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Editor's Notes
- Aspect can relate to how the speaker perceives duration of the event and how different events relate to one another in time. Two different tenses can be used when we refer to the same situation and the same point in time. For example, we can refer to the same event using both present parfect and past simple depending on how we perceive the importance or relevance of the event which we are describing. Consider the example. Speaker A uses present perfect in the first sentence. We can recognize the tense because there is the auxuliary have and the past participle taken . Then the same speaker uses past simple to refer to the same event (taking a sabbatical), but this time using past simple (the verb is in the past form – took ) . In the first sentence the speaker uses persent perfect because he/she introduces news. This is a usual context for present perfect. In the second instance, howere, when the hews have already been introduced further details are presented with the use of past simple. In other words, the details of the news are presented in past simple.
- Both are used to clarify the statement/term which comes befre them. The first pone by means of restating/paraphrasing the term using more commonly used and easier to understand words OR by elavorating on the idea/concept etc. The second explains the statement or term by measn of giving an example
- Aspect can relate to how the speaker perceives duration of the event and how different events relate to one another in time. Two different tenses can be used when we refer to the same situation and the same point in time. For example, we can refer to the same event using both present parfect and past simple depending on how we perceive the importance or relevance of the event which we are describing. Consider the example. Speaker A uses present perfect in the first sentence. We can recognize the tense because there is the auxuliary have and the past participle taken . Then the same speaker uses past simple to refer to the same event (taking a sabbatical), but this time using past simple (the verb is in the past form – took ) . In English we can distinguish two aspects: progressive (continuous) and perfect. Today we will discuss the use of the perfect aspect. In the first sentence the speaker uses persent perfect because he/she introduces news. This is a usual context for present perfect. In the second instance, howere, when the hews have already been introduced further details are presented with the use of past simple. In other words, the details of the news are presented in past simple. First, we shall consider the structure of the perfect aspect.
- The perfect, any perfect aspect is built by adding an auxuliary verb, which in this case is have . This auxuliary can be used in the two tenses present and past. Many authors of grammar books destinguish only two tenses, and that is present and past. Future is very often presented by present or different forms. We shall discuss this issue in greater detail later in the course. Going back to our perfect aspect however. The auxuliary verb tells us which tense is used, is it present or past. Has and have indicate present while had indicates the past tense. Furthermore, in the perfect aspect the form of the main verb is used in the past participle. (some people refer to the past participle as to the veb in the third column, because of the lists of irregular verbs in which this form is placed in the third columne next to the present and past forms of a particular verb).
- In many languages, please consider the examples, we come across grammatical structures which resemble the English present perfect structure. However, the meaning which these forms carry or reflect is not necessarily similar to that of the English present perfect. Thus, although it might be easier for the users of these languages to form the present perfect structure, it might not always be possible to use it in the same contexts as in their native tongue or in the languages which they speak. Therefore, let us consider specifically in which contexts and to describe what kind of situations is present perfect being used.
- When we are using the present perfect we are thinking about the past and about the present simultaneously. Our thoughts are directed towards finished events or actions which have taken place in the past but which are connected with the present. By using the present parfect tense we are suggesting that these past events are relevant to the present situation. Please look at these examples. [read examples]. We could, in fact, make sentences in a present tense which would convey a similar meaning to these sentences in the present perfect. For example, There are hunderds of natufian graves in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. OR The fisheries and ecosystems of the coasts and the Great Lakes are really damaged.
- Often this connection between past and present is very visible and clear and takes the form of a cause-result relationship. These two sentences exemplify such connection/relationship. Let us consider the first sentence: [read the sentence]. This sentence presents two situations: one in the present and one in the past. The situation in the present is „underrepresentation of elementary-particle physics in PR” The past situation, on the other hand, presents the fact that „CERN-based discoveries have been published in journals outside the PR family”. We can see that this past situation is introduced with the use of the present perfect: have been published in journals . Because it is closely related to the present situation, in that it is the immediate cause of that situation. Those elementary-particle discoveries are underrepresented for a certain reason. The reason is that previously the CEFR-based discoveries have been published in certain journals. The second sentence is similar. It also introduces two situations. The first, the present situation is a presentation of a temporal analysis. The second situation describes changes which have occured in Chilean economy and the job market over the last 25 years. In other words, the choice of this temporal analysis is closely related to the recent changes in Chilean economy and job market. If there were no changes, perhaps a different analysis would be more appropriate to describe the data. Just for the record, in both of the sentences the cause and effect relationship is marked by the conjunction because .
- Each sentence from the two pairs of sentences focuses on a slightly different aspect, the sentences present the same situation from a different angle. Sentences nr 1: focus on the present results of past actions. For instance, the claculations are so accurate exactly because we have used this equipment. OR The result of a previous action is that the lab door is open now, in the present. Quite to the contrary, Sentences nr 2: focus on the past action, simply stating that something happened. In these particular examples the past actions are: the team used a new equipment and the door to the lab was left open. Let us move to another situation in which present perfect is normally used.
- When we describe scientific results we do not use present perfect even though it seems that we are focusing on the results of certain actions. Quite to the contrary we are using past simple, and describe past actions.
- Another example when present perfect is used to connect past and present is when it is used to introduce news. Pieces of news refer to finished actions which took place in the past, but they are reported now, in the present. Let us look at the following example for an issue of the NY times. [read the example] In the first sentence present perfect is used to introduce news that the US government has given away 107 billion dolars to American companies which did business in Iran. However this information refers to an event which has taken place over the past decade, so to a past event. Please note, however, that we do not use present perfect to report the details of this information, such as who received nearly 15 billion dolars of the total amount of the money. These details can be found in the second sentence. For example, it is reported that the companies that defied American sanctions law by making large inversments that helped Iran develop its vast oil and gas reserves were awarded the money. We have a reduced relative clause: That rincludes nearly 15 billion dolars which were paid were paid is a passive voice of past simple. In this sentence it is also reported that that the investments which were made with the use of gevernmental money helped iran built vast oil and gas reserves. Again past simple is used to give further details. This is the general rule. News are introduced with present perfect but further details concerning the news are given in past simple.
- Normally the rules of English grammar would suggest that when time-wrods used in sentences refer to some or any time up to now, the proper tense to use is present perfect. Examples of such time-words include: ever, [read] These time-words do not specify the exact point in time, but rather speak about a period of time. When finished-time words are used in sentences they are usually associated with the past simple tense. Again examples include [read the words]. These finished-time words refer to specific points in time, we know when. Please, remember that this is a general rule and it normally applies which means that you can come across sentences in which it will not be observed.
- We can speak about a definite period of time up to now and use both past simple and present perfect, as you can see in the examples on the slide. There are differences in what the use of these two tenses imply in such situations however. Let us consider the first two examples. [read the examples] In the first sentence we refer to the period of time up till now. We mean that today has not finished yet and there is still a possibility that the person who we are asking will read something interesting. For example, we come home and we see our flatmate sitting with a pile of books just bought in a bookstore. We our flatmet quite well and we expect her to sit and read till late at night. In such a situation we are likely to aks the question using the present perfect. In the second sentence we are referring to a finished period of time which can be clearly specified during the time period in question, in this particular situation this period of time is today. This question might have been asked by a mother who is talking to her child who has just come from school. She knows that her daughter has English literature classes on Mondays (today we have Monday) and that one of the very frequent activities during these literature classes are reading activities. Therefore she enquires if her daughter read anything interesting today during this particular and now finished period of time (probably 45 or 90 minutes) which has elapsed today. She uses past simple. Could you please look at the two other sentences and try come up with a context in which these sentences would be used. PW EXPLANATION: A possbiel situation might involve a convwersation between friends who play football with Tom. They play in one team and usually meet a few times in a month. This month (March) is not yet over and the person still expects to see Tom at some point. He/she finds it strange though that they haven’t met so far because he/she usually sees Tom at least a few times during a month. She/he suspects that Tom must have been working a lot and couldn’t join them and play football together. In the second sentence let us assume that a person cam to visit a friend in Zurich. She is staying for three weeks in Zurich but then sha needs to go back to Rome where she is currently working. Her flight leaves on March 27th. When she was planning her stay in Zurich she thought she will be albe to visit some good friends and Tom is one of these friends. However, the days passed by and her stay in Zurich is almost over now, so she regrettingly says that Tom was not around during her trip and she didn’t get the chance to see him. She is refering to a finished period of time and has no expectations of seing Tom now since she is leaving tomorrow.
- In these sentences we have actions which have taken place repetitively during some period of time up till now. When we want to emphasize the fact that something has happened several times, we are likely to use present perfect. Very often we would use adverbs of frequency in such sentences. Following adverbs are likely to occur: often, sometimes, occassionally, etc.
- In these sentences we have actions which have taken place repetitively during some period of time up till now. When we want to emphasize the fact that something has happened several times, we are likely to use present perfect. Very often we would use adverbs of frequency in such sentences. Following adverbs are likely to occur: often, sometimes, occassionally, etc.
- In these sentences we have actions which have taken place for a period of time up till now. Whet we want to emphasize continuity of these actions.
- In these sentences we have actions which have taken place for a period of time up till now. Whet we want to emphasize continuity of these actions we use the present perfect. We are also likely to use expressions and phrases which describe the period of time to which we are referring.
- In many contexts there is little difference between the prepsent perfect and the present perfect progressive. However, there are certain situations in which we would prefer on or the other tense. These situations entail
- Very often we use present perfect progressive to talk about the way people have been using their time up till now have been staying; John has been studying non-stop since early morning.
- In many contexts there is little difference between the prepsent perfect and the present perfect progressive. However, there are certain situations in which we would prefer on or the other tense. These situations entail
- For example when we refer to the number of time certain situation has taken place or the amount of work which has already been done we are more likely to use present perfect simple than present perfect progressive. Consider these examples: The number of times the team has perforemd the action of running an experiment is mentioned and therefore the present perfect simple rather than the present perfect progressive is used here. They have collected most of the data. In this sentence we are referring to the amount of work which has already been completed and again a more likely choice would be present perfect simple rather than present perfect progressive. In the second situation: we want to emphasize the action in which the team have engaged all this week. We are refering to a continuity of this action. Similarly, in the last sentence we underline the action which has taken most of the team’s time, we are talking about the way in which the team have been spending their time recently. In such situation the use of the present perfect progressive is more likely.
- 2. We have been using this equipment all day long. We are tired and need a rest. 3. a situation in which we can see the contrast between the use of present perfect simple to talk about the amount of work completed, and the use of present perfect progressive to talk about the way in which someone has been suing their time up till the present moment.
- Year is our point of reference when we analyze this article and the use of tenses in it. Presentation of current trends to make predictions as to future developments in the field/industry.
- The first part of this paragraph describes the currect situation giving specific percentages of fish which are grown in aquaculture. Then she describes data (figure 3) and a finished time period between 1980 and 2000 she uses past simple which is not only usually used to refer to results of previous studies but is also a very likely choice when we are discussing a finished period of time in the past. Similar situation can be seen a bit further in the text when she discusses yields of Nile tilapia, atlantic salmon and tiger shrimp between 1970 and 2000. After each of these two instances she turns to present perfect to discuss general trends/contimuity of action, and focus more on the results or the period up till now. In the last sentences of this paragraph she uses present perfect again to underline consequence of overintensification – so she focuses on results rather than past actions AND later in that sentence she uses present perfect again (has repeatedly caused) to emphasize repetitiveness of a certain situation – here major difficulties in the shripm farming industry.
- Further examples come from the abstract of this article and the introduction. Let us consider the abstract first. The author presents ley points which she is going to discuss in greater detail later in the article. These include description of the status of the capture fisheries. She presents data about this status which talk about the past and the development of this status up till now. She uses the passive vioce of the present perfect tense (have been stabilized) to refer to the time period since 1980s till now. However, when in the next sentence she gives a specific past time period from 1985 till 2004 she uses past simple to report the number of metric tons. She uses another tense to refer to changes and developments which are happening around the time during which she is writing her article. The introduction to this article begins with description of a current trend and present continuous is used to refer to this trend. Present progressive can be used to refer to a change or development not only when they are temporal but also when they are long-lasting. Again later on in the introduction we can see her use present perfect to refer t a change which has started in the past and which continued and continues up till now. She uses the phrase over recent years to built a time frame for the events she is reporting.
- In this excerpt from the article we can se the author report a number of earlier findings. As in previous examples she is uding past simple. Look at the dates of the articles which she is reviewing – 1998 and 1997. Past simple is the best option here. However, she begins this paragraph introducing the topic which is going to be addressed in this paragraph. What she intends to present in this paragrpah are namely examples of attempts at quantifying the environmental costs of aquaculture or culture fisheries. To this end she uses present perfect. She is refering to several attempts thus underlying the recurrence and the number of these attempts which have taken place up till 2009 when she was writing her article.
- This excerpt comes from the conclusions of the article. The author is restating the main arguments and summarizes main trends which she has been describing throughout the article. Ahe is using present progressive twice to refer to current trends: today is building the timefram in which she is positioning these trends. Later she is trying to draw conclusions are make very careful predictions as to what can happen next. These predictions are based on the data which she has thoroughly discussed and analysed earlier in her article. To make these predictions she uses will and a lot of hedging expressions. Hedging is a stylistis device with which researchers are expressing uncertainty of their results. The hedging techniques which she is using in this text are mainly words which modify verbs: most likely remain (certainly remain); most likely take place (there is not doubt will take place); will probably remain (will inevitably remain).