Quantitative research methodology

1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
OBJECTIVES:
AT THE END OF THIS CHAPTER, THE STUDENTS WILL ABLE BE
TO
1. COMPARE THE DIFFERENT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS: AND
2. SELECT THE BEST RESEARCH DESIGN FOR THE THESIS

2. PUZZLE TIME!
1.P C M T O A A V E I T R –
2.T E M S S A I A A L N Y I –
3.O R A L O C E R L A T N I –
4.U R R E T T E E E X P I M N –
5.Y E S V U R –
6.Y E H L M G O O O T D –
7.I Q S A U –
8. O R S A Y S A Y A N D N L –
9.O A N L N E E M E X P R I N T –
10. T H E E O O N S C A S-

3. the
1.P C M T O A A V E I T R – COMPARATIVE
2.T E M S S A I A A L N Y I – ITEM ANALYSIS
3.O R A L O C E R L A T N I – CORRELATIONAL
4.U R R E T T E E E X P I M N – TRUE EXPERIMENT
5.Y E S V U R – SURVEY
6.Y E H L M G O O O T D – METHODOLOGY
7.I Q S A U – QUASI
8.C E O R S A Y S A Y A N D I N L – SECONDARY ANALYSIS
9.O A N L N E E M E X P R I N T – EXPERIMENTATIONAL
10. T H E E O O N S C A S- ONE-SHOT CASE

4. Understanding data starts with collecting them. There are
various ways of collecting and understanding data. Many textbooks
and research experts incorporate this essential part of research
document in Research Methodology which addresses the question,
“How does the researcher answer the questions stated in Chapter
I?”
This chapter shows how the problem will be investigated and
discusses the following elements: research design; respondents,
sample, and sampling methods; instrument used; and statistical
treatment.
Investigation

5. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE OF THE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6. 1. Research design. It is very important aspect of research
methodology which describes the researcher mode (whether
it is qualitative research or quantitative research, or if the
researcher will use a specific research type e.g,, descriptive,
survey, historical, case or experimental).

7. 2. Respondents of the Study. This describes the target
population and the sample frame.

8. 3. Instrument of the Study. It describes the specific type of
research instrument that will be used such as questionnaire,
checklist, questionnaire checklist, interview schedule, teacher-
made tests and the like.

9. 4. Establishing and validating reliability. The instrument must
pass the validity and reliability test before it is utilized.

10. 5. Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of establishing
the objectivity of research findings is by subjecting the data to
different but appropriate statistical formulas and processes.

11. The following table presents the two major designs in quantitative,
research namely experimental and non-experimental designs.
Experimental Designs Non- experimental Designs
True Experimental Design
Pretest-Posttest control design
Posttest only control group
Solomon four-group
Quasi-experimental Designs
Non equivalent
Time series
Pre-experimental Designs
One-shot case study
One group pretest-posttest
Action studies
Comparative studies
Correlational studies
Developmental studies
Evaluation studies
Meta-analysis studies
Methodological studies
Needs assessment studies
Secondary analysis studies
Survey studies

12. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimental research is concerned primarily with cause and
effect relationship in studies that involve manipulation or control of the
independent variables (cause) and measurement of the dependent
variables (effects). This design utilizes the principle of research known
as the method of difference. This means that the effect of a single
variable applied to the situation can be assessed and the difference can
be determined (Mill as cited by Sevilla,2013)

13. In Experimental research, there are variables that are not part of the study but
are believed to influence the outcomes. These are called intervening or extraneous
variables. These variables are part of the study limitations. These extraneous or
intervening variables are labeled as threats to internal or external validity
(Campbell, & Stanley, as cited by Nieswiadomy, 2004). Internal validity is the degree
to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the Independent
variable. External validity, however, is the degree to which the changes in the
dependent variable can be attributed to the extraneous variables.
As validity is defined as the ability of a certain tool to measure what it intends
to measure, it is, therefore expected that an experimental research should come up
with accurate results . The accuracy of the results of an experimental research is
hindered internally and externally.

14. THREATS TO INTERNAL
VALIDITY
1. Selection bias. This results when the subjects or respondents of
the study are not randomly selected. In this case, the requirements
of objectivity are not met since there is subjectivity in the selection
of subjects.
For example, a researcher wants to experiment on the best method in
teaching home science and technology. The researcher assigns the
students from the higher section to be in the experimental group and
the students in the lower section to be in the control group. Obviously,
the students in the higher section will perform better.

15. 2. Maturation. This happens when the experiment is conducted
beyond a longer period of time during which of the subjects
undergo physical emotional and/or psychological changes.
Maturation is to be avoided if such changes are not desired.
For example, a researcher implemented an experiment with Grade 10
students as his subjects. The researcher, however, became busy and
was unable to follow up the result of the experiment. When he was
able to resume his study two years later, the subjects had already
matured and were in Grade 12.

16. 3. History. This refers to a threat to internal validity which happens
during the conduct of the study when an unusual events affects the
result of an experiment.
For example, while a research on the effectiveness of a method in
stopping smoking was ongoing, news broke out about students who
were diagnosed with lung cancer because of smoking. The subjects
who heard the news were frightened and decided to stop smoking not
because of the intervention but because of the news.

17. 4. Instrumental change. The instrument used in gathering the data
must not be changed or replaced during the conduct of the study.
The instrument must also be applied to all respondents or subjects.
For example, if a researcher uses an open-ended questionnaire during
initial period of his data gathering, then replaces the research
instrument with a close-ended survey form later, this change in
research instrument will have an effect on the data gathered. As such,
the validity and reliability of the data will be put into question.

18. 5. Mortality. There is a threat to validity when one or more subjects
die, drop out, or transfer as in the case of a student who has not
completed his/her participation in the experiment.

19. 6. Testing. The testing threat may occur in a study when a pretest is
given to subjects who have knowledge of baseline data. Testing bias is
the influence of the pretest or knowledge of baseline data on the
posttest scores. Subjects may remember the answers they put on the
pretest and will put the same answers on the posttest. The time of the
conduct of the test should be considered.
For example, the pretest was given during daytime and the posttest
was given during nighttime. Thus, the time of testing becomes an
extraneous variable.

20. THREATS TO EXTERNAL
VALIDITY
1. Experimenter Effect. This threat appears when the characteristics
of the researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or
respondents.
For example, a known personality like Ms. Karen Davila conducting the
interview or survey may cause the subjects to be starstruck and give
answers which they believe will please the interviewer. Such answers
tend to be superficial or may not truly reveal ideas, opinions, and
thoughts of the subject.

21. 2. Hawthorne effect. This occurs when the respondents or subjects
respond artificially to the treatment because they know they are being
observed as part of the research study. this phenomenon is traced to a
research study done in Hawthorne Works in Illinois which looked into
the effects of improved lighting and the introduction of break times
and shorter work hours on worker performance. The original
researchers concluded that the changes to the workplace resulted in
better performance. Later interpretations by Landsberger, however,
suggested that the novelty of being research subjects and increased
attention caused the increased productivity of the workers. This
interpretation gave rise to the term “Hawthorne Effect”.

22. 3. Measurement Effect. It is also called the reactive effects of
the pretest. It occurs when the subjects have been exposed to
the treatment through taking the pretest. This exposure might
affect the posttest results. If there is a prior announcement of
the conduct of the study, the subjects might prepare and this
will give a superficial result.

23. TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. True experimental design. A design is considered a true
experiment when the following criteria are present: the
researcher manipulates the experimental variables i.e., the
researcher has control over the independent variables, as
well as the treatment and the subjects; there must be one
experimental group and one comparison or control group;
and the subjects are randomly assigned either to the
comparison or experimental group. The control group is a
group that does not receive the treatment.

24. a. Pretest-posttest controlled group design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the treatment while
the control group does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.

25. The procedure is summarized below:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
Where: R stands for random selection
O1 stands for pretest
O2 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention

26. b. Posttest only controlled group design
1. Subjects randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the treatment while
the control group does not receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.

27. The procedure is summarized below:
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (controlled group)
Where: R stands for random selection:
O2 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention

28. c. Solomon four-group design. It is considered as the most
reliable and suitable experimental design. It minimizes threats
to both internal and external validity.
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups
2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1) are pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control
group 2) receive the routine treatment or no treatment.
4. A posttest is given to all four groups

29. The procedure is summarized below:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group)

30. 2. Quasi-experimental design. A design in which either
there is no control group or the subjects are not randomly
assigned to groups’
a. Non-equivalent controlled group design. This design is
similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except
that there is no random assignment of subjects to the
experimental and control groups.
O1 X O2 (experimental group)
O1 O2 (control group)

31. b. Time-series design. The researcher periodically observes
or measure the subjects.
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
Where:
O1, O2, O3 stand for pretest (multiple observations)
O4, O5, O6 stand for posttest (multiple observations)

32. 3. Pre-experimental design. This experimental design is considered
very weak because the researcher has little control over the research.
a. One-shot case study. A single group is exposed to an experimental
treatment and observed after the treatment.
The procedure below is summarizes below:
X O
b. One-group pretest-posttest design. It provides a comparative
description of a group of subjects before and after the experimental
treatment.
The procedure is summarized below:
O1 X O2

33. TYPESOF NON-EXPERIMENTALRESEARCH
DESIGN
1. Survey Studies. The investigations are conducted through self-
report. Surveys generally ask respondents to report on their
attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors. Thus, survey studies
aim at describing characteristics, opinion, attitudes, and behaviors
as they currently exist in a population (Wilson, 1990).
Surveys can be categorized according to:

34. 1.1 whom the data is collected from
a. Sample - a representative of the total population
b. Group – can be smaller than a mass
c. Mass – larger than a group

35. 1.2 methods used to collect the data
a. Telephone
b. Text messages
c. Snail mail
d. E-mail or other social media modalities like twitter, facebook, etc.
e. Face-to-face interaction – This is still the best method of survey due
to its high rate of retrieval. It allows immediate clarification of
issues and offers practical advantages which are not provided by
the other methods

36. 1.3 Time orientation
a. Retrospective. The dependent variable is identified in the
present and an attempt is made to determine the
independent variable that occurred in the past.
b. Cross-sectional. The data are collected at a single point in
time. The design requires subjects who are at different
points, phases, or stages of us experience. The subjects are
assumed to represent data collected from different time
periods.

37. Example of Cross-sectional
For example, if the researcher wants to determine the
psychological experience of students different grade levels, he/she will
gather data from a specific number of subjects from each grade level.

38. c. Longitudinal. Unlike in the cross sectional survey the researcher
collects data from the same people at different times. In the same
study determining the psychological experience of students in the
different grade levels, the researcher will have enough number of
subjects in the first grade level and they will be observed as they pass
through the different stages. Compared to the cross-sectional survey
this study is conducted over a longer period of time.

39. 1.4 Purpose or objectives
a. Descriptive. This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately
portraying population that has been chosen because of some specific
characteristics. It is also used to determine the extent or direction of
attitudes and behaviors. This design aims to gather more information on
certain characteristics within a particular field. of study. The purpose is to
provide a picture of a situation as it naturally happens. It may be used to
develop theories, identify problems with a current practice, justify
current practices, aid in making professional judgments, or determine
what other practitioners in similar situations are doing. No manipulation
of variables is involved in a descriptive design.

40. b. Comparative. This design is used to compare and contrast
representative samples from two or more groups of subjects in relation
to certain designated variables that occur in normal conditions. The
results obtained from these analyses are frequently not generalized in a
population.

41. c. Correlational. The design is used to investigate the direction and
magnitude of relationships among variables in a particular population.
Likewise, it is designed to study the changes in one characteristic or
phenomenon which correspond to the changes in another or with one
another. A wide range of variable scores is necessary to determine the
existence of relationships. Thus, the sample should reflect the full
range of scores if possible, on the variables being measured.

42. d. Evaluative. This deign involves making a judgment of worth or
value. It allows the researcher to delineate, obtain, and provide
information that is useful for judging decision alternatives when
conducting a program or service. It can be formative (process) or
summative (outcome)

43. This study used the survey approach of conducting a research Specifically, lived the descriptive
survey and correlation procedures. The principal purse of the researcher was to cover how the groups
of respondents assessed the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school teenagers and to
find out the relationship of these competencies to the school's effectiveness. The descriptive method
was supplemented with documentary analysis of the school, teacher's and student's performance as-
reflected in the Performance Appraisal for Secondary School Teachers (PAST), and the documents
available in the Division office for the performance indicators as well as local documents available in
the school for the awards received and data on the school participation in the community.
Gay (1976) defines descriptive research as involving the current status of the subject of the
study. This method of research is designed to gather information on condition existing at a particular
period. Similarly, Travers (1978) added that the descriptive method) of research is used to describe the
nature of a situation as it exists at the time of study and to explore the causes of particular
phenomena.
A correlation approach was used to relate the competencies of the school managers to school
performance. A correlation survey is defined by Calmorin (1998) as the study that aims to determine
the relationship of variables, it also indicates the extent to which different variables are related to each
other and what variables are related to each other in the target population. It also ascertains how
much variation is caused by another variable. Measure of correlation determines the magnitude and
direction of relationship
Research Design Example 1 (Cristobal, 2003)

44. Research Design Example 2
This study is quantitative in nature since the questions posed will
be answered by numerical data. Specifically, this investigation utilized a
true experimental design or a pre- post test design (Cristobal, 2009), in
a pre-post design a pretest was given to students of Algebra. Then,
after the pretest, an intervention method was conducted. Polynomials
were taught using a computer program: After to hours of teaching, a
posttest was given to student