1) The document discusses the debate between Alexander Hamilton and James Madison regarding the neutrality declaration issued by President Washington during the war between Britain and France.
2) Hamilton argued the President has the authority to declare neutrality as the branch responsible for foreign policy and enforcing treaties.
3) Madison responded that declaring war and making treaties are legislative powers, so the President's authority is limited to executing the laws, not interpreting treaties.
4) Their debate helped establish that while the President conducts foreign policy, Congress also has authority over matters of war and treaties.
Woodrow Wilson had a vision of changing the world through American leadership and international cooperation. He sought to establish a League of Nations after World War 1 to guarantee collective security and prevent future wars. However, Wilson faced opposition from isolationists in the US Senate who rejected American membership in the League. This ultimately led to the failure of the Treaty of Versailles and the League to achieve lasting peace.
The document discusses the concept of the right of revolution, which holds that people have a right or duty to overthrow a government that acts against their interests. The idea originated in ancient China with the Mandate of Heaven and has been used to justify rebellions throughout history, including the American and French Revolutions. The right of revolution was also discussed by philosophers and theorists in medieval Europe, the Early Modern period, and used to justify several historical revolutionary movements.
This document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in Europe and its impact on the American and French Revolutions. Key philosophers like Locke and Rousseau influenced ideas of individual rights and popular sovereignty. The American Revolution was sparked by oppressive British taxes and legislation, leading to the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The French Revolution overthrew the French monarchy and aristocracy in response to inequality, establishing a republic but also periods of instability and violence under Robespierre. Napoleon later seized power in France and crowned himself Emperor, seeking to stabilize the country.
This document provides a comprehensive overview of important dates, places, events, people, and concepts in United States history from the colonial period through the Civil War era. It covers the founding of Jamestown in 1607, key battles and documents of the American Revolution like the Declaration of Independence, important developments during the early decades of the US like the Louisiana Purchase and the Civil War from 1861-1865. The document also defines influential political philosophies, economic theories, and terms that shaped the nation's founding and growth.
This document summarizes how Richard Nixon rose to power through clandestine means similar to those used by Hitler and the Nazis in Germany. It describes how hundreds of political assassinations in both Germany and the US paved the way for authoritarian regimes to gain control. Nixon served the hidden strategic interests of the military-industrial complex and helped cover up evidence in controversial cases like the Alger Hiss trial to smear opponents and advance his own career for their benefit. The document draws parallels between Nixon's path to power and Hitler's rise in Germany through illegal means.
The document defines key terms and people from World War 2. It describes alliances between countries, the leaders of the Allied powers known as the "Big Three" which included Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. It also discusses important figures like Churchill, Hitler and Mussolini, as well as events and places such as Pearl Harbor, internment camps, and victory gardens.
The document summarizes key events and ideas during the American Revolution and early years of the United States:
- The oppressive rule of Britain and the determination of Americans for freedom led to the Revolutionary War, starting with battles at Concord in 1775.
- The Declaration of Independence was approved on July 4, 1776, declaring independence from Britain.
- The new states drafted a Constitution to organize as a confederation and union to resist British rule and prevent future tyranny.
- Republicanism advocated for an elected government without a king, ruled by law instead of a monarch.
The document discusses the Declaration of Independence and its history and significance. It provides background on why the declaration was written, including that the war was not going well for the colonies and they needed to rally support. It also summarizes some of the key themes and sections of the declaration, including its statements of natural rights and that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed.
Woodrow Wilson had a vision of changing the world through American leadership and international cooperation. He sought to establish a League of Nations after World War 1 to guarantee collective security and prevent future wars. However, Wilson faced opposition from isolationists in the US Senate who rejected American membership in the League. This ultimately led to the failure of the Treaty of Versailles and the League to achieve lasting peace.
The document discusses the concept of the right of revolution, which holds that people have a right or duty to overthrow a government that acts against their interests. The idea originated in ancient China with the Mandate of Heaven and has been used to justify rebellions throughout history, including the American and French Revolutions. The right of revolution was also discussed by philosophers and theorists in medieval Europe, the Early Modern period, and used to justify several historical revolutionary movements.
This document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in Europe and its impact on the American and French Revolutions. Key philosophers like Locke and Rousseau influenced ideas of individual rights and popular sovereignty. The American Revolution was sparked by oppressive British taxes and legislation, leading to the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The French Revolution overthrew the French monarchy and aristocracy in response to inequality, establishing a republic but also periods of instability and violence under Robespierre. Napoleon later seized power in France and crowned himself Emperor, seeking to stabilize the country.
This document provides a comprehensive overview of important dates, places, events, people, and concepts in United States history from the colonial period through the Civil War era. It covers the founding of Jamestown in 1607, key battles and documents of the American Revolution like the Declaration of Independence, important developments during the early decades of the US like the Louisiana Purchase and the Civil War from 1861-1865. The document also defines influential political philosophies, economic theories, and terms that shaped the nation's founding and growth.
This document summarizes how Richard Nixon rose to power through clandestine means similar to those used by Hitler and the Nazis in Germany. It describes how hundreds of political assassinations in both Germany and the US paved the way for authoritarian regimes to gain control. Nixon served the hidden strategic interests of the military-industrial complex and helped cover up evidence in controversial cases like the Alger Hiss trial to smear opponents and advance his own career for their benefit. The document draws parallels between Nixon's path to power and Hitler's rise in Germany through illegal means.
The document defines key terms and people from World War 2. It describes alliances between countries, the leaders of the Allied powers known as the "Big Three" which included Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. It also discusses important figures like Churchill, Hitler and Mussolini, as well as events and places such as Pearl Harbor, internment camps, and victory gardens.
The document summarizes key events and ideas during the American Revolution and early years of the United States:
- The oppressive rule of Britain and the determination of Americans for freedom led to the Revolutionary War, starting with battles at Concord in 1775.
- The Declaration of Independence was approved on July 4, 1776, declaring independence from Britain.
- The new states drafted a Constitution to organize as a confederation and union to resist British rule and prevent future tyranny.
- Republicanism advocated for an elected government without a king, ruled by law instead of a monarch.
The document discusses the Declaration of Independence and its history and significance. It provides background on why the declaration was written, including that the war was not going well for the colonies and they needed to rally support. It also summarizes some of the key themes and sections of the declaration, including its statements of natural rights and that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed.
This document is a 3,544 word essay examining the constitutionality of President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and suspension of habeas corpus during the American Civil War. It provides background on these actions and analyzes arguments for and against their constitutionality. Regarding the Emancipation Proclamation, the essay argues it was constitutional based on international law allowing emancipation through eminent domain once the Confederacy seceded. However, suspension of habeas corpus is deemed unconstitutional since that power belongs to Congress, not the executive branch, according to the essay. The essay concludes Lincoln's actions were both constitutional and unconstitutional depending on which action is being considered.
The Marshall Plan was a US program that provided over $13 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II. The plan aimed to boost production, modernize infrastructure, lower trade barriers, and prevent the spread of communism. There was initial skepticism, but the plan succeeded in increasing industrial production and trade. It contributed to economic recovery and the loss of influence of communist parties in Western Europe.
The document discusses several key events from the Jefferson administration and era:
1) Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams in the 1800 presidential election, becoming the third US president. Jefferson later claimed this was a "revolution."
2) Jefferson reluctantly engaged in the First Barbary War after pirates began attacking American shipping. Though initially skeptical of a strong military, the war succeeded in securing peace.
3) Jefferson orchestrated the massive Louisiana Purchase in 1803, doubling the size of the US but also raising constitutional questions about presidential power.
4) Tensions grew between the US and Britain/France due to interference with American shipping and trade during the Napoleonic Wars, ultimately leading to the War of 1812
1) The document provides context on major political and social events in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in America, including the Revolutionary War, creation of the Constitution and new government, early presidencies, and expansion westward.
2) Key topics covered include the American system of government developed under presidents Washington and Adams, the election of 1800 and the beginning of Jeffersonian republicanism, and territorial growth through the Louisiana Purchase and Monroe Doctrine.
3) Sectional tensions around the expansion of slavery emerged as a divisive issue, exemplified by the Missouri Compromise, as the new nation grappled with westward expansion and balancing slave and free states.
World War I began in 1914 after tensions between European powers led to a system of alliances that pulled countries into war. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand led Austria-Hungary to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, sparking conflict. Though the U.S. initially remained neutral, it later joined the Allied forces after attacks on U.S. merchant ships and the discovery of the Zimmerman Telegram. The war involved new military technologies and tactics like trench warfare, costing millions of lives until an armistice in 1918. The ensuing Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, sowing seeds for future conflict.
The document discusses key events leading up to the American Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1776. It describes how the Continental Congress met and formed the Continental Army led by George Washington. Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" helped shift attitudes by arguing citizens, not kings, should make laws. The Second Continental Congress formed a committee to draft a declaration announcing separation from Britain. Thomas Jefferson was the main author, arguing people have rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness that King George III violated through unfair laws. The Declaration was signed on July 4th, 1776 at Independence Hall.
This chapter discusses the growing tensions between the British colonies in America and the British government in the years leading up to the American Revolution. It describes how the colonies were originally established and self-governed, but increasingly faced taxation and laws imposed by Britain to exert control over the colonies. Major events that escalated tensions included the Boston Massacre, the Tea Act and Boston Tea Party, and the Intolerable Acts in response to the Tea Party. In 1775, clashes between colonial militias and British troops at Lexington and Concord marked the outbreak of armed conflict, starting the Revolutionary War.
The document is a teacher's presentation on the Declaration of Independence for 8th grade history students. It provides an overview of key facts about the Declaration, including that it declared independence from England and was written primarily by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. It also summarizes some of the main complaints against King George III, such as imposing taxes without consent.
Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel Uncle Tom's Cabin aroused strong reactions in both the North and South by vividly portraying the cruelty of slavery. It sold millions of copies and influenced public opinion in both America and Europe. In the 1857 Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court ruled that slaves were property without rights and Congress could not ban slavery in territories, further straining sectional tensions. The 1860 election saw Republicans nominate Abraham Lincoln while the southern Democrats nominated John Breckinridge after walking out of the Democratic convention, reflecting the deep split over slavery in the nation.
The document discusses several key events and issues surrounding the American Civil War:
1) Lincoln was faced with an ominous choice regarding how to respond to the secession of South Carolina and other southern states taking control of federal forts and property. He ultimately refused the southern demand to surrender Fort Sumter.
2) The southern attack on Fort Sumter was ultimately a positive for the North and Lincoln, as it rallied support for the Union cause.
3) The Border States of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware were crucial because their allegiance could have tipped the war strongly in the South's favor if they had seceded.
4) Railroads and telegraph networks gave the North a
1. Title IX banned gender discrimination in education and prohibited sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs.
2. Nixon established diplomatic relations with China in 1979, increasing trade between the two countries.
3. Key events of the Nixon and Reagan administrations included the oil crisis, Nixon's pardon for Watergate, the Iranian hostage crisis, the savings and loan crisis, and the Iran-Contra affair.
Topic.15 The Cold War And The America That Dealt With Itmr.meechin
1. The document discusses the origins and development of the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union following World War II. Tensions rose as the two superpowers disagreed over the future of Eastern Europe and nuclear weapons.
2. The Cold War involved conflicts like the Korean War and Cuban Missile Crisis, as well as policies aimed at containing the spread of communism like the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and formation of NATO.
3. By the 1960s, Cold War tensions began to ease as the US and USSR established communication lines and agreed to limit nuclear testing, though the two nations remained ideological opponents for decades.
- In the 1800 election, Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the electoral college vote, which had to be decided by the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives, where they finally chose Jefferson.
- Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, doubling the size of the US but raising constitutional questions about executive power.
- Jefferson imposed an embargo on foreign trade from 1807-1809 to remain neutral in the Napoleonic Wars, but it mainly hurt New England and failed to change British and French policy.
1. The document provides information about speculation in finance and economics, the origins of World War I alliances and treaties, the Geneva Conventions, the Sons of Liberty group in the American colonies, the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War, key figures like John Jay, the effects of the treaty on the U.S., and the causes of the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
2. The Geneva Conventions established international standards for the humanitarian treatment of war victims and comprised four treaties addressing the treatment of wounded soldiers, prisoners of war, and civilians.
3. The causes of the War of 1812 included British restrictions on American trade, impressment of American sailors
The document discusses the key political ideas that influenced the American Revolution and Declaration of Independence. It explains that the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke, who believed in natural rights and consent of the governed, as well as Thomas Paine's writings in Common Sense, inspired principles in the Declaration. These included the ideas that all men are created equal, that governments derive just powers from the consent of the people, and that the people have a right to alter or abolish destructive governments. The document also summarizes the political differences among colonists concerning separation from Britain and reasons for the colonial victory in the Revolutionary War, including diplomatic alliances with France and George Washington's military leadership.
The document discusses the political changes that occurred in the United States following the Era of Good Feelings. New political parties formed as opposition became more accepted. Candidates used new campaign methods like parades and barbecues to appeal to voters. Voter turnout doubled between 1824 and 1828 as people became more engaged in the political process. The elections of the 1820s and 1830s were characterized by the rise of Jacksonian democracy and the development of the two-party system between the Democrats and Whigs.
The document summarizes Chapter 11 of the Jeffersonian Republic from 1800 to 1812. It discusses Jefferson's election and transition of power, conflicts between Federalists and Republicans over the judiciary, Jefferson's foreign policy goals including the Louisiana Purchase, America's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars, the failure of Jefferson's embargo, and the causes of the War of 1812 against Britain. Key terms and reading questions are also provided to guide understanding of these events.
Alexander Hamilton's plan to assume state debts was controversial but helped strengthen the national government. This and Hamilton's other economic policies like the whiskey tax divided Americans into Federalist and Jeffersonian Republican parties with opposing views. The 1800 election was a turning point with Jefferson defeating Adams and the peaceful transfer of power between parties establishing an important precedent.
The 19th century saw significant territorial expansion in the US through the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the country for $15 million. This led to increased tensions between the North and South over the issue of slavery and whether new states would permit it. These tensions ultimately erupted into the Civil War between 1861-1865, which was the bloodiest battle in US history at Antietam with over 6,000 casualties in a single day and led Abraham Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Industrialization and immigration boomed after the war.
The document discusses the results of a study on the effects of a new drug on memory and cognitive function in older adults. The double-blind study involved 100 participants aged 65-80 and found that those given the drug performed significantly better on memory and problem-solving tests than the placebo group after 6 months. The drug was found to be safe and well-tolerated with no serious side effects reported.
El documento describe diferentes elementos arquitectónicos como bóvedas de crucería, arcos apuntados, penáculos, cornizas, decoraciones de estilo rococó y su presencia en edificios como el L'Oceanografic de Valencia, la catedral de Burj Al Arab en Dubai, el edificio Chrysler en Nueva York y el aeropuerto de Barajas en Madrid. Ilustra estos elementos a través de imágenes y los relaciona con estilos arquitectónicos como el manierista y rococó.
This document is a 3,544 word essay examining the constitutionality of President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and suspension of habeas corpus during the American Civil War. It provides background on these actions and analyzes arguments for and against their constitutionality. Regarding the Emancipation Proclamation, the essay argues it was constitutional based on international law allowing emancipation through eminent domain once the Confederacy seceded. However, suspension of habeas corpus is deemed unconstitutional since that power belongs to Congress, not the executive branch, according to the essay. The essay concludes Lincoln's actions were both constitutional and unconstitutional depending on which action is being considered.
The Marshall Plan was a US program that provided over $13 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II. The plan aimed to boost production, modernize infrastructure, lower trade barriers, and prevent the spread of communism. There was initial skepticism, but the plan succeeded in increasing industrial production and trade. It contributed to economic recovery and the loss of influence of communist parties in Western Europe.
The document discusses several key events from the Jefferson administration and era:
1) Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams in the 1800 presidential election, becoming the third US president. Jefferson later claimed this was a "revolution."
2) Jefferson reluctantly engaged in the First Barbary War after pirates began attacking American shipping. Though initially skeptical of a strong military, the war succeeded in securing peace.
3) Jefferson orchestrated the massive Louisiana Purchase in 1803, doubling the size of the US but also raising constitutional questions about presidential power.
4) Tensions grew between the US and Britain/France due to interference with American shipping and trade during the Napoleonic Wars, ultimately leading to the War of 1812
1) The document provides context on major political and social events in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in America, including the Revolutionary War, creation of the Constitution and new government, early presidencies, and expansion westward.
2) Key topics covered include the American system of government developed under presidents Washington and Adams, the election of 1800 and the beginning of Jeffersonian republicanism, and territorial growth through the Louisiana Purchase and Monroe Doctrine.
3) Sectional tensions around the expansion of slavery emerged as a divisive issue, exemplified by the Missouri Compromise, as the new nation grappled with westward expansion and balancing slave and free states.
World War I began in 1914 after tensions between European powers led to a system of alliances that pulled countries into war. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand led Austria-Hungary to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, sparking conflict. Though the U.S. initially remained neutral, it later joined the Allied forces after attacks on U.S. merchant ships and the discovery of the Zimmerman Telegram. The war involved new military technologies and tactics like trench warfare, costing millions of lives until an armistice in 1918. The ensuing Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, sowing seeds for future conflict.
The document discusses key events leading up to the American Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1776. It describes how the Continental Congress met and formed the Continental Army led by George Washington. Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" helped shift attitudes by arguing citizens, not kings, should make laws. The Second Continental Congress formed a committee to draft a declaration announcing separation from Britain. Thomas Jefferson was the main author, arguing people have rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness that King George III violated through unfair laws. The Declaration was signed on July 4th, 1776 at Independence Hall.
This chapter discusses the growing tensions between the British colonies in America and the British government in the years leading up to the American Revolution. It describes how the colonies were originally established and self-governed, but increasingly faced taxation and laws imposed by Britain to exert control over the colonies. Major events that escalated tensions included the Boston Massacre, the Tea Act and Boston Tea Party, and the Intolerable Acts in response to the Tea Party. In 1775, clashes between colonial militias and British troops at Lexington and Concord marked the outbreak of armed conflict, starting the Revolutionary War.
The document is a teacher's presentation on the Declaration of Independence for 8th grade history students. It provides an overview of key facts about the Declaration, including that it declared independence from England and was written primarily by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. It also summarizes some of the main complaints against King George III, such as imposing taxes without consent.
Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel Uncle Tom's Cabin aroused strong reactions in both the North and South by vividly portraying the cruelty of slavery. It sold millions of copies and influenced public opinion in both America and Europe. In the 1857 Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court ruled that slaves were property without rights and Congress could not ban slavery in territories, further straining sectional tensions. The 1860 election saw Republicans nominate Abraham Lincoln while the southern Democrats nominated John Breckinridge after walking out of the Democratic convention, reflecting the deep split over slavery in the nation.
The document discusses several key events and issues surrounding the American Civil War:
1) Lincoln was faced with an ominous choice regarding how to respond to the secession of South Carolina and other southern states taking control of federal forts and property. He ultimately refused the southern demand to surrender Fort Sumter.
2) The southern attack on Fort Sumter was ultimately a positive for the North and Lincoln, as it rallied support for the Union cause.
3) The Border States of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware were crucial because their allegiance could have tipped the war strongly in the South's favor if they had seceded.
4) Railroads and telegraph networks gave the North a
1. Title IX banned gender discrimination in education and prohibited sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs.
2. Nixon established diplomatic relations with China in 1979, increasing trade between the two countries.
3. Key events of the Nixon and Reagan administrations included the oil crisis, Nixon's pardon for Watergate, the Iranian hostage crisis, the savings and loan crisis, and the Iran-Contra affair.
Topic.15 The Cold War And The America That Dealt With Itmr.meechin
1. The document discusses the origins and development of the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union following World War II. Tensions rose as the two superpowers disagreed over the future of Eastern Europe and nuclear weapons.
2. The Cold War involved conflicts like the Korean War and Cuban Missile Crisis, as well as policies aimed at containing the spread of communism like the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and formation of NATO.
3. By the 1960s, Cold War tensions began to ease as the US and USSR established communication lines and agreed to limit nuclear testing, though the two nations remained ideological opponents for decades.
- In the 1800 election, Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the electoral college vote, which had to be decided by the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives, where they finally chose Jefferson.
- Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, doubling the size of the US but raising constitutional questions about executive power.
- Jefferson imposed an embargo on foreign trade from 1807-1809 to remain neutral in the Napoleonic Wars, but it mainly hurt New England and failed to change British and French policy.
1. The document provides information about speculation in finance and economics, the origins of World War I alliances and treaties, the Geneva Conventions, the Sons of Liberty group in the American colonies, the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War, key figures like John Jay, the effects of the treaty on the U.S., and the causes of the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
2. The Geneva Conventions established international standards for the humanitarian treatment of war victims and comprised four treaties addressing the treatment of wounded soldiers, prisoners of war, and civilians.
3. The causes of the War of 1812 included British restrictions on American trade, impressment of American sailors
The document discusses the key political ideas that influenced the American Revolution and Declaration of Independence. It explains that the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke, who believed in natural rights and consent of the governed, as well as Thomas Paine's writings in Common Sense, inspired principles in the Declaration. These included the ideas that all men are created equal, that governments derive just powers from the consent of the people, and that the people have a right to alter or abolish destructive governments. The document also summarizes the political differences among colonists concerning separation from Britain and reasons for the colonial victory in the Revolutionary War, including diplomatic alliances with France and George Washington's military leadership.
The document discusses the political changes that occurred in the United States following the Era of Good Feelings. New political parties formed as opposition became more accepted. Candidates used new campaign methods like parades and barbecues to appeal to voters. Voter turnout doubled between 1824 and 1828 as people became more engaged in the political process. The elections of the 1820s and 1830s were characterized by the rise of Jacksonian democracy and the development of the two-party system between the Democrats and Whigs.
The document summarizes Chapter 11 of the Jeffersonian Republic from 1800 to 1812. It discusses Jefferson's election and transition of power, conflicts between Federalists and Republicans over the judiciary, Jefferson's foreign policy goals including the Louisiana Purchase, America's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars, the failure of Jefferson's embargo, and the causes of the War of 1812 against Britain. Key terms and reading questions are also provided to guide understanding of these events.
Alexander Hamilton's plan to assume state debts was controversial but helped strengthen the national government. This and Hamilton's other economic policies like the whiskey tax divided Americans into Federalist and Jeffersonian Republican parties with opposing views. The 1800 election was a turning point with Jefferson defeating Adams and the peaceful transfer of power between parties establishing an important precedent.
The 19th century saw significant territorial expansion in the US through the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the country for $15 million. This led to increased tensions between the North and South over the issue of slavery and whether new states would permit it. These tensions ultimately erupted into the Civil War between 1861-1865, which was the bloodiest battle in US history at Antietam with over 6,000 casualties in a single day and led Abraham Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Industrialization and immigration boomed after the war.
The document discusses the results of a study on the effects of a new drug on memory and cognitive function in older adults. The double-blind study involved 100 participants aged 65-80 and found that those given the drug performed significantly better on memory and problem-solving tests than the placebo group after 6 months. The drug was found to be safe and well-tolerated with no serious side effects reported.
El documento describe diferentes elementos arquitectónicos como bóvedas de crucería, arcos apuntados, penáculos, cornizas, decoraciones de estilo rococó y su presencia en edificios como el L'Oceanografic de Valencia, la catedral de Burj Al Arab en Dubai, el edificio Chrysler en Nueva York y el aeropuerto de Barajas en Madrid. Ilustra estos elementos a través de imágenes y los relaciona con estilos arquitectónicos como el manierista y rococó.
This document summarizes Walter Mondale's book "The Accountability of Power" which discusses presidential power and the Watergate scandal. It describes how Americans' views of the presidency evolved over time to see the president as the most powerful leader. However, the Vietnam War and Watergate eroded public trust in government institutions. The framers of the US Constitution were wary of concentrating too much power in any one branch of government to prevent tyranny.
This document is an introduction to the Congressional report on the Iran-Contra affair. It acknowledges mistakes made by President Reagan and his staff, but argues there was no constitutional crisis or widespread wrongdoing. It suggests understanding the context of pursuing US interests abroad and concerns over hostages. It also notes tensions between the legislative and executive branches over foreign policy. The introduction argues an examination of these branch relations was needed, and judgments depend on views of Congressional and Presidential powers.
Nail Technician Courses Lead to a Glowing Careermikethomsan
The profession of a nail technician is really lucrative as compared to the challenges of the job. Nail schools and cosmetology institutes are easily available in all parts of the developed world and their trend is picking pace even in the developing countries.
This document is the introduction and summary of the final report from the US Senate's Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. The Committee investigated whether intelligence activities threatened Americans' rights. It found intelligence collection, dissemination, and covert actions often exceeded constitutional limits and invaded privacy or violated rights of assembly and speech. Unless new controls are established, domestic intelligence risks undermining democracy. The report examines how intelligence programs expanded beyond their initial goals to collect broad information on lawful activities, a tendency that pervaded the Committee's findings.
This document is Federalist Paper No. 10 written by James Madison. It discusses how a republican form of government can help control the problem of factions better than a pure democracy. It argues that a republic is preferable because representatives are less likely than the general public to be swayed by temporary passions or interests. It also notes that a larger republic contains more diverse interests that make widespread factions harder to form compared to smaller democracies.
The document discusses the key events and causes of the American Revolution, including the taxation imposed by the British Parliament without colonial representation which led colonists to declare "no taxation without representation." It also describes key battles such as Lexington and Concord where the first shots of the American Revolution were fired, and outlines the establishment of the Continental Army and adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The American Revolution ultimately resulted in the United States gaining independence from Britain after eight years of war.
The document summarizes the key events and ideological influences that led to American independence from Britain between 1763-1776. It describes the political and economic tensions that arose after the French and Indian War due to new British taxes and laws restricting colonial expansion. This led colonists to organize groups like the Sons of Liberty and engage in protests such as the Boston Tea Party. Defiance escalated into armed conflict at Lexington and Concord, starting the Revolutionary War. Philosophers influential in the growing revolutionary spirit included Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Ideas from Enlightenment thinkers, English radicals, the Bible, and colonial self-governance experience shaped the colonists' belief that they deserved republican rule
Constitution DebateF E D E R A L I S T S V S . A N T I F E.docxdonnajames55
Constitution Debate
F E D E R A L I S T S V S . A N T I F E D E R A L I S T S
Quick Comparison
FEDERALISTS
Scrapping of the Articles of Confederation
Supported limiting the power of the state to
allow for a more effective federal government
Favored an equal, but divided, three part
government in the form of Executive,
Legislative, and Judicial branches
Argued for a single chief executive
Chiefly supported by the economic elites
Felt the Constitution protected all
ANTIFEDERALISTS
Amending the Articles led government
Preferred states retain their influence and
power for fear of a corrupt monarchical elite
Preferred the direct representatives of the
people, Congress/Legislative, to be the power
of the government
Feared an individual with king-like powers
Support from lower class and rural areas
Demanded a separate bill of rights
Timeline
Federalists
1765 – Patrick Henry’s Virginia Resolves
1767 – Passing of Townshend Revenue Acts
1770 – Boston Massacre
1773 – Boston Tea Party
1774 – First Continental Congress
1775 – Second Continental Congress
1776 – Declaration of Independence
1777 – Articles of Confederation adopted
1781 – Cornwallis surrenders
1783 – Treaty of Paris ratified
Antifederalists
1786 – Shays’ Rebellion
1787 – Constitutional Convention
1788 – U.S. Constitution officially ratified
1789 – Washington sworn in as President
1790 – D.C. site selected and approved
1795 – Jay’s Treaty argued by Jefferson
1796 – Adams elected President
1798 – Alien & Sedition Acts
1800 – Jefferson elected President
1803 – Louisiana Purchase
The Federalists
Alexander Hamilton John Jay James Madison George Washington
(Trumbull, 1806) (Stuart, 1794) (Stuart, 1797)(Trumbull, 1806)
Key Federalist Writings
- Published under the collective pen name “Publius”
Federalist no. 1 – Alexander Hamilton
- Announcing the opportunity for a chosen government by and for the people.
Federalist no. 10 – James Madison
- Argument emphasizing the power of the majority, and the potential for corruption and tyranny
against the minority, and the need for protection of the minority.
Federalist no. 51 – James Madison
- Introduction of a checks and balances system essential to separating and equalizing the power
of all three branches of government, and the dangers of a government of men.
- A third author, John Jay, would also be an instrumental contributor
The Anti-federalists
Patrick Henry Samuel Adams George Clinton
(Mathews, circa 1891) (Graham, 1797) (Ames, n.d.)
Key Anti-Federalist Writings
Brutus I
Is it possible for a cultural melting pot society to sustain liberty and self-government without
sacrifice by one or another?
Brutus II
It is human nature to sacrifice the common good .
5 What Kind of Revolution JUSTIFICATIONS FOR REBELLIONHISTORIC.docxalinainglis
5 What Kind of Revolution?: JUSTIFICATIONS FOR REBELLION
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Independence movements were everywhere at the end of the last century. Many French-speaking Canadians sought independence for Quebec, while the majority of the country denounced separation. In Eastern Europe, Bosnians, Serbs, and Croats killed one another in the name of self-rule. The former Soviet Union no longer exists because its ethnic groups—Ukranians, Armenians, Lithuanians, and others—demanded independence. In Africa, competing ethnic factions vied for recognition. Muslims in India demanded greater autonomy from the Hindu majority, while the movement to free Tibet from Chinese rule gained international support.
Although calls for liberty and self-determination have wide appeal, the road to self-rule is often littered with the debris of internal strife, mob violence, and even civil war. Nevertheless, the desire of ethnic, national, and religious groups for autonomy—sometimes in opposition to powerful colonialist or imperialist nations—often becomes an irresistible force in the world.
One of the critical questions facing all humans in such crises is when and under what circumstances rebellions against established authorities are justified. This was the great question that confronted theEnglish subjects who lived in America during the decade of the 1770s. After months of intense debate, during which many ideas were presented, considered, and rejected, the Americans declared the colonies to “be free and independent states.” With this declaration, they launched the first national rebellion against colonial rule in modern times.
The American War of Independence began first in people’s minds. Before a shot was fired, the colonists had to break the laws that governed them and to deny the right of those who had ruled them to do so any longer—in short, to reject what they had accepted for decades. Their intellectual work of justifying rebellion has inspired other people around the world for over two hundred years.
Years of controversy between the colonies and England divided the colonists into several schools ofthought. On the one extreme were the militants, who vowed never to yield to British pretensions. In themiddle were the moderates, who, while denouncing British encroachments on their liberties, saw benefits from their association with England and favored policies of conciliation. At the other extreme were theTories, who desired to remain loyal to the Crown. These groups were roughly equal in numbers.
When the First Continental Congress opened in September 1774, the delegates debated and then rejected aplan of compromise proposed by Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. In its stead, the militants within thecongress pushed through a Declaration of Rights and Grievances that attacked England’s right to tax thecolonists and demanded the repeal of several acts viewed by the delegates as “intolerable.” The ensuing spring, the British Parliament considered the American quest.
The Triumph of Liberty - The Enlightenment, Modern Democracy, and the America...ProfWillAdams
This document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, American Revolution, and French Revolution. It discusses how Copernicus' work helped usher in the Scientific Revolution and challenged religious authorities. The Enlightenment then encouraged rational analysis of human institutions. Tensions grew between the American colonies and Britain over taxes and representation, culminating in the American Revolution and independence. The document then briefly mentions the French Revolution.
The document summarizes the political system that preceded the US Constitution. It describes the Articles of Confederation as the first written constitution, which gave power to state governments and limited national power due to distrust of central authority. It led to weaknesses like the inability to raise taxes or resolve disputes between states. Events like Shays' Rebellion showed the need for reform. This led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where delegates drafted a new Constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation and create a stronger national government.
This document discusses natural rights and their relationship to laws and traditions. It argues that natural rights like life, liberty, and privacy are innate parts of human nature, while laws and traditions can only permit or restrict certain actions. The Ninth Amendment of the Bill of Rights recognizes unenumerated natural rights. Some past Supreme Court decisions have wrongly restricted rights. Moderate rules are needed for social harmony, but should not significantly limit individual autonomy.
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The document provides information about several key events and documents in American history surrounding independence and the founding of the United States, including the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and the American Civil War. It summarizes the contributions of founding fathers like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson. It also outlines some of the major events and outcomes of the American Revolution and Civil War.
The document provides an overview of key events and concepts related to the American Revolution, including:
1) The various taxes imposed by Britain on the colonies that angered colonists and led to protests, including the Stamp Act and Tea Act.
2) Major events that escalated tensions such as the Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party, and Intolerable Acts in response to the Tea Party.
3) The formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty and Continental Congresses to coordinate colonial resistance and eventual declaration of independence from Britain.
4) The writing and signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and later establishment of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights to govern the new nation
The document summarizes the rise of imbalance in American society since the late 18th century. It argues that while the American Revolution aimed to balance power between sectors, it ultimately led to an overconcentration of power in private businesses. Major milestones included the Supreme Court granting personhood to corporations in 1886 and a prevailing economic dogma justifying private power and limiting government intervention. The fall of communism in 1989 was seen as capitalism's triumph, but actually accelerated America's imbalance with reduced regulations. The document challenges this dominant narrative.
The Federalists supported a strong central government and the ratification of the US Constitution, as expressed through the Federalist Papers authored by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay. The Anti-Federalists opposed increasing federal power and wanted to protect the powers of state governments. They worried the presidency could become a monarchy. The Constitution was ratified after debates between the two sides in states like New York, where Federalist 10 addressed the Anti-Federalists' concerns about factions.
1. The document discusses the historical development of freedom of the press in America from the early colonial period through the adoption of the First Amendment in 1791.
2. A key event was the 1735 trial of John Peter Zenger, who was acquitted of seditious libel charges for his critical reporting of the governor of New York, establishing truth as a defense against libel.
3. The First Amendment of the US Constitution, ratified in 1791, established freedom of speech and of the press as fundamental rights, preventing Congress from making laws that abridged these freedoms.
1. The document discusses the historical development of freedom of the press in America from the early colonial period through the adoption of the First Amendment in 1791.
2. A key event was the 1735 trial of John Peter Zenger, who was acquited of seditious libel charges for his critical newspaper reporting of the colonial governor of New York, establishing the precedent that truth is a defense against libel.
3. The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, established freedom of speech and of the press as fundamental rights, protecting independent reporting and criticism of the government.
The document summarizes the key events leading up to the American colonies declaring independence from Britain. It discusses the colonists' belief in natural rights and representative government. Growing tensions over British taxes and laws imposed without colonial consent led the colonies to unite in their resistance. The First and Second Continental Congresses saw delegates collaborating to establish central governance and a continental army. A committee including Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence, which was signed on July 4th, 1776, formally declaring the colonies' independence.
Civil War & Reconstruction: An overviewOnthemellow
The document provides an overview of the key events and debates around slavery leading up to the Civil War. It discusses how the Founders made compromises over slavery at the Constitutional Convention to ensure the nation's formation, but left the issue unresolved. Tensions increased as northern states abolished slavery while southern states strengthened laws protecting the institution. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 temporarily settled debates over the westward expansion of slavery. However, the nation continued debating states' rights and the future of slavery until the Civil War could no longer be avoided.
This document provides summaries of important books, documents, and authors from the 18th through 20th centuries in the United States and England. Some of the key works and authors summarized include Thomas Paine's "Common Sense," the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson, Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," the Federalist Papers written under the pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, Frederick Douglass' "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave," Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle," Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring," Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique," and Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein's "All the
The document appears to be a set of questions about key people, events, and outcomes of the American Revolutionary War and early American history. It includes multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank questions about important battles like Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, and Trenton; revolutionary leaders like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Paine; founding documents like the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation; as well as other significant developments and figures from the revolutionary period.
The document discusses the key events and causes of the American War of Independence between 1775-1783. It examines the growing revolutionary impulse among colonists based on ideas of natural rights and limits on government power. Tensions increased as Parliament imposed various taxes on the colonies without representation. Major events like the Boston Tea Party and Intolerable Acts led the Second Continental Congress to formally declare independence in 1776. The war involved various military campaigns and turning points until British surrender at Yorktown in 1781, leading to American independence.
Similar to Pyle pious the_president_congress_and_the_constitution_p_54-60 (20)
1. The President, Congress,
and the Constitution;
Power and Legitimacy in American Politics
written and edited by
Christopher H. Pyle
and
Richard M. Pious
THE FREE PRESS
A DivLsion of Macmillan, Inc.
NEW YORK
(Thie
47
on iw
[ Collier Macmillan Publishers
LONDON
3. 54 TUE PRESIDENT, CONGRESS, ANT) THE CONSTITUTION Emergency Powers 55
themselves with Parliament and the Puritan cause. Their strategy was to heat of the summer in which it was drafted, but also to the confidence that
transform gradually all absolute prerogatives into ordinary ones, which in the delegates placed in George Washington, the man they presumed
the language of the law meant that they could be disputed and, more im would be their first president. The first major test of Washington’s judg
portant, would be subject to the doctrine of precedent. One of the earliest, ment came in 1793 and involved the question of who would decide the new
and most audacious, assertions of this theory took place on a Sunday in nation’s foreign policy toward the British and French, then at war. Pro-
1612, when King James took offense at the asserted independence of his British Americans, represented by Alexander Hamilton, advocated a
judges and raged: “Then I am to be under the law—which it is treason to policy of strict neutrality. Pro-French Americans, led by Thomas Jefferson
affirm.” Chief Justice Coke replied: “Thus wrote Bracton, ‘The King and James Madison, urged “benevolent neutrality,” which would keep the
ought not to be under any man, but he is under God and the Law.” Of2 country out of direct hostilities, but would permit the French to raise
course, Coke was being disingenuous, because the judges claimed the money and troops in the United States and outfit privateers (privately
authority to “discover” what the law was, Coke lost that debate and was owned warships) to raid British shipping. Washington issued a Proclama
removed from the bench in 1616, but the idea itself could not be stopped. tion of Neutrality which favored the pro-British position and by his action
The Puritans and their lawyers also argued that whatever absolute triggered an intense constitutional debate. Did he have the authority to
prerogatives the king did possess could only be exercised for the public proclaim neutrality? Hamilton, under the pen name Pacificus, argued that
good (salus populi). This concept, which had medieval roots, eventually he did. Madison, writing as Helvidius, insisted that Congress, too, had a
became the political justification for the Puritans’ exercise of their “right” role to play in the decision. The opening letters of their debate, published
of revolution. in the Gazette of the United States, a Philadelphia newspaper, follow.
England underwent two revolutions in the seventeenth century: the
Puritan Revolution of 1641—1649 and the so-called Glorious Revolution of
1688. As a result of these parliamentary wars against unpopular kings,
subsequent monarchs became the invited guests of Parliament. Parliamen ALEXANDER HAMILTON
tary approval of all taxes and imposts was established, and arbitrary ar
Pacificus, Letter No. 1, June 29, 1793
rests without charges or bail were ended by legislation guaranteeing the
writ of habeas corpus. The continental doctrine of “reasons of state” was
largely abandoned, and executive claims of unreviewable authority
became reviewable in Parliament, although not always in the courts.
3 It wilL not be disputed that the management of the affairs of this country with
By the mid-eighteenth century, the doctrine of royal prerogative had foreign nations is confided to the Government of the UStates.
shrunk in fact and theory to a relatively narrow doctrine of emergency It can as little be disputed, that a Proclamation of Neutrality, where a Nation is
powers subject to subsequent review by Parliament. One of the emergency at liberty to keep out of a Wr in which other Nations are engaged and means so to
prerogatives to survive the rise of Parliament was the greatest of them all, do, is a usttal and a proper measure.
the power to declare martial law (i.e., martial rule) as a means of suppress The inquiry then is—what department of the Government of the UStates is the
ing insurrection and disorders. Exercise of this prerogative by the royal prop(er) one to make a declaration of Neutrality in the cases in which the
governor of Massachusetts in 1776 ignited the American Revolution. engagements (of) the Nation permit and its interests require such a declaration.
A correct and well informed mind will discern at once that it can belong
neit(her) to the Legislative nor Judicial Department and of course must belong to the
Executive.
C. The Debate in the Political Arena The Legislative Department is not the organ of intercourse between the
UStates and foreign Nations. it is charged neither with making nor interpreting
The Neutrality Debate of 1793 Treaties. It is therefore not naturally that Organ of the Government which is to pro
flounce the existing condition of the Nation, with regard to foreign Powers, or to ad
Like so much of the Constitution, the meaning of Article II had to be
monish the Citizens of their obligations and duties as founded upon that condition of
worked out in practice. Its brevity and ambiguity were due not only to the things. Still less is it charged with enforcing the execution and observance of these
obligations and those duties.
212 Coke 65, 18 Eng. Hist. Rev. 664-75. Campbell, Llve.s of the Chief JustIces, 1(1849), 272.
see generally It is equally obvious that the act in question is foreign to the Judiciary Depart
3 the theory and practice of prerogative powers in the seventeenth century,
For
Francis Worrnuth, The Royal PrerogatIve, 1603—1649 (1939). meat of the Government. The province of that Department is to decide litigations in
4. THE PRESIDENT, CONGRESS, AND THE CONSTITUTION Emergency Powers 57
5
If the Legislature have a right to make war on the one hand—it is on the other
particular cases. It is indeed charged with the interpretation of treaties; but it exer the duty of the Executive to preserve Peace till war is declared; and in fulfilling that
cises this function only in the litigated cases; that is where contending parties bring duty, it must necessarily possess a right of judging what is the nature of the obliga
before it a specific controversy. It has no concern with pronouncing upon the exter tions which the treaties of the Country impose on the Government; and when in
nal political relations of Treaties between Government and Government. This posi
pursuance of this right it has concluded that there is nothing in them inconsistent
tion is too plain to need being insisted upon. with a state of neutrality, it becomes both its province and its duty to enforce the
It must then of necessity belong to the Executive Department to exercise the
laws incident to that state of the Nation. The Executive is charged with the execution
function in Question—when a proper case for the exercise of it occurs.
of all laws, the laws of Nations as well as the Municipal law, which recognises and
It appears to be connected with that department in various capacities, as the
adopts those laws. It is consequently bound, by faithfully executing the laws of
organ of intercourse between the Nation and foreign Nations—as the interpreter of
neutrality, when that is the state of the Nation, to avoid giving a cause of war to
the National Treaties in those cases in which the judiciary is not competent, that is in
foreign Powers. The Legislature is free to perform its own duties according to its
the cases between Government and Covernment----as that Power, which is charged
.
own sense of them—though the Executive in the exercise of its constitutional
with the Execution of the Laws, of which Treaties form a part—as that Power
powers, may establish an antecedent state of things which ought to weigh in the
which is charged with the command and application of the Public Force.
legislative decisions. From the division of the Executive Power there results, in
The second Article of the Constitution of the UStates, section 1st, establishes
reference to it, a concurrent authority, in the distributed cases,
this general Proposition, That “The Executive Power shall be vested in a President of
It deserves to be remarked, that as the participation of the senate in the making
the United States of America.”
of Treaties and the power of the Legislature to declare war are exceptions out of the
The same article in a succeeding Section proceeds to designate particular cases
general “Executive Power” vested in the President, they are to be construed
of Executive Power. It declares among other things that the President shall be Com
strictly—and ought to be extended no further than is essential to their execution.
mander in Chief of the army and navy of the UStates and of the Militia of the several
While therefore the Legislature can alone declare war, can alone actually
states when called into the actual service of the UStates that he shall have power by
transfer the nation from a state of Peace to a state of War—it belongs to the “Ex
and with the advice of the senate to make treaties; that it shall be his duty to receive
ecutive Power,” to do whatever else the laws of Nations cooperating with the
ambassadors and other public Ministers and to take care that the laws be faithfully
Treaties of the Country enjoin, in the intercourse of the UStates with foreign
executed. , . Because the difficulty of a complete and perfect specification of all the
Powers,
cases of Executive authority would naturally dictate the use of general terms—and
The President is the constitutional Executor of the laws. Our Treaties and the
would render it improbable that a specification of certain particulars was designed
laws of Nations form a part of the law of the land. He who is to execute the laws must
as a substitute for those terms, when antecedently used. The different mode of ex
first judge for himself of their meaning. In order to the observance of that conduct,
pression employed in the constitution in regard to the two powers the Legislative
which the Laws of nations combined with our treaties prescribed to this country, in
and the Executive serves to confirm this inference. In the article which grants the
reference to the present War in Europe, it was necessary for the President to fudge
legislative powers of the Covernt. the expressions are— “All Legi.slative powers
for himself whether there was any thing in our treaties incompatible with an
herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the UStates; “in that which grants the
adherence to neutrality. Having judged that there was not, he had a right, and if in
Executive Power the expressions are, as already quoted “The Executive Po(wer)
his opinion the interests of the Nation required it, it was his duty, as Executor of the•
shall be vested in a President of the UStates of America.”
laws, to proclaim the neutrality of the Nation, to exhort all persons to observe it, and
The enumeration ought rather therefore to be considered as intended by way
to warn them of the penalties which would attend its non observance.
of greater caution, to specify and regulate the principal articles implied in the defini
tion of Executive Power; leaving the rest to flow from the general grant of that
Works of Alexander Hamilton, 7 (Hamilton ed., 1851), 76—85.
power, interpreted in conformity to other parts (of) the constitution and to the prin
ciples of free government.
The general doctrine then of our constitution is, that the Executive Power of
the Nation is vested in the President; subject only to the exceptions and qu[ajlifica
tions which are expressed in the instrument.
With these exceptions the Executive Power of the Union is completely lodged
in the President. This mode of construing the Constitution has indeed been recog
nized by Congress in formal acts, upon full consideration and debate. The power of
removal from office is an important instance.
5. 5g Tus PRESIDENT, CONGRESS, AND THE CONSTITUTION Emergency Powers 59
Another important inference to be noted is, that the powers of making war and
JAMES MADISON treaty being substantially of a legislative, not an executivenature, the rule of inter
Helvidius, Letter No. 1, August—September, 1793 preting exceptions strictly must narrow, instead of enlarging, executive pretensions
on those subjects.. . . -
Let us examine:
In the general distribution of powers, we find that of declaring war expressly
Outraged by Hamilton’s argument in favor of implied powers, Jefferson vested in the congress, where every other legislative power is declared to be vested;
wrote to Madison: “For God’s sake, my dear Sir, take up your pen, select and without any other qualification than what is common to every other legislative
the most striking heresies, and cut him to pieces in the face of the public.”’ act. The constitutional idea of this power would seem then clearly to be, that it is of
The first of Madison’s five articles follows. a legislative and not an executive nature.
The power of treaties is vested jointly in the president and in the senate, which
If we consult, for a moment, the nature and operation of the two powers to is a branch of the legislature. From this arrangement merely, there can be no in
declare war and to make treaties, it will be impossible not to see, that they can never ference that would necessarily exclude the power from the executive class: since the
fall within a proper definition of executive powers. The natural province of the ex senate is joined with the president in another power, that of appointing to offices,
ecutive magistrate is to execute laws, as that of the legislature is to make laws. All his which, as far as relate to executive offices at least, is considered as of an executive
acts, therefore, properly executive, must presuppose the existence of the laws to be nature. Yet on the other hand, therc are sufficient indications that the power of
executed. A treaty is not an execution of laws; it does not presuppose the existericeof treaties is regarded by the constitution as materially different from mere executive
laws. It is, on the contrary, to have itself the force of a law, and to be carried into ex power, and as having more affinity to the legislative than to the executive character.
ecution, like all other laws, by the executive magistrate. To say then that the power One circumstance indicating this, is the constitutional regulation under which
of making treaties, which are confessedly laws, belongs naturally to the department the senate give their consent in the case of treaties. In all other cases, the consent of
which is to execute laws, is to say, that the executive department naturally includes a the body is expressed by a majority of voices. In this particular case, a concurrence of
legislative power. In theory this is an absurdity—in practice a tyranny. two-thirds at least is made necessary, as a substitute or compensation for the other
The power to declare war is subject to similar reasoning. A declaration that branch of the legislature, which, on certain occasions, could not be conveniently a
there shall be war, is not an execution of laws: it does not suppose pre-existing laws party to the transaction.
to be executed: it is not, in any respect, an act merely executive. It is, on the con But the conclusive circumstance is, that treaties, when formed according to the
trary, one of the most deliberate acts that can be performed; and when performed, constitutional mode, are confessedly to have force and operation of laws, and are to
has the effect of repealing all the laws operating in a state of peace, so far as they are be a rule for the courts in controversies between man and man, as much as any other
inconsistent with a state of war; and of enacting, as a rule for the executive, a new laws. They are even emphatically declared by the constitution to be ‘the supreme
code adapted to the relation between the society and its foreign enemy. In like man ; law of the land.”
ner, a conclusion of peace annuls all the laws peculiar to a state of war, and revives : “The president shall be commander in chief of the army and navy of the United
the general laws incident to a state of peace. : States, and of the militia when called into the actual service of the United States.”
From this view of the subject it must be evident, that although the executive There can be no relation worth examining between this power and the general
may be a convenient organ of preliminary communications with foreign govern power of making treaties. And instead of being analogous to the power of declaring
ments, on the subjects of treaty or war; and the proper agent for carrying into execu war, it affords a striking illustration of the incompatibility of the two powers in the
tion the final determinations of the competent authority; yet it can have no preten same hands. Those who are to conduct a war cannot in the nature of things, be
sions, from the nature of the powers in question compared with the nature of the proper or safe judges, whether a war ought to be commenced, continued, or con
executive trust, to that essential agency which gives validity to such determinations . eluded. They are barred from the latter functions by a great principle in free govern
It must be further evident, that if these powers be not in their nature purely meat, analogous to that which separates the sword from the purse, or the power of
legislative, they partake so much more of that, than of any other quality, that under executing from the power of enacting laws.
a constitution leaving them to result to their most natural department, the He shall take care that the laws shall be faithfully executed, and shall cornmis
legislature would be without a rival in its claim. sion all officers of the United States.” To see the laws faithfully executed constitutes
the essence of the executive authority. But what relation has it to the power of mak
‘Jefferson, Writings, VI (Ford ed. 1892—1899), 338. i ing treaties and war, that is, of determining what the laws shall be with regard to
6. 60 THE Pnrsinanr, Cowcarss, AND THE CONSTITUTION
other nations? No other certainly than what subsists between the powers of ex
ecuting and enacting laws; no other, consequently, than what forbids a coalition of
the powers in the same department.
Thus it appears that by whatever standard we try this doctrine, it must be con
demned as no less vicious in theory than it would be dangerous in practice. It is
countenanced neither by the writers on law; nor by the nature of the powers
themselves; nor by any general arrangements, or particular expressions, or plausible
analogies, to he found in the constitution.
Whence then can the writer have borrowed it?
There is hut one answer to this question.
The power of making treaties and the power of declaring war, are royal
prerogatives in the British government, and are accordingly treated as executive
prerogatives by British commentators.
Madison, Writings, 1 (Hunt ed. 1906), 611—21.
Notes and Questions
1. Construing silences in the Constitution. Hamilton and Madison
agree that a neutrality proclamation is a diplomatic power, but they
disagree over which branch that power should be assigned to in the
absence of explicit constitutional language. How does Hamilton assign the
power to the president? Why would his method of construing silences lead
to a vast expansion of presidential power in other areas? Why would
Madison’s approach to silences lead to greater authority for Congress and
an executive with limited powers?
2. The executive power. Madison argues that “the natural province
of the executive magistrate is to execute laws, as that of the legislature is to
make laws. Ml his acts, therefore, properly executed, must presuppose the
existence of laws to be executed.” Would Hamilton agree? What does
Hamilton mean by referring to executive power as a “general grant”? ..
What limits on this general grant does Hamilton recognize? These issues
will be considered in Section D of this chapter, “Claims to Inherent Ex-
ecutive Power and the Supreme Court.” 3
3. Tyranny. On what grounds does Madison argue that to assign 1
diplomatic powers to the president, with only such exceptions as are ex- .5
plicitly provided for in the Constitution, would result in a “tyranny”? 3
What other writers on separation of powers viewed tyrannical government
from this perspective?
I