/entities
– Agile schema
• Inference of implicit facts
– Forward, backward, hybrid reasoning strategy
• Expressive query language (SPARQL)
• Compliance to standards
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

18. NoSQL Databases
18
• “Not Only SQL”
• a group of databases technologies which don’t
follow the relational data model
• Typical requirements
– Distributed
– High availability
– Handle big data & query volumes (scalability)
– Hierarchical or graph data structures
– Flexible schema
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

19. NoSQLTaxonomy
19
• Key/value stores
– Each key associated with a value (DHT)
• Wide-column stores
– Each key is associated with many attributes,
columns are stored together
• Document databases
– Each key associated with a complex data
structure
• Graph databases
– Data is represented as nodes and edges
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
ValueKey
Data Data
Relationship
Structured-
document
Key
Structured-
document
Key
Conceptual structures
Artist Album Song
The
Beatles
Let it be Get back
Queen Jazz Fun it

20. Key/Value Stores
20
• Efficient key/value lookups
• Schema-less
• Simpler read/write operations
– Low latency & high throughput
• Examples
– DynamoDB, Azure Table Storage, Riak, Redis, MemcacheDB,
Voldemort
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
ValueKey

21. Wide-Column Stores
21
• A key is associated with several attributes
• Data in the same column is stored together
• Efficient for complex aggregations over data
• Schema-less / dynamic schema
• Easy to add new columns
• Columns can be grouped together (column family)
• Examples:
– HBase (http://hbase.apache.org)
– Cassandra (http://cassandra.apache.org)
Artist Album Song
The
Beatles
Let it be Get back
Queen Jazz Fun it
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

22. HBase
22
• Open source column-oriented store
• Based on Google’s BigTable
• Built on top of HDFS and Hadoop
• Horizontally scalable, automatic sharding
• high availability / automatic failover
• Strongly consistent reads/writes
• Java/REST API
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

23. Document Databases
23
• Each key associated with a complex data structure
(document)
• Documents can contain key/value pairs, key/array
pairs, or even nested structures
• Schema-less / dynamic schema
– New fields can be easily added to the document structure
• Typical document formats
– JSON, XML
• Examples:
– Couchbase (http://www.couchbase.com)
– MongoDB (http://www.mongodb.org)
Structured-
document
Key
Structured-
document
Key
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

24. Document Databases (2)
24
Example:
{
Homepage: "thebeatles.com",
Origin: "Liverpool",
Albums: [
{Title: "Let it be", Year: "1970", Duration: "35:16"},
{Title: "Help!", Year: "1965"},
{Title: "Revolver", Year: "1966", Duration: "35:01"}
]
}
The Beatles
{
FullName: "Elvis Aaron Presley",
Homepage: "elvis.com",
Origin: "Memphis"
Albums: [
{Title: "Blue Hawaii", Year: "1961", Duration:
"32:02"}
]
}
Elvis Presley
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

25. Couchbase
25
• Document-oriented database
– Documents are stored as JSON
• Flexible schema
– Document structure easy to change
• Optimised to run in-memory and on several
nodes
– Ejection and eventual persistence
• Incremental views & indexes
• Scalability, rebalancing, replication, failover
• RESTful API
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

26. Network of Friends in a High School
26
Graph Databases
Motivation
Relationship among artists in Last.fm
http://sixdegrees.hu/last.fm/
A Fragment of Facebook Relationships between Tweets
Graphs: Representation of highly connected data
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

27. Graph Databases
27
• Based on the property graph model
• Support for query languages and core graph-based
tasks
– reachability, traversal, adjacency and pattern matching
• Examples
– Neo4j (http://neo4j.org)
– Dex (http://sparsity-technologies.com/dex.php)
– HyperGraphDB (http://www.hypergraphdb.org)
Data Data
Relationship
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

28. Graph Databases
28
Example: Property Graph Model
• Nodes and edges may have properties
• Properties: Key-value pairs
The Beatles
Let it be
Revolver
Help!
created
Year: 1970
Duration: 35:16
Year: 1965
Year: 1966
Duration: 35:01
Homepage:
thebeatles.com
Origin: Liverpool
Elvis Presley Revolver
created
Year: 1961
Duration: 32:02
Fullname: Elvis Aaron
Presley
Homepage: elvis.com
Origin: Memphis
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

29. Neo4j
29
• Graph database
– Nodes, Relationships, Properties, Paths
– Indexes over properties
• Flexible schema
• Cypher graph query language
• ACID transactions
• High availability, distributed clusters
• RESTful and Java APIs
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

30. Rya
30
• RDF store based on Accumulo
– Column-store, HDFS
– Sesame query parser, SAIL
implementation
• 3 table index
– SPO, POS, OSP
– Sufficient for all triple patterns
– All triple parts (S, P, O) encoded in
the RowID
– Clustered index
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: R. Punnoose, A. Crainiceanu, D. Rapp “Rya: A Scalable RDF Triple Store for the Clouds”

31. Rya (2)
31
• Query processing
– Sesame (SPARQL) query plan translated to Accumulo range
scans & lookups
– Parallel scans for joins (x10-20 speedup)
– Batch scans (Accumulo) to reduce number of range scans
– Statistics for triple patterns selectivity, query re-ordering
• Performance evaluation (LUBM)
– No significant degradation when data grows with 2-3 orders
of magnitude
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: R. Punnoose, A. Crainiceanu, D. Rapp “Rya: A Scalable RDF Triple Store for the Clouds”

32. “NoSQL Databases f0r RDF: An
Empirical Evaluation”
32
• Goal
– Store RDF data in HBase, Couchbase, Hive & Cassandra
– Benchmark query performance against a native
distributed RDF database (4store)
• HBase prototype
– Jena for SPARQL queries
– 3 index tables (SPO, POS, OSP)
– Row key encodes S+P+O, cells are empty
– Jena query plan translated to HBase filters & lookups
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Cudre-Mauroux et al. “NoSQL Databases for RDF: An Empirical Evaluation”

33. “NoSQL Databases f0r RDF: An
Empirical Evaluation” (2)
33
• Hive+HBase prototype
– SPARQL to HiveQL translation
– Property table
• Row key is S
• a column for each P
• cell value stores O
• Multi-valued attributes have different timestamps
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Cudre-Mauroux et al. “NoSQL Databases for RDF: An Empirical Evaluation”

34. “NoSQL Databases f0r RDF: An
Empirical Evaluation” (3)
34
• CumulusRDF prototype
– Sesame for SPARQL queries, Cassandra for data management
– 3 index tables (SPO, POS, OSP)
– Sesame query plan translated to Cassandra index lookups
• Couchbase prototype
– Map RDF into JSON documents
• all triples with the same S stored in the same document (molecule)
• 2 JSON arrays for Ps and Os
– Jena as a SPARQL query engine
– 3 indexes (Couchbase views): SPO, POS, OSP
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Cudre-Mauroux et al. “NoSQL Databases for RDF: An Empirical Evaluation”

35. “NoSQL Databases f0r RDF: An
Empirical Evaluation” (4)
35
• Benchmarks
– BSBM 10M, 100M
and 1B triples
– 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 node
cluster
– AWS cost & query
execution time
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Cudre-Mauroux et al. “NoSQL Databases for RDF: An Empirical Evaluation”

36. “NoSQL Databases f0r RDF: An
Empirical Evaluation” (5)
36
• Results
– Simple SPARQL queries can be executed more
efficiently on a NoSQL datastore
– Data loading time for some NoSQL datastores
comparable or better than the native RDF store
– Complex SPARQL queries perform significantly slower
on NoSQL systems
• Query optimisations are required
– MapReduce operations (Hive & Couchbase) introduce
high latency for view maintenance / query execution
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Cudre-Mauroux et al. “NoSQL Databases for RDF: An Empirical Evaluation”

37. HADOOP FOR LINKED DATA
37EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

38. • Apache Hadoop (http://hadoop.apache.org) is an open source
implementation of MapReduce
• MapReduce
– Distributed batch processing
– Map phase partitions the input set (K/V pairs), Reduce phase performs
aggregated processing over the partitions in parallel
– Shuffle intermediate results (from Map nodes to Reduce nodes)
• Allows for the processing of distributed large data sets across
clusters of computers
– On a distributed file system (HDFS)
– Scales up to thousands of nodes, each offering local processing power
and storage
38
Working with Distributed Data
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

39. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning
with MapReduce”
39
• Goal
– Utilise Hadoop for large scale reasoning
• Approach
– Implement each RDFS rule (join) via a Map & Reduce function
– Map outputs original triple as value, and the join term as key
– Reducer receives all needed triples to perform the join
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Urbani et al. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning with MapReduce”

40. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning
with MapReduce” (2)
40EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Urbani et al. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning with MapReduce”

41. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning
with MapReduce” (3)
41
• Challenge
– Too many duplicates (unique to derived
triple ratio of 1:50)
• Optimisations
– Replicate schema triples on each mode
(in memory)
• Needed for each join; usually a small set
– Rule re-ordering
• Which rule may be triggered by another
rule?
• Reduce the number of required iterations
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Urbani et al. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning with MapReduce”

42. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning
with MapReduce” (4)
42
• Results
– Throughput of 4.5M triples / sec on a 16-node cluster
– 16+ nodes do not improve the performance
significantly
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Urbani et al. “Scalable Distributed Reasoning with MapReduce”

43. Lessons Learned from Large-
scale Reasoning (J. Urbani)
43
• 1st Law: Treat schema triples differently
– Replicate on all nodes to minimise subsequent data transfer
• 2nd Law: Data skew dominates data distribution
– No universal partitioning scheme for input data
– Computation tasks moved to the nodes storing the data
(data locality)
• 3rd Law: Certain problems only appear at a very large
scale
– Proof-of-concept prototypes are often not representative
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Jacopo Urbani “Three Laws Learned from Web-scale Reasoning”

44. STREAM PROCESSING FOR
LINKED DATA
45EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

45. Streaming Data
• A large amount of new data is constantly being created or
data is being updated at a rapid rate
– Traffic data, sensor networks, social networks, financial markets
• Many data sources create a constant “stream of information”
– Not always practical to store all data and then query it
– Continuous queries over transient data
• More recent data is more important
– Describes the current state of a dynamic system
46
time
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

46. Stream Processing
• Streams are observed through windows
• Continuous queries can be registered over the stream
• Continuous queries are iteratively evaluated over the data in the
current window
– Can leverage static background knowledge (e.g., schema information)
• Generates a stream of answers
47
Window
Stream of answers
Background
Knowledge
time
Continuous
Query
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

47. Linked Stream Data
48
• A representation of sensor/stream data following the
Linked Data principles
– Sensor data can be enriched with semantics
– Facilitates data discovery and integration of heterogeneous data
sources
• Challenges
– RDF Triples must be annotated with timestamps
– Extensions to the SPARQL language – windows, continuous queries,
streaming operators
– Continuous semantics
– Scalability (Volume)
– High throughput and low latency (Velocity)
– Approximate reasoning
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

48. Querying Streams with
SPARQL Extensions
49
• The mechanism to evaluate queries over streaming data is the
specification of continuous queries
• The corresponding results to the continuous query are
updated while new data arrives
• Several SPARQL extensions with streaming operators based on
CQL (Continuous Query Language)
– C-SPARQL
– SPARQLStream
– EP-SPARQL, CQELS, Instants
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

49. C-SPARQL (1)
50
C-SPARQL is an extension of SPARQL 1.1
FromStrClause  'FROM' ['NAMED'] 'STREAM' StreamIRI
' [ RANGE' Window ']'
Window  LogicalWindow | PhysicalWindow
LogicalWindow  Number TimeUnit WindowOverlap
TimeUnit  'MSEC' | 'SEC' | 'MIN' | 'HOUR' |
'DAY'
WindowOverlap  'STEP' Number TimeUnit | 'TUMBLING'
PhysicalWindow  'TRIPLES' Number
1. RDF Streams: Sequence of RDF triples annotated with timestamps:
<(s,p,o), timestamp>
2. FROM STREAM extension for stream sources and windows
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

50. C-SPARQL (2)
51
3. Registration
• Creates a continuous query over the data source
• The query output is variable bindings, RDF graph, or a
new stream
Registration  'REGISTER' ('QUERY'|'STREAM') QName 'AS' Query
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

51. C-SPARQL (3)
52
Example
REGISTER QUERY CarsEnteringInDistricts AS
SELECT DISTINCT ?district ?car
FROM STREAM <www.uc.eu/tollgates.trdf> [RANGE 40 SEC STEP 10 SEC]
WHERE {
?toll t:registers ?car .
?toll c:placedIn ?street .
?district c:contains ?street . }
Query: Retrieve the cars and districts, where the car was registered in a toll.
Source: Barbieri, Davide Francesco, et al. "Querying rdf streams with c-sparql." ACM SIGMOD
Record 39.1 (2010): 20-26.
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

52. C-SPARQL (4)
53EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: M. Balduini et al. “Tutorial on Stream Reasoning for Linked Data (ISWC’2013)”

53. SPARQLStream(1)
54
• Utilizes the same definition of RDF streams as in C-SPARQL:
• The language is defined as follows:
<(s,p,o), timestamp>
NamedStream  'FROM' ['NAMED'] 'STREAM' StreamIRI ' [' Window ']'
Window  'NOW-' Integer TimeUnit [UpperBound] [Slide]
UpperBound  'TO NOW-' Integer TimeUnit
Slide  'SLIDE' Integer TimeUnit
TimeUnit  'MS' | 'S' | 'MINUTES' | 'HOURS' | 'DAY'
Select  'SELECT' [XStream] [DISTINCT | REDUCED] …
Xstream  'ISTREAM' | 'DSTREAM' | 'RSTREAM'
Source: Jean-Paul Calbimonte and Oscar Corcho. ”SPARQLStream: Ontology-based access to data
streams." Tutorial at ISWC 2013
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

54. SPARQLStream(2)
55
Example
Query: Retrieve a rstream with the observations captured by all sensors in the last
10 minutes.
PREFIX ssn: <http://purl.oclc.org/NET/ssnx/ssn>
PREFIX rdf: <http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns/#>
SELECT RSTREAM ?sensor ?observation
FROM STREAM <www.semsorgrid4env.eu/SensorReadings.srdf>
[FROM NOW – 10 MINUTES TO NOW STEP 1 MINUTE]
WHERE {
?observation a ssn:Observation;
ssn:observedBy ?sensor .
}
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

55. Classification of Existing
Systems
56EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: M. Balduini et al. “Tutorial on Stream Reasoning for Linked Data (ISWC’2013)”

56. W3C Semantic Sensor Networks
57
• SSN Ontology
– http://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/ssn/ssnx/ssn
– OWL DL ontology
– used to semantically describe sensors and sensor networks & data
– Recommendations for applying the ontology for Linked Sensor Data
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

57. W3C Semantic Sensor Networks
(2)
58
• Different perspectives
– Sensor, data/observation, system
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

58. … AND MORE
59EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

59. ATrillion RDFTriples
60
• Use case
– Use RDF and Linked Data for the customer management
database of a big telecom
– Franz Inc / AllegroGraph
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

60. uRiKA Appliance
61
• YarcData
• Big Data appliance for graph
analytics
– 8K processors, 1TB RAM
– In-memory RDF database
– SPARQL 1.1 support
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

61. RDFS Reasoning on GPUs
62
• Similar approach to Urbani et al. for large scale
reasoning with Hadoop
– Handle rules with 2 antecedents
– Rule reordering
– Dictionary encoding
• Shared-memory architecture
– Efficient GPU algorithm implementation is challenging
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Norman Heino & Jeff Z. Pan ”RDFS Reasoning on Massively Parallel Hardware" ISWC 2012

62. RDFS Reasoning on GPUs (2)
63
• Data parallelism
– Apply one rule (thread) on one instance triple, join to a schema triple
if possible
– Hundreds / thousands of threads working on parallel
• Challenge
– Duplicate removal
• Benchmark
– x5 speedup of computation
– But… memory transfer overhead is significant
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data
Source: Norman Heino & Jeff Z. Pan ”RDFS Reasoning on Massively Parallel Hardware" ISWC 2012

63. Benchmarks
64
• BSBM v3.1 (April 2013)
– http://wifo5-03.informatik.uni-
mannheim.de/bizer/berlinsparqlbenchmark/results/V7/
– Includes benchmarks with up to 150 billion triples
– x750 scale increase since the last BSBM result (200M triples)
• LDBC
– Industry neutral, non-profit organisation
– Benchmarks for RDF and graph databases, similar to TPC
– Big data volume, complex queries
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

64. SUMMARY
65EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

65. Summary
66
• Linked Data is a good fit for the Variety
challenge of Big Data
• Linked Data can simplify data discovery, data
access, data integration challenges for Big Data
• Exponential growth of Linked Data
• Linked Data benchmarks target bigger
workloads
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

66. Summary (2)
67
• Ongoing R&D towards scaling up Linked Data
for high data Volume and Velocity
– NoSQL datastores for RDF data management
– Hadoop for scalable RDF reasoning
– GPUs for scalable RDF reasoning
• Adapting Linked Data & SPARQL for streaming
data scenarios
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data

67. For exercises, quiz and further material visit our website:
68
@euclid_project euclidproject euclidproject
http://www.euclid-project.eu
Other channels:
eBook Course
EUCLID – Scaling up Linked Data