This document provides guidance on structuring and presenting data in the dissertation process. It discusses: 1. The importance of structuring the data presentation chapter logically based on themes, objectives, or concepts from the literature review rather than just presenting all raw data. 2. The need to discuss sampling methods, validity, and reliability to establish credibility before presenting any findings. 3. Tips for effective data presentation including using tables, figures, and narrative analysis to interpret results while maintaining objectivity and considering multiple explanations. 4. The chapter should draw specific conclusions from each data cluster or theme but stop short of overall conclusions, leaving synthesis for the end. Proper referencing is also emphasized.

1. Research Process iii)
Data Presentation to the End!
3.0 Introduction to Data Presentation and Analysis Chapter
• Introduce this chapter, its logic and structure….this is the ‘meat’ of the
dissertation and likely to be the second longest chapter (after the Lit Rev) or even
the longest, so it is imperative that you show us the ‘building blocks’ and the
ordering to ensure we can make sense of it as we go.
3.1 Structure
• Remember – the way you research something for your own convenience is hardly
ever the way you would present it - surely you will learn so much through the
data acquisition process and analysis and ruminating upon it that you can find
some themes or convenient logic upon which to rest the key components.
• Survey 1 Qs 1-20 followed by Survey 2 Qs 1 –20 spanning 30 pages is hardly
likely to be riveting reading…and then you try to synthesise it and build links
between the elements and expect the reader to be able to relate page 19 to page 33
and cross reference it with something he may just remember having seen on page
26…I don’t think so!
• Possible alternatives:
1. You MAY find that the structure can be conveniently driven by your aims and
objectives or possibly by the structure of your literature review (the latter
should mirror the former to a significant degree if you think about it!) or in
terms of your ‘Research Gap’. Surely you must be covering things under these
same areas in your primary research?
2. The definition of your Research Gap at the end of the Lit Rev will certainly
give you a sensible possible template to work from as your research was (I
HOPE!) designed to plug this gap.
3. The primary research itself may have ‘resolved itself’ around a number of
emerging ‘themes’ which seem to hold the answer to the Qs or hypotheses at
the heart of the question – potentially these themes themselves might
represent a suitable structure.
4. In your Lit Rev you should have come across concepts, theories, models,
processes, approaches (for example, say a chronology of the key phases
involved in crisis management) – potentially these might hold the key to the
structure and logic of this chapter.
• Regardless of what structure you choose, it should be
• Clear
• Logical
• Appropriate
• Easy to follow from the reader’s perspective (as opposed to convenient for
you as the writer)

2. 3.2 Sampling, data acquisition, validity & reliability
Do remember, before embarking on your first data set to talk us through the population,
the sample, the questionnaire/interview administration process and the issue of the
validity and reliability of the data (and yes, you may well need some statistics to do this)
– lest you do this, what right have you to suggest that we believe the figures or your
conclusions at all? (See above)
3.3 Data presentation, analysis & evaluation
It is difficult to ‘script’ this chapter/section – so much depends upon what emerges from
your own data analysis. Nevertheless, the following elements hold true:
• Use a strong and logical structure (see above – and it may not necessarily be Q1
Q2 Q3….).
• Use tables / figs / graphs etc where they lend themselves and ‘paint the
proverbial 1000 words’
o That said, you must give a narrative interpretation of tabs & figs – they do
not speak for themselves entirely. You cannot assume the reader will see
all you want him to see or to draw the conclusions that you do.
o Ensure your explanation and interpretation of the data is correct,
balanced and justified: watertight. Be sure that there can be no other
explanation....or, failing that, entertain the fact that the data is capable of
multiple interpretations.
o Take care in drawing causal links: ‘this is because…’ in some cases you
may want to see it that way (perhaps you wish to ‘prove’ your hypothesis
rather than ‘test’ it) but there may be other reasons. You need to maintain
balance in your analysis, evaluation and attribution of causal links at all
costs.
• Consider carefully where you place analysis:
o Pages of presentation of data without interpretation and analysis (the latter
being held back for a considerable time) is difficult to assimilate and
boring….you will need to house analysis reasonably close to the datasets
themselves…this may suggest some clustering around themes, objectives,
phases in a process, stages in a model, themes arising……think it through
and, whatever your decision, ‘sell’ the idea to your reader.
• Evaluation is more than analysis.
o Analysis explains why something is what it is, the way it is
o Evaluation considers its value both intrinsically and in relation to other
comparators
• Consider carefully where you evaluate and draw conclusions:
o As above, you may find it sensible, easier (for you and your readership) to
draw some conclusions at each cluster, theme, stage….of course when you
have dealt with ALL the themes you will still need to dovetail/synthesise it
all together, but you will find it the easier for already having mini-
conclusions already in the bag.

3. • Although we tend to bracket conclusions and recommendations together, they
are separate (though closely related) entities
o Conclusions are what may be drawn from the analysis and evaluation of
data
o Recommendations represent a logical and hopefully practical response to
the impacts and implications (for your chosen context) which run from the
conclusions drawn.
So in this chapter you should be drawing specific conclusions from the data, but stopping
short of drawing final conclusions in respect of the whole dissertation.
3.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
Here you need to reflect upon your title and aims and objectives; to show that you have
thoroughly addressed them and what has resulted therefrom. Depending upon the nature
of the project you may find that there are ‘conclusions’ or ‘conclusions followed by
‘recommendations’. You must NOT rush this: this is where YOUR qualities and creative
contributions shine through. This is where YOU fill the ‘gap’ and produce something
that was not known and appreciated before. This is where you advance the sum total of
human knowledge on the subject. Obviously, the higher the level at which you are
working, the greater the expectation of your extent and quality of contribution.
• Introduction
o Provide a structure for the chapter
o Re-visit/ remind the reader of the initial aims and objectives
• Treatment of aims and objectives
o take the reader through an audit of how you have treated and addressed
each one of them
• Taking the A&Os draw conclusions from each.
• Threading the conclusions from the above together, what does it all add up to?
o Has the central hypothesis been proven?
o Has the central question been comprehensively answered?
o Has the problem been resolved?
• In the light of specific and overall conclusions are there recommendations one
could make:
o To the specific context (organisation)
o To a broader context (sector..region..) IF APPLICABLE. But do beware
here: some things are NOT automatically transferable to other settings....
or at least not without further research to test and establish their
transferability.
• Consider what it would take to move these conclusions and recommendations
into reality:
o Further research?
• A ‘wrap’ statement leaving the dissertation complete and forward-looking.
GREAT!! Finished!!!! ...................... Really??? – Are you sure?

4. 3.5 References / Bibliography
Please note below the general principles for the use of appendices (‘annexes’):-
• References are bibliographic sources you ACTUALLY cited in the text.
• At all costs, make sure you follow consistently a recognised referencing system
like Harvard or MLA.
o this means you must always cite your sources in the main body of your
project no matter whether you are quoting or paraphrasing. Remember:
citation without attribution = plagiarism! The penalty for plagiarism is
unthinkable – at best it could be Conseil de Discipline and at worst
exclusion from this university and all other French universities at very
least
o ‘References’ = sources actually used and quoted.
o ‘Bibliography’ = other sources used (not necessarily quoted) which
influenced your thinking
• The general idea underpinning ALL referencing systems is that you MUST at all
costs provide sufficient information to the reader to be able to find the exact
source that you yourself used. Where web sources are concerned, for example, it
is NOT sufficient to cite things like www. france.gouv.fr – you HAVE to be able
to give instructions to the reader as to how to find the precise article upon the
page where you found it. If you want the right to rely upon some assertion made
by someone you MUST be prepared to give the reader opportunity to verify it for
himself.
3.6 Appendices
Please do not get the use of appendices wrong. If something is germane to the
understanding of the main body of the text...... it should BE in the main body and NOT in
the appendices. A reader should be able to make perfect sense of the main body without
recourse to the appendices at all.
The rule is that appendices are for EXTRA, ADDITIONAL OR CONTEXTUAL
information…material which the reader may or may not refer to (It is up to the reader –
he doesn’t have to).
• This is most definitely not a dumping ground for text when facing a tight word
limit.
• You must not force the reader to dive from the main body to the appendices just
to make sense of the matter.
• Students often make criminal mistakes putting things in the appendices which
were desperately needed in the main body: do NOT let this happen to you! You
must never ‘force’ the reader to have to refer to the appendices to make sense of
what you are writing in the main body. If it is so critical to the understanding of
the point you are making – it should be in the main body!

5. 3.7 FINISHED now, surely??? ............ Really?................ Are you SURE?
You may think that you are at the end.... but that only means it is time for you to
reconsider the beginning! Like any large-scale endeavour, your project can wander off-
target in the writing. You need to reflect upon what you set out to do and what you
actually did do and see whether the two are in harmony with one another (or not).
Introduction
• Go back and re-read your title and introduction and aims and objectives – you
may have ‘veered’ off course. This leaves a choice:
o Tune the title and A&O to the content
o Keep the A&O and edit the content
The former is probably the easier at this stage!
Acknowledgements? (If you want). Often you may want to thank your boss, supportive
colleagues, contributors and key interviewees, partners etc...though this is never
obligatory. Take care not to sound too ‘gushing’ in your admiration ‘though!
Abstract (if an academic piece of work). Now you can write this. It is NOT an
introduction. It is a very short précis (perhaps half a page to two pages max) of the entire
finished work including what you concluded so that a future potential reader could
determine whether to go to the trouble of reading the entire thing or not. It goes in the
front BEFORE the contents page!
Executive Summary (If a commercial piece of work). This is often 1 or 2 pages long
summarising the entire research work (not just the outcomes). It tends to be read by
senior people who need a quick digest because they do not have the time to plough
through the entire document.... this ‘ploughing’ they will often leave to their
subordinates. It is the commercial equivalent of the academic ‘abstract’.
Format. Refer to any Handbook supplied or agreed brief for technical details such as:
o Word limit and penalties
o Front page
o Spacing
o Binding
o Cover
o Etc
Making sure you have not infringed any limits or regulations.
Deadline
• There are NO excuses here…. Last minute ICT / TICE problems are almost never
acceptable given the period you have had to plan a project. BE WARNED.
Deadlines are deadlines: miss them at your peril.

6. Finally... I hope this has helped as a sort of logical template: good luck!