1. Running head: THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 1
The Effects of a Time Limit on Exam Performance
Anthony J. DeFilippo
Providence College

2. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 2
Abstract
The effects of a time limit on exam performance were measured using a Stroop Task
study of 21 students affiliated with the Providence College Psychology Department.
The participants were asked to complete a Stroop Task, which is a competitive attention
task. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no time limit,
visual time limit, or an audio time limit to measure the effects of a time limit on test
performance. Each participant’s test was scored based on the percentage of correct
responses they provided. The results suggest no relationship between time limit and
test performance, meaning the presence of a time limit did not affect one’s score on the
Stroop task.

3. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 3
The Effects of a Time Limit on Exam Performance
Examinations are used in order to test students’ retention of the material covered
in a given subject. However, what makes taking an exam so stressful? One of the
reasons why test-taking conditions are so stressful is the time limit that is imposed upon
the test-takers. Students often feel a selective pressure due to the limited time and
must resort to rushing to finish the exam. The time limit should play a minor role in
reflecting test scores because it is useful in measuring one’s ability to think quickly and
make decisions. However, a test with a time limit often turns into a race against the
clock and the focus turns away from what the person knows and towards how quickly
they can finish it. The validity of the test becomes threatened when time is limited too
much, and it becomes less accurate in reflecting what it was intended to measure.
Providing a time limit on standardized tests also reduces the cost of administering the
tests by reducing the time required for proctors to be present (Bridgeman, McBride, &
Monaghan, 2004).
One of the main findings regarding limiting testing time is that students tend to
score higher on examinations when there is no time limit (DeDonno, Rivera-Torres,
Monis, & Fagan, 2014). In order to test this relationship between test performance and
time limit, 118 undergraduate participants were chosen, all of whom were enrolled in a
psychology course at the time. Participants were randomly divided into two groups: one
group had a time limit and the other did not. Both groups were instructed to take the
math and reading comprehension sections of the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT).
The time limit used was the same as the instructions provided by the SAT. Using
Pillai’s trace, there were no significant differences in scores between the group with the

4. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 4
time limit and the group without for the reading comprehension. However, for the math
section, the no time limit group scored better than the group with the time limit, showing
the effect of the time limit on test performance (DeDonno et al., 2014).
Test-taking anxiety is also a problem a number of students deal with in the
classroom. The anxiety can often result in students not performing to their highest
potential (Huesman & Frisbee, 2000). Test-taking anxiety and other forms of pressure
are often a result of the presence of a time limit and the wording of the testing
directions. The importance of recognizing this effect caused by instructions is that the
way test directions are worded can be changed in order to cause the least amount of
stress possible. Even when a time limit is used, the wording of the instructions can
often alleviate some of the pressure and anxiety, relieving the test-takers and allowing
them to perform their best. Telling test-takers that they have an extended time on a
given examination is often a solution, and can be used to reassure test-takers that they
have more time to complete the examination (Huesman & Frisbee, 2000).
The effects of a time limit on examination performance are also important when it
comes to students with learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities have a
harder time completing an exam during the allotted time and are often given extended
time, even on standardized tests like the SAT (Alster 1997). As a result of the time limit
extension, students’ with learning disabilities tend to perform better on tests. Their
scores are much better with the time extension and are close to if not the same as
students without learning disabilities taking the same test (Alster 1997).
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a time limit on test
performance. The hypothesis for this study was that participants taking a test without a

5. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 5
time limit would score higher than participants taking the same test with a time limit.
The independent variable was the testing environment. The timing methods were oral
and visual methods. The dependent variable was the participant’s performance on the
test, which was measured by the percentage of correct answers the participant chose.
Method
Participants
The participants for the experiment to measure the effects of a time limit on test
performance were 21 students from the psychology department. All 21 of the students
attended Providence College and were currently enrolled in a psychology class. The
participants were not monetarily compensated but received credit for a psychology class
by participating. Participants were treated according to APA ethical guidelines
(American Psychological Association, 2010).
Materials
Participants signed up using Sona Experiment Management System, an Internet
site used for online research studies. The test used was a Stroop Test (Stroop, 1935)
and it was used to assess the overall concentration and performance of the participants.
It consisted of 16 rows of words, all of which were names of colors. However, the words
were displayed in a different color from the color the word was actually describing. The
participants then read each line and wrote the first letter of the color in which the word
was printed under the word using a wax pencil. This measured the reaction time of
participants because it often took participants more time to name the color of ink used
when the word denoted a different color and they were also prone to make more errors.

6. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 6
A computer was used to display the time limit for participants in the visual time limit
condition. A stopwatch was also used in order to keep track of the two minutes for the
test.
Procedure
The participants signed up for the study via SONA. The study consisted of three
groups and had a between subjects design. The participants were randomly placed into
one of the three conditions denoting testing conditions: no time limit, visual time limit,
and auditory time limit. Upon arrival, the participants were greeted by myself or
Michelle Ouellette, seated in the room, and asked to sign a consent form.
Participants in the condition with no time limit were asked to read the directions
carefully for the Stroop Test and were told there was no time limit and to work as quickly
and efficiently as possible. The second part of the directions served as a tutorial for the
participant. It provided simple examples of the test the participant completed. The real
test was more challenging, and this was the test that was scored and analyzed. The
participants were stopped after two minutes of taking the test.
For participants in the visual time limit condition, they read the same two pages
of directions. In addition, they were told they had two minutes to complete the test, and
there was a live clock displayed on the computer that counted down the two minutes.
Participants in the third condition received and read the same instructions as
participants in the other two conditions. They were told they had two minutes to
complete the task. The researcher then notified the participant when 30 seconds had
passed, 60 seconds had passed, 90 seconds had passed, and finally when the full two

7. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 7
minutes had passed. After the 2 minute time limit had expired, the participants were
asked to hand in their answers, were debriefed, and given .5 credits on SONA.
Results
The results from the Stroop Task were measured based on the how many words
each participant provided an answer for, which consisted of identifying the color ink
each word was printed in. The mean number of correct responses of participants who
completed the Stroop task in three different time limit conditions was compared using a
one-way ANOVA (See Table 1 in Appendix A). No significant difference was found,
F(2,18) = 1.017, p = 0.381. The number of correct responses did not differ if there was
a time limit, visual or audio, or not. Participants who completed the task with no time
limit had a mean score of 81.86 (sd = 12.93). Participants who completed the task with
a visual time limit had a mean score of 92.00 (sd = 15.37). Participants who completed
the task with an oral time limit had a mean score of 95.43 (sd = 24.99) (See Figure 1 in
Appendix B).
The mean number of attempted responses of participants who completed the
Stroop task in three different time limit conditions was compared using a one-way
ANOVA (See Table 2 in Appendix A). No significant difference was found, F(2,18) =
0.982, p = 0.394. The number of attempted responses did not differ if there was a time
limit, visual or audio, or not. Participants who completed the task with no time limit had
a mean score of 83.14 (sd = 12.60). Participants who completed the task with a visual
time limit had a mean score of 93.00 (sd = 15.07). Participants who completed the task
with an oral time limit had a mean score of 96.14 (sd = 24.46) (See Figure 2 in Appendix
B).

8. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 8
The mean percentage of correct responses of participants who completed the
Stroop task in three different time limit conditions was compared using a one-way
ANOVA (See Table 3 in Appendix A). No significant difference was found, F(2,18) =
0.425, p = 0.660. The percentage of correct responses did not differ if there was a time
limit, visual or audio, or not. Participants who completed the task with no time limit had
a mean score of 98.38% correct (sd = 1.35). Participants who completed the task with a
visual time limit had a mean score of 98.84% correct (sd = 1.72). Participants who
completed the task with an oral time limit had a mean score of 99.09% correct (sd =
1.27) (See Figure 3 in Appendix B).
An independent-samples t test was calculated comparing the mean percentage
of correct responses of participants who had previous exposure to the Stroop task to the
mean percentage of correct responses of participants who did not have previous
exposure (See Table 4 in Appendix A). No significant difference was found, t(19) =
-1.227, p = 0.235. The mean of participants with previous exposure (m = 98.34, sd =
1.65) was not significantly different from the mean of participants without previous
exposure (m = 99.10, sd = 1.18) (See Figure 4 in Appendix B).
Discussion
The computed F values for the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) suggest
that there was not a significant difference between the mean number of correct
responses for participants in the no time limit, visual time limit, and audio time limit
conditions. No significant difference was found for the mean percentage of correct
responses either. After computing these results, we decided to test to see if there was
a speed-accuracy trade off. This means that participants would have worked faster and

9. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 9
attempted to answer more questions when a time limit was present and were not as
concerned about getting every answer correct. A one-way ANOVA was computed for
number of attempted responses in order to test the speed-accuracy trade off, and the
obtained F value suggests no significant difference was present. An independent
samples t-test was also performed comparing the mean percentage of correct
responses for participants who had previous exposure to the Stroop task and those who
did not. However, no significant result was found, suggesting previous exposure had no
effect on the scores of the participants.
One of the main strengths of my study is the use of the 1-way ANOVA as the
inferential statistics method for analyzing the data. Analysis of variance is used for
determining whether significant differences exist in an experiment that has two or more
conditions of the independent variable. There are 3 advantages to using ANOVA, all of
which are strengths of my study. The first is that it will allow me to adequately test my
hypothesis. Also, testing more than two conditions of the independent variable more
accurately describes the type of relationship present. The third strength is that it allows
me to obtain the most information I can from my study. The use of random assignment
of participants to conditions is also a strength because it increases the internal validity.
One of the main weaknesses of this study, however, is the poor external validity,
or the extent to which the results of the survey for the participants taking my survey will
be generally similar to that of other participants in other situation. The poor external
validity of the study is a result of the small number of participants in the study, all 21 of
which attend Providence College, are psychology majors, and receive credit for a
psychology class for participating. There will also be a low power because of the small

10. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 10
number of participants. Another weakness of this study was the use of the Stroop Task
as the test. It was very basic and almost every participant scored close to 100%
correct, showing there was possibly a ceiling effect in the study. One way we could
have improved this study was to include a manipulation check as an additional measure
of the influence of the independent variable. This could have been done by measuring
the level of anxiety, via self-report, that the participants experienced during the study as
a result of a time limit. A manipulation check would have been particularly useful for our
study because of the ceiling effect that occurred as a result of the relative easiness of
the Stroop task. We would expect that participants’ levels of anxiety would be
significantly greater when in a time limit condition as opposed to a no time limit
condition.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a time limit on test
performance. One of the major effects of the pressure from a time limit is test-taking
anxiety. As a result of this anxiety, the test-takers may not perform to the best of their
abilities and their test performance will not be an accurate representation of their
academic abilities. This issue is often debated about with the SAT and how the time
limit for each math, English, and reading comprehension section can thwart a student’s
performance. This is a problem because standardized tests like the SAT are a big
component in the college application process. If a student does poorly on the test
despite their academic abilities, they may not be accepted to a highly selective school of
their choice. There are many components that contribute to one’s intelligence and as
we continue to test students under time limits, it becomes a less accurate reflection of
their actual intellectual capabilities.

11. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 11
References
Alster, E. H. (1997). The effects of extended time on algebra test scores for college
students with and without learning disabilities. The Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 30 (2), 222-227.
American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical principles of psychologists and
code of conduct. Retrieved from http://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
Bridgeman, B., McBride, A., & Monaghan, W. (2004). Testing and time limits. R&D
Connections, 1(1), 1-6.
DeDonno, M. A., Rivera-Torres, K., Monis, A., & Fagan, J. F. (2014). The influence of a
time limit & bilingualism on scholastic school assessment test performance.
North American Journal Of Psychology, 16(2), 211-223.
Huesman, R. L., & Frisbie, D. (2000). The validity of ITBS reading comprehension test
scores for learning disabled and non learning disabled students under
extended-
time conditions. Educational Resources Information Center, 1(1), 1-37.
Stroop, J. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643-662.

12. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 12
Appendix A
Table 1: One-way ANOVA Results for Number of Attempted Responses:
df SS MS F Sig.
Between Groups 2 644.095 322.048 0.982 0.394
Within Groups 18 5903.714 327.984
Total 20 6547.810
Table 2: One-way ANOVA for Number of Correct Responses:
df SS MS F Sig.
Between Groups 2 697.238 348.619 1.017 0.381
Within Groups 18 6168.571 342.698
Total 20 6865.810
Table 3: One-way ANOVA Results for Percent Correct:
df SS MS F Sig.
Between Groups 2 1.811 0.906 0.425 0.660
Within Groups 18 38.385 2.132
Total 20 40.196
Table 4: t-test Results Comparing Previous Exposure to Percent Correct:
Previous Exposure N Mean SD t-calc t-crit df p Decision
No 9 98.338 1.6544 4.106 -1.227 19 0.235 Reject

13. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 13
Yes 12 99.096 1.1813
Appendix B
Figure 1: Descriptive Statistics for One-way ANOVA for Number of Correct Responses
Figure 2: Descriptive Statistics for One-way ANOVA for Number of Attempted Responses
0
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MeanNumberofCorrectResponses
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Mean Number of Correct Responsesvs.Condition
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MeanNumberofAttemptedResponses
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Mean Number of AttemptedResponses vs.Condition
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14. THE EFFECTS OF A TIME LIMIT ON EXAM PERFORMANCE 14
Figure 3: Descriptive Statistics for One-way ANOVA for Number of Attempted Responses
Figure 4. Descriptive Statistics for t-test for previous exposure
0
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MeanPercentageofCorrect
Responses
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Percent ofCorrect Responsesvs.Condition
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MeanPercentageofCorrect
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Exposure to Stroop Task
Percent ofCorrect Responsesvs.PreviousExposure
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Previous
Exposure