Roman culture and society from 27 BCE to 225 CE is characterized by developments in architecture, art, literature, family structures, slavery, and religion. Romans expanded on Greek architectural styles using arches, vaults, and domes to construct large buildings. Their art began by reproducing Greek statues but evolved to depict realistic figures. Christianity gradually spread throughout the Roman Empire despite periods of persecution, eventually becoming the dominant religion under Emperor Constantine in the 4th century CE.

1. Roman Culture and Society
27 BCE – 225 CE

2. Architecture
• Architecture often followed Greek
model, with columns and square
buildings
• Romans expanded Architecture and used
curved lines, like arches, vaults, and the
dome
• Used concrete (cement) to make larger
buildings
• Advanced engineering to build
roads, bridges and aqueducts

3. Architecture
Colosseum
Barrel Vaults
Aqueducts
Amphitheater

4. Art
• Romans followed Greek style, especially
in statues
• Reproduced famous Greek statues
• Romans produced realistic instead of
idealistic statues
• Decorated homes and public buildings
with mosaics

5. Art
Statues reflecting
Roman realism and
Greek idealism
Mosaic

6. Roman Literature
• High point for literature reached in
Augustan Age
• Virgil was most distinguished poet
of age.
– He wrote the Aeneid, a story of the
founding of Rome by Aeneas, who was
portrayed as the ideal Roman
• Horace was another prominent
poet who wrote Satires that made
fun of his fellow Romans
• Livy wrote prose and was famous
for his History of Rome that was
142 books long and told the story
of Rome’s foundation through Livy’s
day. Only 35 of his books survive.

7. Roman Family
• The Roman family was male-dominated; it was headed by the
paterfamilias, the dominate male (usually the eldest male).
• Paterfamilias dominated entire household, including wives, children, and
slaves.
• Romans raised children in the home
• Slaves that were educated (and usually) Greek were hired to teach children
in the home
– Roman boys learned reading, writing, moral principles, family values, law, and
rhetoric, in addition to having physical training to prepare them to be soldiers
– Roman girls were taught to read and run their household accounts
– Boys “graduated” at the age of 16, when they were considered adults and could
begin wearing the toga

8. Roman Family: Attitudes toward Women
• Paterfamilias arranged marriages for daughters
– Marriage legal at 12 for girls and 14 for boys, though
marrying this young was unusual
• Roman women often had male guardians out in
public
• Roman marriages were meant to be for life, but
divorce was permitted
• Women could own, sell, and inherit property
• Women were not supposed to participate in politics
and could not hold any political office

9. Roman Family: Changing Roles
• By second century CE, the paterfamilias no
longer had absolute authority over children
– Could no longer sell children into slavery
– Could not have children put to death
• Women were no longer required to have
guardians

10. Slavery in Rome
• Romans were dependent on slave labor
• Most slaves were foreign prisoners of war
• Greek slaves were in demand as
tutors, musicians, doctors, and artists
– Greeks would voluntarily sell themselves as slaves in return for family
life, pay, and possibility of Roman citizenship at the end of their
service
• Slaves were used to build public roads, aqueducts, and other
public projects
• Some slaves were treated humanely, given wages; others
were abused, especially those working in mines and large-
scale agriculture

11. Slave Revolts
• Romans were concerned about slave
revolts, as slaves outnumbered citizens.
– Slaves who revolted were executed
• Spartacus led a slave revolt in 73 BCE
– Spartacus was a gladiator who fought
against his owners (gladiators were
slaves).
– He defeated several armies before
Crassus (of the first triumvirate)
defeated Spartacus’ slave army
– The slave army was crucified and
their bodies spaced every 100 feet on
the Appian Way, the road from Rome
to the South

12. Daily Life in Rome
Rome was largest city in the
empire, with over 1,000,000
inhabitants.
Rome was overcrowded and
congested. Cart traffic was
banned during the day to
avoid further congestion.
Rome was not safe at night;
Augustus organized a police
force but it did little to deter
crime.
Like any other large city,
Rome had problems with
sewage, graffiti (yes, the
Romans had graffiti!) and
crime.

13. Rich vs. Poor
• The wealthy of Rome lived in large houses that were actually
villas – a group of buildings.
• The poor lived in apartment buildings called insulae, which
reached as many as six stories high.
– The buildings were made of concrete and often collapsed, since they
were poorly built
• Fire was a constant threat in the insulae because of cooking
fires, candles, torches, and other open flames.
• High rents forced families to live together in one-room
insulae.
• With no plumbing or central heating, insulae were
uncomfortable and unsanitary

14. Public Programs
• Roman emperors built
temples, marketplaces, baths, theaters and stadiums
that were used by the public.
• Emperors also provided food for the city poor; about
200,000 people received free grain
• Entertainment was provided on a grand scale: public
officials believed as long as the poor were fed and
entertained, they would not revolt against the upper
classes
– The phrase “bread and circuses” was used to describe
this phenomenon
– Stadiums like the Colloseum and the Circus Maximus were
used for gladiator shows, horse and chariot races, and

15. Gladiator Shows
• Held in Colosseum,
free to public
• Criminals/slaves
fight to the death
• Criminals and wild animals were often opponents to
professional gladiators
• Thousands of animals killed in one day
• Kept people’s minds off problems in the empire
• Showed power of the government
• Bloody, violent and popular

16. Colosseum
The emperor
Titus opened
the Coliseum
in AD 80 with
100 days of
games in which
9,000 animals
died.

17. The Circus Maximus was used mostly for chariot
racing. It could seat 250,000 people! There were other
circuses in ancient Rome.

18. Roman Gods
Saturn: one of the oldest gods, who was once
the ruler, but his place was taken by his son
(Jupiter).
Jupiter: god of the sky, he was the most
important god.
Juno: Jupiter's wife, who looked after women.
Neptune: Jupiter's brother, who was the god of
the sea.
Minerva: goddess of wisdom and women's
work, such as weaving cloth.
Mars: god of war.
Venus: goddess of love, who was the lover of
Mars.

19. Roman Gods
Romans discovered new gods all the time. This
happened as they traveled from country to
country learning about them from the people
they conquered. It could make things quite
complicated. For example, a soldier going on a
journey would need to ask Mercury the god of
travel for help, as well as Mithras the special
soldiers' god and he might also need to make a
sacrifice at the temple of Neptune if he had to
travel by sea!

20. Roman Religion
• Roman religion had declined during the late Republic
• Augustus brought back traditional festivals and
ceremonies to revive the Roman religion.
• The official state religion focused on a umber of gods
(based on Greek gods)
• Romans believed that practicing the proper rituals
brought them into a right relationship with the gods
• Romans were tolerant of other religions in their
conquered provinces
• Eastern religions became popular in Rome after
Hellenistic Greek territories were conquered

21. Jewish Peoples in the Roman Empire
• Jewish people had independence in Hellenistic
empire of Alexander the Great
• Judea became a Roman province in CE 6
– A roman official called a procurator was in charge of
Judea
• Not all Jews were supportive of Roman Rule; some
cooperated and others did not (mostly divided on
tribal lines)
• Jews revolted in 66 CE, but were defeated by the
Romans and their temple at Jerusalem was
destroyed

22. Rise of Christianity
• In Roman Empire, it was
practiced by more people
than any other religion
• Views of God, humans and
the world very different than
Greco-Roman
• Originally a sect of Judaism
• Believed Jesus of Nazareth, a
Jew, died so humans could
have salvation, eternal life

23. Christianity
• Monotheistic (one God)
• Do to others as you would
have them do to you
• Love God, love neighbor
• Initially angered both Romans
and Jews
• Jesus was crucified, believed
to have risen
• Paul of Tarsus spread to non-
Jews

24. Spread of Christianity
• Spread using Roman roads
• Small minority, initially ignored
• Prosecuted on and off starting
with Nero (2nd century)
• Emperor Constantine 1st Christian
emperor (4th century)
• 313 Edict of Milan - tolerate Christianity
• 378 - 395 becomes official religion of
the Roman Empire

25. Triumph of Christianity
• Theodosius the Great ruled over Christian Rome (378-395
CE)
• Christianity became more organized with bishops having
significant power in the church
– Clergy (church leaders) had more prominent role
– Laity (practicing church members) listened to clergy and followed
rules made by clergy
• Why was Christianity so popular?
– Offered a new message to Romans: personal belief and salvation after
death
– Familiarity of origin myths and other biblical stories that were related
to well-known myths and other religions
– Filled need to belong; Christian communities supported each other and
individual citizens

26. Christianity
Before adopting Christianity, Romans also
believed that the Emperors became gods, so
everyone had to make a sacrifice to the
Emperor. Christians often got into trouble
because they refused to do this, and they had
to worship in secret. Despite this secrecy, more
people became Christian. By the 4th century
A.D. Christianity was so popular the Emperor
Constantine decided to make it the official
religion of the Roman Empire.