- The respiratory system is divided into upper and lower tracts. Common congenital anomalies include cleft palate. Epistaxis (nosebleeds) can occur due to trauma, infection, parasites, or idiopathically.
- Rhinitis is inflammation of the nasal cavity that can be acute or chronic. Acute rhinitis is caused by irritants, chemicals, or infectious agents. Chronic rhinitis develops from repeated acute episodes and causes nasal discharge and crusting.
- Sinusitis is inflammation of the sinuses seen in birds with respiratory infections. Laryngitis and tracheitis involve inflammation of the larynx and trachea, respectively, often due to bacterial or viral infections spreading from
DISEASES OF THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT (nose.pptxssuseref3feb
The document summarizes diseases of the upper respiratory tract including the nose, nasopharynx, and larynx. It describes common inflammatory conditions like rhinitis and sinusitis caused by viruses and bacteria. It also mentions nasal polyps, nasopharyngeal carcinoma which is associated with Epstein-Barr virus, and laryngeal conditions such as vocal cord nodules, papillomas, and squamous cell carcinoma which occurs most often in smokers.
This document summarizes bacterial diseases that affect equines. It discusses key diseases such as glanders, strangles, tetanus, Rhodococcus equi, salmonellosis, anthrax, and others. For each disease, it describes the causative agent, transmission, clinical signs, lesions, diagnosis and treatment. It emphasizes the importance of understanding disease pathogenesis and implementing preventive control measures like biosecurity and surveillance to avoid production losses in equine farms.
Pest des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting small ruminants like goats and sheep. It is caused by a Morbillivirus in the same family as rinderpest. The virus causes fever, mouth lesions, pneumonia, and diarrhea. It spreads between animals through contact and has high mortality especially in young animals. Diagnosis involves detecting viral antigens or antibodies. While supportive care can help some animals, vaccination is the primary method of prevention and control.
Pasteurella are gram-negative coccobacilli or rods that are facultative anaerobes and normal flora of the respiratory tracts of many animals. Pasteurella multocida commonly causes infections in animals and can infect humans through animal bites or contact. P. multocida is the most frequent human isolate and causes wound infections, cellulitis, bone/joint infections, and respiratory infections. Identification involves gram staining, culture on blood agar showing gray colonies within 24 hours, and biochemical tests showing oxidase and urease positive results.
Blue tongue is a viral disease of ruminants transmitted by biting midges. It causes swelling of the tongue and lips, fever, lameness, and abortion in sheep. Cattle may develop lesions on the nose, teats, and mouth but typically do not show severe symptoms. The disease is diagnosed through virus isolation, detection of viral nucleic acid or antigen, or serological tests. There is no specific treatment, so control relies on quarantine, insecticides, and vaccination though vaccines require caution during pregnancy.
This document discusses various diseases that can affect the buccal cavity and mucosa of different animal species. It covers topics like foreign body stomatitis in dogs, superficial and deep stomatitis including their causes, vesicular and ulcerative stomatitides caused by viruses, and various deep stomatitides like necrobacillosis. It also summarizes diseases of the tonsils, reactive and hyperplastic lesions of the oral cavity, various tumors found in dental and oral tissues, and squamous cell carcinomas and melanomas which are common oral cancers in dogs and cats.
DISEASES OF THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT (nose.pptxssuseref3feb
The document summarizes diseases of the upper respiratory tract including the nose, nasopharynx, and larynx. It describes common inflammatory conditions like rhinitis and sinusitis caused by viruses and bacteria. It also mentions nasal polyps, nasopharyngeal carcinoma which is associated with Epstein-Barr virus, and laryngeal conditions such as vocal cord nodules, papillomas, and squamous cell carcinoma which occurs most often in smokers.
This document summarizes bacterial diseases that affect equines. It discusses key diseases such as glanders, strangles, tetanus, Rhodococcus equi, salmonellosis, anthrax, and others. For each disease, it describes the causative agent, transmission, clinical signs, lesions, diagnosis and treatment. It emphasizes the importance of understanding disease pathogenesis and implementing preventive control measures like biosecurity and surveillance to avoid production losses in equine farms.
Pest des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting small ruminants like goats and sheep. It is caused by a Morbillivirus in the same family as rinderpest. The virus causes fever, mouth lesions, pneumonia, and diarrhea. It spreads between animals through contact and has high mortality especially in young animals. Diagnosis involves detecting viral antigens or antibodies. While supportive care can help some animals, vaccination is the primary method of prevention and control.
Pasteurella are gram-negative coccobacilli or rods that are facultative anaerobes and normal flora of the respiratory tracts of many animals. Pasteurella multocida commonly causes infections in animals and can infect humans through animal bites or contact. P. multocida is the most frequent human isolate and causes wound infections, cellulitis, bone/joint infections, and respiratory infections. Identification involves gram staining, culture on blood agar showing gray colonies within 24 hours, and biochemical tests showing oxidase and urease positive results.
Blue tongue is a viral disease of ruminants transmitted by biting midges. It causes swelling of the tongue and lips, fever, lameness, and abortion in sheep. Cattle may develop lesions on the nose, teats, and mouth but typically do not show severe symptoms. The disease is diagnosed through virus isolation, detection of viral nucleic acid or antigen, or serological tests. There is no specific treatment, so control relies on quarantine, insecticides, and vaccination though vaccines require caution during pregnancy.
This document discusses various diseases that can affect the buccal cavity and mucosa of different animal species. It covers topics like foreign body stomatitis in dogs, superficial and deep stomatitis including their causes, vesicular and ulcerative stomatitides caused by viruses, and various deep stomatitides like necrobacillosis. It also summarizes diseases of the tonsils, reactive and hyperplastic lesions of the oral cavity, various tumors found in dental and oral tissues, and squamous cell carcinomas and melanomas which are common oral cancers in dogs and cats.
Avian influenza, or bird flu, is a highly contagious viral disease affecting poultry caused by influenza A viruses. The document discusses the causative virus, clinical signs and gross lesions, diagnosis, and prevention and control methods. It notes that avian influenza virus has two subtypes - low pathogenic (LPAI) and high pathogenic (HPAI) viruses capable of causing severe disease and 100% mortality. HPAI outbreaks tend to be self-limiting as few birds survive to act as carriers. Diagnosis involves hemagglutination inhibition and immunodiffusion tests. Prevention focuses on vaccination and treating flocks with antibiotics to control secondary infections.
This document discusses glanders, a disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei that affects solipeds like horses and donkeys. It presents in three main forms - nasal, cutaneous, and pulmonary. Symptoms include nasal discharge, skin nodules and ulcers, and pneumonia. Diagnosis involves isolating the bacterium or using tests like the mallein test. There is no vaccine and infected animals should be slaughtered to prevent spread, as the disease can also infect humans. Antibiotics may treat the infection but are not usually recommended due to risk of transmission and carrier status.
This document provides an overview of a presentation on pathology of the respiratory system. It begins with general objectives to overview diseases affecting the domestic animal respiratory system, with emphasis on recognizing morphological changes, common diseases, and arriving at diagnoses. It then covers anatomical divisions of the respiratory tract and defense mechanisms. Examples of specific conditions discussed include atrophic rhinitis in pigs, granulomatous rhinitis in dogs, guttural pouch mycosis in horses, and chronic bronchiolitis in horses. Images are included from various sources to illustrate pathological changes.
Glanders is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei that primarily affects solipeds like horses, mules and donkeys. It is characterized by skin nodules and lesions in the respiratory tract. Transmission occurs through contact with infected animals or ingestion. Diagnosis involves isolating the bacterium or using tests like the mallein test. There is no vaccine and infected animals should be slaughtered to prevent spread, while public education is needed regarding the contagious nature of the disease.
ACTINOMYCOSIS hiteshlkojhgtt by Hitesh.pptxRegistrarHvc
1. Actinomycosis, or lumpy jaw disease, is caused by Actinomyces bovis and mainly affects the mandible and maxilla bones of cattle and buffalo. It causes granulomatous inflammation and pus formation in the bones, making it difficult for the animals to eat.
2. Actinobacillosis, also known as wooden tongue, is caused by Actinobacillus lignieresii and mainly involves the tongue, lymph nodes, and soft tissues of the head and neck. It causes inflammation of the tongue that later becomes hard and immobile, preventing eating.
3. The diseases are transmitted through injury to the oral cavity allowing entry of the
Guinea pigs are generally hardy, healthy animals but are susceptible to certain problems and diseases. Here are the common bacterial infections of guinea pigs.
This document discusses several diseases that affect livestock including bovine spongiform encephalopathy, lumpy skin disease, bluetongue, peste des petitis ruminants, jaagsiekte, scrapie, ORF, swine fever, spleen infarction, button ulcers, canine distemper, rabies, infectious canine hepatitis, sheep pox, and cattle pox. It provides brief descriptions and images of lesions and other pathological findings for many of these diseases to aid in identification and diagnosis.
This document discusses several diseases that affect livestock including bovine spongiform encephalopathy, lumpy skin disease, bluetongue, peste des petitis ruminants, jaagsiekte, scrapie, ORF, swine fever, spleen infarction, button ulcers, canine distemper, rabies, infectious canine hepatitis, sheep pox, and cattle pox. It provides brief descriptions and images of lesions and other pathological findings for many of these diseases to aid in identification and diagnosis.
Infectious Coryza is an acute respiratory disease of chickens caused by the bacterium Haemophilus paragallinarum. It is highly contagious and affects the nasal passages of chickens, causing sneezing, nasal discharge, and facial swelling. Clinical signs also include swollen eyes and wattles, difficulty breathing, and decreased egg production. Microscopic examination shows inflammation and thickening of the nasal cavity lining. The disease is usually self-limiting but can cause severe outbreaks in chicken flocks. Proper sanitation and antibiotic treatment are important for control.
This document provides an overview of cervicofacial infections in children. It begins with an introduction and discusses the classification and aetiology of inflammatory neck nodes. It then covers the clinical approach, including history taking, examination and investigations. Specific cervicofacial diseases are discussed, including viral, bacterial, mycobacterial and fungal infections as well as parasitic infections and non-infectious inflammatory disorders. Bacterial infections like cervical abscesses, dental abscesses and deep neck space infections are described in more detail. The document provides a comprehensive review of infectious and inflammatory causes of neck masses in children.
Pox diseases are caused by viruses in the family Poxviridae. Poxviruses that affect animals include sheep pox virus, goat pox virus, and vaccinia virus. Sheep pox and goat pox viruses cause significant disease in sheep and goats, characterized by fever and pox lesions on skin and mucous membranes. The diseases can spread rapidly between animals through direct contact or indirect contact with contaminated materials. Diagnosis involves identifying characteristic lesions and isolating virus from samples. Vaccines are available and used to control outbreaks.
A short class presentation I gave in college detailing some opportunistic pathogens which attempt infection in HIV along with commonly used drugs for treatment.
References available in slides.
This document summarizes several important veterinary diseases. It provides details on the etiology, clinical signs, pathogenesis, lesions, and samples needed for diagnosis for diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, malignant catarrhal fever, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine viral diarrhea, blue tongue, and peste des petits ruminants among others. Information on the causative agents, susceptible hosts, transmission routes, and characteristic gross and microscopic lesions is highlighted.
This document discusses various types of neck abscesses including parotid, submandibular, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. It describes the anatomy of the neck spaces involved, common causes of infection, symptoms, examination findings, and treatment approaches which typically involve intravenous antibiotics along with surgical drainage if an abscess has formed. Complications can include airway obstruction, sepsis, or spread of infection to deeper neck spaces or mediastinum.
Head and neck space infections 22 8-2016,dr.bini mohanophthalmgmcri
This document discusses various types of neck abscesses including parotid, submandibular, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. It describes the anatomy of the neck spaces involved, common causes of infection, symptoms, examinations findings, and treatment approaches which typically involve intravenous antibiotics along with surgical drainage if an abscess has formed. Complications can include airway obstruction, sepsis, or spread of infection to dangerous spaces like the mediastinum.
This document discusses several diseases that cause vesicles in pigs and other livestock, including swine vesicular disease (SVD), African swine fever (ASF), and vesicular stomatitis (VS). SVD causes vesicles on the feet and mouth of pigs and is diagnosed through ELISA or virus isolation since it resembles foot-and-mouth disease clinically. ASF is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs transmitted through contact with wild pigs or ticks. It causes high fever and hemorrhages and has 100% mortality. VS causes vesicles in horses, cattle and pigs transmitted by black flies; it is diagnosed through virus isolation from lesions or serological tests.
1. The document discusses four dimorphic fungi - Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Histoplasma, and Sporothrix.
2. Blastomyces causes blastomycosis and infects humans, dogs and other mammals. It is found in soil and its yeast form can cause lung or skin lesions.
3. Coccidioides causes coccidioidomycosis and is found in soil in certain regions. Its spores can cause respiratory infection or disseminate to other organs.
This document discusses several parasites and diseases that affect animals. It describes Albendazole as an anthelmintic drug used to treat parasites like echinococcosis in the liver and lungs. It also mentions Ascariasis as a roundworm infection of swine, and tapeworms as a common intestinal parasite in dogs. The document provides signs of ringworm in pets, like hair loss and red skin, and describes lungworm as a respiratory infection in cattle causing coughing. Finally, it notes that young animals are most affected by gastrointestinal worms, which can cause diarrhea, weight loss, and blood or mucus in the feces.
Avian influenza, or bird flu, is a highly contagious viral disease affecting poultry caused by influenza A viruses. The document discusses the causative virus, clinical signs and gross lesions, diagnosis, and prevention and control methods. It notes that avian influenza virus has two subtypes - low pathogenic (LPAI) and high pathogenic (HPAI) viruses capable of causing severe disease and 100% mortality. HPAI outbreaks tend to be self-limiting as few birds survive to act as carriers. Diagnosis involves hemagglutination inhibition and immunodiffusion tests. Prevention focuses on vaccination and treating flocks with antibiotics to control secondary infections.
This document discusses glanders, a disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei that affects solipeds like horses and donkeys. It presents in three main forms - nasal, cutaneous, and pulmonary. Symptoms include nasal discharge, skin nodules and ulcers, and pneumonia. Diagnosis involves isolating the bacterium or using tests like the mallein test. There is no vaccine and infected animals should be slaughtered to prevent spread, as the disease can also infect humans. Antibiotics may treat the infection but are not usually recommended due to risk of transmission and carrier status.
This document provides an overview of a presentation on pathology of the respiratory system. It begins with general objectives to overview diseases affecting the domestic animal respiratory system, with emphasis on recognizing morphological changes, common diseases, and arriving at diagnoses. It then covers anatomical divisions of the respiratory tract and defense mechanisms. Examples of specific conditions discussed include atrophic rhinitis in pigs, granulomatous rhinitis in dogs, guttural pouch mycosis in horses, and chronic bronchiolitis in horses. Images are included from various sources to illustrate pathological changes.
Glanders is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei that primarily affects solipeds like horses, mules and donkeys. It is characterized by skin nodules and lesions in the respiratory tract. Transmission occurs through contact with infected animals or ingestion. Diagnosis involves isolating the bacterium or using tests like the mallein test. There is no vaccine and infected animals should be slaughtered to prevent spread, while public education is needed regarding the contagious nature of the disease.
ACTINOMYCOSIS hiteshlkojhgtt by Hitesh.pptxRegistrarHvc
1. Actinomycosis, or lumpy jaw disease, is caused by Actinomyces bovis and mainly affects the mandible and maxilla bones of cattle and buffalo. It causes granulomatous inflammation and pus formation in the bones, making it difficult for the animals to eat.
2. Actinobacillosis, also known as wooden tongue, is caused by Actinobacillus lignieresii and mainly involves the tongue, lymph nodes, and soft tissues of the head and neck. It causes inflammation of the tongue that later becomes hard and immobile, preventing eating.
3. The diseases are transmitted through injury to the oral cavity allowing entry of the
Guinea pigs are generally hardy, healthy animals but are susceptible to certain problems and diseases. Here are the common bacterial infections of guinea pigs.
This document discusses several diseases that affect livestock including bovine spongiform encephalopathy, lumpy skin disease, bluetongue, peste des petitis ruminants, jaagsiekte, scrapie, ORF, swine fever, spleen infarction, button ulcers, canine distemper, rabies, infectious canine hepatitis, sheep pox, and cattle pox. It provides brief descriptions and images of lesions and other pathological findings for many of these diseases to aid in identification and diagnosis.
This document discusses several diseases that affect livestock including bovine spongiform encephalopathy, lumpy skin disease, bluetongue, peste des petitis ruminants, jaagsiekte, scrapie, ORF, swine fever, spleen infarction, button ulcers, canine distemper, rabies, infectious canine hepatitis, sheep pox, and cattle pox. It provides brief descriptions and images of lesions and other pathological findings for many of these diseases to aid in identification and diagnosis.
Infectious Coryza is an acute respiratory disease of chickens caused by the bacterium Haemophilus paragallinarum. It is highly contagious and affects the nasal passages of chickens, causing sneezing, nasal discharge, and facial swelling. Clinical signs also include swollen eyes and wattles, difficulty breathing, and decreased egg production. Microscopic examination shows inflammation and thickening of the nasal cavity lining. The disease is usually self-limiting but can cause severe outbreaks in chicken flocks. Proper sanitation and antibiotic treatment are important for control.
This document provides an overview of cervicofacial infections in children. It begins with an introduction and discusses the classification and aetiology of inflammatory neck nodes. It then covers the clinical approach, including history taking, examination and investigations. Specific cervicofacial diseases are discussed, including viral, bacterial, mycobacterial and fungal infections as well as parasitic infections and non-infectious inflammatory disorders. Bacterial infections like cervical abscesses, dental abscesses and deep neck space infections are described in more detail. The document provides a comprehensive review of infectious and inflammatory causes of neck masses in children.
Pox diseases are caused by viruses in the family Poxviridae. Poxviruses that affect animals include sheep pox virus, goat pox virus, and vaccinia virus. Sheep pox and goat pox viruses cause significant disease in sheep and goats, characterized by fever and pox lesions on skin and mucous membranes. The diseases can spread rapidly between animals through direct contact or indirect contact with contaminated materials. Diagnosis involves identifying characteristic lesions and isolating virus from samples. Vaccines are available and used to control outbreaks.
A short class presentation I gave in college detailing some opportunistic pathogens which attempt infection in HIV along with commonly used drugs for treatment.
References available in slides.
This document summarizes several important veterinary diseases. It provides details on the etiology, clinical signs, pathogenesis, lesions, and samples needed for diagnosis for diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, malignant catarrhal fever, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine viral diarrhea, blue tongue, and peste des petits ruminants among others. Information on the causative agents, susceptible hosts, transmission routes, and characteristic gross and microscopic lesions is highlighted.
This document discusses various types of neck abscesses including parotid, submandibular, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. It describes the anatomy of the neck spaces involved, common causes of infection, symptoms, examination findings, and treatment approaches which typically involve intravenous antibiotics along with surgical drainage if an abscess has formed. Complications can include airway obstruction, sepsis, or spread of infection to deeper neck spaces or mediastinum.
Head and neck space infections 22 8-2016,dr.bini mohanophthalmgmcri
This document discusses various types of neck abscesses including parotid, submandibular, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. It describes the anatomy of the neck spaces involved, common causes of infection, symptoms, examinations findings, and treatment approaches which typically involve intravenous antibiotics along with surgical drainage if an abscess has formed. Complications can include airway obstruction, sepsis, or spread of infection to dangerous spaces like the mediastinum.
This document discusses several diseases that cause vesicles in pigs and other livestock, including swine vesicular disease (SVD), African swine fever (ASF), and vesicular stomatitis (VS). SVD causes vesicles on the feet and mouth of pigs and is diagnosed through ELISA or virus isolation since it resembles foot-and-mouth disease clinically. ASF is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs transmitted through contact with wild pigs or ticks. It causes high fever and hemorrhages and has 100% mortality. VS causes vesicles in horses, cattle and pigs transmitted by black flies; it is diagnosed through virus isolation from lesions or serological tests.
1. The document discusses four dimorphic fungi - Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Histoplasma, and Sporothrix.
2. Blastomyces causes blastomycosis and infects humans, dogs and other mammals. It is found in soil and its yeast form can cause lung or skin lesions.
3. Coccidioides causes coccidioidomycosis and is found in soil in certain regions. Its spores can cause respiratory infection or disseminate to other organs.
This document discusses several parasites and diseases that affect animals. It describes Albendazole as an anthelmintic drug used to treat parasites like echinococcosis in the liver and lungs. It also mentions Ascariasis as a roundworm infection of swine, and tapeworms as a common intestinal parasite in dogs. The document provides signs of ringworm in pets, like hair loss and red skin, and describes lungworm as a respiratory infection in cattle causing coughing. Finally, it notes that young animals are most affected by gastrointestinal worms, which can cause diarrhea, weight loss, and blood or mucus in the feces.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
2. Congenital Anomalies
CLEFT PALATE
Abnormal connection between the nasal cavity
and the mouth.
It is otherwise called Palatoschisis.
Fairly common defect seen in newborn animals –
calf, lamb
Affected animals do not survive long.
Sequelae – Death of new born by starvation or
aspiration pneumonia.
3. EPISTAXIS (Syn. Nose bleeding)
Occurrence - Infrequent in animals, seen in Horse, Dog
Aetiology i. Physical - Trauma - Violent exercise
induces pulmonary hemorrhage in horses
ii. Infectious diseases like Anthrax, Glanders, purpura,
IBR, MCF
iii. Parasites-Eimeria canis in dogs; Oestrous ovis in
sheep.
iv. Erosion of vessels by pathological processes in
nasal cavity
v. Idiopathic – familial in certain race horses
vi. Hemangioma - neoplasm
vii. Poisoning by nitrates, bracken fern, sweet clover
and mercurials.
Clinical signs - Bleeding may be unilateral or bilateral
4. RHINITIS - Inflammation of mucous membrane
of nasal cavity/nose.
• Classification : 1. Primary or Secondary.
A. Primay rhinitis - occurs independently.
B. Secondary rhinitis - manifestation of some of
acute and chronic infectious diseases.
2. Based on the nature of exudate:
i. Serous ii. Catarrhal iii. Purulent iv. Fibrinous
• 3. Based on the age of lesion:
i. Acute ii. Subacute iii. Chronic rhinitis
• 4. Based on severity of insult:
i. Mild ii. Moderate and iii. Severe rhinitis
• 5. Based on aetiological agent: i. Bacterial
ii. Viral iii. Mycotic and iv. Toxic rhinitis
5. • Predisposing Factors
• i. Environmental changes ii. Stress
iii. Immunosuppression
iv. Prolonged antibacterial therapy.
Etiology: i. Physical causes
a. Irritants – Dust, pollen
b. Foreign bodies- wheat/rice chaff, insects, flies
c. Injuries – horn, kicking
ii. Chemical -Irritating gases i.e. Formalin and
Ammonia gas arising from litter, smoke.
7. iv. Viruses - Common cold virus, Infectious
bovine rhinotracheitis, Bovine malignant
catarrhal fever, Rinderpest, Canine distemper,
Equine rhinopneumonitis, Equine influenza,
Swine influenza, Infectious laryngotracheitis and
Fowl pox.
v. Fungus - Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus
neoformans, Rhinosporidium seeberi
vi. Parasites - Oestrus ovis larvae - Sheep ,
Linguatula serrata - dog
8. Route of infection - through inspired air.
Sequelae - Rhinitis might extend to cause
bronchitis and pneumonia
Classification of rhinitis
Rhinitis is classified as acute and chronic rhinitis.
ACUTE RHINITIS - Acute inflammation of the
nasal mucosa
Causes – 1. Physical causes - Irritants – Dust,
pollen, Foreign bodies – chaff, insects, flies
ii. Chemical irritants iii. Infectious agents
9. Gross lesions - Mucous membrane appear
Congested, swollen, may be Dry /moist covered
with Exudate which may be serous / mucous /
mucopurulent /suppurative/ fibrinous in nature.
Histopathology - Lumen contains inflammatory
exudate with leucocytes. Mucosal epithelium
shows hydropic degeneration; Lamina propria is
hyperaemic and infiltration with inflammatory
leucocytes-Neutrophil, Lymphocyte & macrophages
10. CHRONIC RHINITIS:
is usually a sequel of acute rhinitis
Species affected - Jersey breed of cattle.
Clinical signs - Nasal discharge - Mucous or muco-
purulent, may be Nasal pruritis.
Gross pathology – rough, mucosal surface with tiny
nodules.
Histopathology – Mucosa - Many closely packed tiny
polyps covered by squamous epithelium projecting into
the lumen. Lamina propria: contains oedema, engorged
capillaries, fibroblasts, eosinophils, mast cells and
plasma cells. May be ulceration of mucosa which is
thickened and congested.
.
11. SINUSES
SINUSITIS – It is inflammation of sinus.
Seen in birds in respiratory infections.
Aetiology - Bacteria- Hemophilus/Avibacterium
paragallinarum in chicken - Infectious coryza
Route of entry – i. Inspired air.
ii. Through wound produced by dehorning
Gross pathology - The head will be swollen, eyelids
may be closed, subcutis contains edematous fluid
and sinus contains mucus or cheesy material.
Sequelae - Spread to eustachian tubes in human
being interfere with hearing.
12.
13. Pharynx and Gutteral pouches
Pharyngitis – is inflammation of pharynx.
Pharynx is vulnerable to diseases of both upper
respiratory tract and upper digestive tract.
Causes - i. Penetrating wounds
ii. Foreign bodies-bones, stick, syringe, wire etc
iii. improper use of drenching or balling guns in
cattle and sheep
iv. Use of collars in dogs and cats cause choking
injuries.
Grossly - Local edema and thickening of wall due
to fatal cellulitis. Foreign body may be present
anywhere in pharynx, depending on its size and
location, may cause dysphagia, regurgitation,
dyspnoea and asphyxiation.
14. Gutteral pouches
are present in horses, as large ventral
diverticula of Eustachian tubes.
They are exposed to the same pathogens as is
the pharynx.
Because of anatomical closeness of guttural
pouches to internal carotid arteries, cranial
nerves, atlanto-occipital joint and middle
ears, diseases of guttural pouches may
involve these structures and cause a variety
of clinical signs in horses.
15. Gutteral pouch mycosis
is caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, other
Aspergillus sps.
Infection is unilateral and begin with
inhalation of spores from mouldy hay.
Grossly – Dorsal and lateral surfaces of
guttural pouch are covered with diphtheritic
or fibrino-necrotic exudate.
16. Microscopic lesions – Severe necrotic inflammation
of mucosa and submucosa and widespread vasculitis.
Fungal hyphae are present in lesions. Predilection of
fungi for vessel walls can cause erosion/rupture of
internal carotid artery (located adjacent to roof of
guttural pouch)→Fatal bleeding into guttural pouches
or in some cases, release of mycotic thrombo-emboli
into carotid circulation resulting into multiple brain
infarcts.
May cause dysphagia due to damage to pharyngeal
branches of Vagus and Glosso-pharyngeal nerves (lie
on ventral aspect of pouches).
Equine laryngeal hemiplegia (roaring) can result from
involvement of laryngeal nerves
17. Gutteral pouch empyema
occurs as complication of suppurative inflammation
of nasal cavity, most commonly to Streptococcus
equi infection (strangles).
In severe cases, entire guttural pouch can be filled
with purulent exudate.
Clinically, characterized by nasal discharge,
enlarged retropharyngeal lymph nodes, dysphagia
and respiratory distress.
Other clinical effects caused are similar to guttural
pouch mycosis, except that it does not produce
erosion of internal carotid artery.
Neoplasms – these are rare in horses, and are
usually Squamous cell carcinoma
18. Pathology of Larynx
ROARING/Laryngeal hemiplegia
Roaring is impaired sound due to laryngeal
hemiplegia in horses.
Etiology - Injury and degeneration of the left
recurrent laryngeal nerve or secondary nerve
damage by repeated trauma by pulsation in
the aorta, lead poisoning, pressure on the
nerve by aneurysms, enlarged lymph nodes,
abscesses, tumours, oesophageal diverticula
and other traumatic conditions.
19. Pathogenesis
Hyaline degeneration and fibrosis of the left
dorsal and lateral cricoarytenoideus muscle,
atrophy and paralysis leads to incomplete
dilatation of larynx. The arytenoids cartilage
cannot open and so will stand in the way of
air passing freely into the wind pipe.
This condition is accentuated when animal is
exercised.
A noise is heard by brushing of air with the
arytenoid cartilage and noise is called roaring
20. Gross pathology –
Affected cricoarytenoideus muscle is pale
and atrophic.
Histopathology - Left recurrent laryngeal
nerve show Demyelination and Wallerian
degeneration, Atrophic changes of muscle
fibres (neurogenic atrophy).
21. LARYNGITIS
It is the inflammation of the laryngeal mucosa.
Aetiology :
i. Extension of infection from nasal cavity and pharynx
in infectious diseases - Canine distemper in dog;
Strangles and Glanders in horses; Infectious laryngo-
tracheitis in poultry.
ii. Irritant vapours of chemicals.
iii. Mechanical injury by kicks, bites, grass awns, horn,
Injuries while passing probes or stomach tube.
iv. Excessive barking in dogs.
22. v. Specific diseases – Calf diphtheria, Tuberculosis,
Glanders and Actinomycosis.
Gross pathology - Mucosa of larynx is swollen,
hemorrhagic and dry at first, later becomes
coated with mucus or muco-purulent discharge.
Histopathology - Mucosa is covered with
exudate, may be mucus, blood or necrotic
material. Lamina propria is infiltrated with
leucocytes like N, M, L.
23. TRACHEITIS
Tracheitis means inflammation of the trachea.
Causes – a. Bacterial - Escherichia coli and
Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
b. Viruses - Ranikhet disease virus, IBV, ILTV
c. Parasite: Syngamus trachea.
Gross pathology - Tracheal mucosa is congested,
its lumen contains mucus or blood tinged mucus
containing red worms.
24.
25.
26. Histopathology
The mucosal epithelium is denuded and the
lamina propria is infiltrated with leucocytes.
Sequelae :
In heavy worm infections, asphyxia leads to
death.
27.
28. ACUTE TRACHEO-BRONCHITIS
Condition usually encountered along with upper
respiratory disease and pneumonia.
Route of infection - i. Nasal cavity
ii. Aspiration into trachea
iii. Extension from pharynx and sinuses
Causes – i. Inhalation of irritants like industrial
fumes, smokes, feed particles and dust.
ii. Faulty drenching of medicaments.
iii. Bacterial – Pasteurellosis.
iv. Viral – Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis,
Ranikhet disease, ILT and IBV of fowls.
v. Parasites - Lung worms.
29. Gross pathology - Mucosa is covered by exudate
which may be catarrhal, fibrinous or purulent type.
Tracheal mucosa is thick and reddish. In gangrenous
tracheitis, there is extensive necrosis of the mucosa
which becomes sloughed.
Histopathology - Lumen contains mucus, leucocytes,
dead epithelial cells, lung worms and their ova.
Mucosal epithelium shows necrotic changes. Lamina
propria congested and infiltrated with inflammatory
cells of which neutrophils predominate.
Sequelae - Recovery may occur in mild cases.
In severe cases, may result in Bronchiectasis, Chronic
bronchitis, peribronchitis and bronchopneumonia.
Abscess may develop, if infected by pyogenic
organisms.
30. Pathology of Bronchi/Bronchiole
BRONCHOSTENOSIS/ Bronchiolostenosis
It is Narrowing of the bronchial lumen due to obstruction or
peripheral pressure.
Aetiology – i. Aspiration of foreign bodies
ii. Accumulation of exudate and infiltration in to the wall
causing reduction of diameter of the bronchus
iii. Parasites within the lumen
iv. Pressure from outside the bronchial wall by abscesses,
enlarged lymph nodes, tumors and exudate of pleural cavity.
v. Spasms of the muscles of the bronchi as in allergy.
Sequelae – i. A partial closure of the bronchi or bronchioles
results in ballooning of the alveoli as air that enters during
inspiration is not expelled. Repeated inspiration will
therefore lead to ballooning of the alveoli - Emphysema
ii. Complete obstruction of bronchus results in collapse of
lung - ATELECTASIS
31. BRONCHIECTASIS
It means dilatation of the bronchus.
Aetiology and pathogenesis –
i. Chronic bronchitis - Due to destruction of the elastic
tissue of the bronchial wall, contractile power of the
bronchus is lost and so the bronchus dilates. At the place
of dilatation, exudate accumulates, thereby further
dilating the bronchus.
ii. In chronic pneumonia, the bronchial wall is weak. The
fibrous tissue on contraction, pulls the bronchial wall
which gets dilated.
iii. In bronchostenosis, air accumulates during inspiration
below the level of obstruction and causes dilatation of the
bronchus. When the bronchi are completely closed
resulting in atelectasis, the negative pressure in the
pleural cavity pulls the bronchial wall and cause
dilatation.
Clinical signs - Persistent cough and Debilitation.
32. Gross pathology:
i. Cylindrical form of bronchiectasis is more common in
cattle and cause uniform dilatation of the bronchus.
ii. Saccular form is less common in which there is an out
pouching of the bronchial wall due to focal necrosis as
occurs in lung worm infections in cattle and sheep.
Histopathology - Destruction and disappearance of the
elastic tissue, musculature and even the cartilage of
bronchus, Mucosa: disappearance of lining epithelium,
Lamina propria infiltrated with mononuclear cells, Lung:
collapsed and carnified; pleural adhesions may develop.
Sequelae - Prognosis: course is chronic and unfavorable
Complications –
i. Development of abscesses with metastasis
ii. Bronchiolitis with emphysema
iii. Bronchopneumonia
iv. Secondary amyloidosis
33. BRONCHITIS/Bronchiolitis
It means inflammation of the bronchial mucosa.
Causes - Viral – Canine tracheo-bronchitis and
infectious bronchitis in fowls.
Gross Pathology - Trachea is congested and
contains mucus exudate. Bronchial lumen is
obstructed by yellow plugs of caseous material.
Histopathology - Bronchial mucosa is thickened
due to edema and cellular infiltration. Bronchial
lumen may contain neurophil or heterophil
rich exudate.
34.
35.
36. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
Causes -i. Mild, continuous irritant like smoke &dust
ii. Extension of chronic infection of upper
respiratory tract as in chronic sinusitis.
iii. Most common cause in animals is Lung worm
infection, abscess, tuberculosis.
iv. Pathological – bronchiectasis – open tract
v. Chronic venous congestion – as in heart diseases.
Gross pathology – Bronchus may be dilated, lumen
may contain exudate – Mucoid or mucopurulent
mixed with worms, Pale (sometimes congested),
mucosa is thickened.
37. Histopathology
Lumen contains worms and eggs in case of
parasitic bronchitis. Mucosal glands may be
atrophic; ciliated epithelium replaced by
cuboidal epithelium. Lamina propria is
infliltration by lymphoid cells. Peribronchial
glands are hyperplastic (resemble goblet cells).
Walls: Lymphoid follicles may be formed;
Fibrosis may cause polypoid projections into the
lumen (Brochiolitis obliterans).
38.
39. Sequelae
i. Bronchi – Bronchiectasis.
ii. Lungs – Bronchopneumonia; atelectasis;
emphysema leads to greater strain on the
heart and chronic venous congestion occurs
ultimately.