Process management in Operating System_Unit-2

PROCESS MANAGEMENT
Ms. Mohana Priya
Department of Computer Science [UG]

Process
• A process is basically a program in execution.The execution of a process must
progress in a sequential fashion.
• To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when
we execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks
mentioned in the program.
• When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be
divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data.The following image shows
a simplified layout of a process inside main memory −

• Stack
The process Stack contains the temporary data such as
method/function parameters, return address and local
variables.
• Heap
This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its
run time.
• Text
This includes the current activity represented by the value
of Program Counter and the contents of the processor's
registers.
• Data
This section contains the global and static variables

Process Life Cycle (Process State)
When a process executes, it passes through different states.

• Start
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.
• Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have the
processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process may come
into this state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the scheduler to assign
CPU to some other process.
• Running
Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state is set
to running and the processor executes its instructions.
• Waiting
Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for user
input, or waiting for a file to become available.
• Terminated or Exit
Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system, it is moved
to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.

Context Switching
• A context switch is the mechanism to store and
restore the state or context of a CPU in Process
Control block so that a process execution can be
resumed from the same point at a later time. Using
this technique, a context switcher enables multiple
processes to share a single CPU. Context switching
is an essential part of a multitasking operating
system features.
• Process control block:When the scheduler switches
the CPU from executing one process to execute
another, the state from the current running process
is stored into the process control block

CPU SchedulingAlgorithms
A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based
on particular scheduling algorithms.There are six popular process scheduling
algorithms in which we are going to discuss four algorithms in this chapter −
• First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
• Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling
• Round Robin (RR) Scheduling
• Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling
• Multi-level Feedback Scheduling

Algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive.
• Non-preemptive algorithms are designed so that once a process
enters the running state, it cannot be preempted until it
completes its allotted time
• Preemptive scheduling is based on priority where a scheduler
may preempt a low priority running process anytime when a
high priority process enters into a ready state.

CPU Scheduling in Operating Systems
• Arrival Time: Time at which the process arrives in the ready queue.
• CompletionTime:Time at which process completes its execution.
• BurstTime: Time required by a process for CPU execution.
• Turn AroundTime: Time Difference between completion time and arrival time.

Important formula
Turn AroundTime = CompletionTime – ArrivalTime
•WaitingTime (W.T):Time Difference between turn around
time and burst time.
WaitingTime =Turn AroundTime – BurstTime

Objectives of Process Scheduling
Algorithm
• Max CPU utilization [Keep CPU as busy as possible]
• Fair allocation of CPU.
• Max throughput [Number of processes that complete their
execution per time unit]
• Min turnaround time [Time taken by a process to finish
execution]
• Min waiting time [Time a process waits in ready queue]
• Min response time [Time when a process produces first
response]

Process Synchronization
There are two ways any process can execute –
• In Concurrent Execution – the CPU scheduler switches rapidly between
processes. A process is stopped at any points and the processor is assigned
to another instruction execution. Here, only one instruction is executed at a
time.
• Parallel execution – 2 or more instructions of different process execute
simultaneously on different processing cores.

Why is Process Synchronization Important?
When several processes share data, running in parallel on
different cores, then changes made by one process may override
changes made by another process running parallel. Resulting in
inconsistent data. So, this requires processes to be synchronized,
handling system resources and processes to avoid such situation
is known as Process Synchronization.

Classic Banking Example –
• Consider your bank account has 5000$.
• You try to withdraw 4000$ using net banking and simultaneously try to withdraw
via ATM too.
• For Net Banking at time t = 0ms bank checks you have 5000$ as balance and
you’re trying to withdraw 4000$ which is lesser than your available balance. So, it
lets you proceed further and at time t = 1ms it connects you to server to transfer
the amount
• Imagine, for ATM at time t = 0.5ms bank checks your available balance which
currently is 5000$ and thus let’s you enter ATM password and withdraw amount.
• At time t = 1.5 ms ATM dispenses the cash of 4000$ and at time t = 2 net banking
transfer is complete of 4000$

• Now, due to concurrent access and processing time that computer takes in both
ways you were able to withdraw 3000$ more than your balance. In total 8000$
were taken out and balance was just 5000$.

How to solve this Situation
• To avoid such situations process synchronization is used, so
another concurrent process P2 is notified of existing concurrent
process P1 and not allowed to go through as there is P1 process
which is running and P2 execution is only allowed once P1
completes.
• Process Synchronization also prevents race around condition.
It’s the condition in which several processes access and
manipulate the same data. In this condition, the outcome of the
execution depends upon the particular order in which access
takes place.

What is Race Condition?
• Race Condition occurs when more than one process tries to access and
modify the same shared data or resources because many processes try to
modify the shared data or resources there are huge chances of a process
getting the wrong result or data.Therefore, every process race to say that it
has correct data or resources and this is called a race condition.
• The value of the shared data depends on the execution order of the process
as many processes try to modify the data or resources at the same time.
The race condition is associated with the critical section. Now the question
arises that how to handle a race condition.We can tackle this problem by
implementing logic in the critical section like only one process at a time can
access the critical section and this section is called the atomic section.

Types of Process Synchronization
• On the basis of synchronization, processes are categorized as one of the following
two types:
• Independent Process: Execution of one process does not affects the execution of
other processes.
• Cooperative Process: Execution of one process affects the execution of other
processes.

Elements of the Process
• Entry Section –To enter the critical section code, a
process must request permission. Entry Section code
implements this request.
• Critical Section –This is the segment of code where
process changes common variables, updates a table,
writes to a file and so on. When 1 process is
executing in its critical section, no other process is
allowed to execute in its critical section.
• Exit Section – After the critical section is executed,
this is followed by exit section code which marks the
end of critical section code.
• Remainder Section –The remaining code of the
process is known as remaining section.

Critical Section Problem
A solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following three
conditions:
• Mutual Exclusion: If a process is executing in its critical section, then no
other process is allowed to execute in the critical section.
• Progress: If no process is executing in the critical section and other
processes are waiting outside the critical section, then only those processes
that are not executing in their remainder section can participate in deciding
which will enter in the critical section next, and the selection cannot be
postponed indefinitely.
• BoundedWaiting: A bound must exist on the number of times that other
processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has
made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is
granted.

• Semaphores
• Critical Section
• Test and Set
• Mutex

Semaphores
• Semaphore is simply a variable that is non-negative and shared between threads.
It is another algorithm or solution to the critical section problem. It is a signaling
mechanism and a thread that is waiting on a semaphore, which can be signaled by
another thread.
• It uses two atomic operations, 1) wait, and 2) signal for the process
synchronization.
Example
WAIT ( S ):
while ( S <= 0 );
S = S - 1;
SIGNAL ( S ):
S = S + 1;

Classical Problems of Synchronization -The
Bounded Buffer Problem
• The Bounded Buffer Problem (also called the Producer-Consumer Problem)
• The Readers-Writers Problem
• The Dining Philosophers Problem
These problems are used to test nearly every newly proposed synchronization
scheme or primitive.

The Bounded Buffer Problem (Producer-
consumer problem)
Consider:
• a buffer which can store n items
• a producer process which creates the items (1 at a time)
• a consumer process which processes them (1 at a time)
• A producer cannot produce unless there is an empty buffer slot to fill.
• A consumer cannot consume unless there is at least one produced item.

Semaphore empty=N, full=0, mutex=1;
process producer {
while (true) {
empty.acquire();
mutex.acquire();
// produce
mutex.release();
full.release();
}
}
process consumer {
while (true) {
full.acquire();
mutex.acquire();
// consume
mutex.release();
empty.release();
}
The semaphore mutex provides mutual
exclusion for access to the buffer.

Readers-Writers Problem
• A data item such as a file is shared among several processes.
• Each process is classified as either a reader or writer.
• Multiple readers may access the file simultaneously.
• A writer must have exclusive access (i.e., cannot share with either a reader or
another writer).

A solution gives priority to either readers or writers.
• readers' priority: no reader is kept waiting unless a writer has already obtained
permission to access the database
• writers' priority: if a writer is waiting to access the database, no new readers can
start reading
• A solution to either version may cause starvation
• in the readers' priority version, writers may starve
• in the writers' priority version, readers may starve

• A semaphore solution to the readers' priority version (without addressing
starvation):
Semaphore mutex = 1;
Semaphore db = 1;
int readerCount = 0;
process writer {
db.acquire();
// write
db.release();
}
process reader {
// protecting readerCount
mutex.acquire();
++readerCount;
if (readerCount == 1)
db.acquire();
mutex.release();
// read
// protecting readerCount
mutex.acquire();
--readerCount;
if (readerCount == 0)
db.release;
mutex.release();
}

Dining Philosophers Problem
• The dining philosopher's problem states that there are 5 philosophers sharing a circular
table and they eat and think alternatively.There is a bowl of rice for each of the
philosophers and 5 chopsticks. A philosopher needs both their right and left chopstick to
eat. A hungry philosopher may only eat if there are both chopsticks available. Otherwise
a philosopher puts down their chopstick and begin thinking again.

Solution of Dining Philosophers Problem
• A solution of the Dining Philosophers Problem is to use a semaphore to represent a
chopstick.A chopstick can be picked up by executing a wait operation on the semaphore
and released by executing a signal semaphore.
• The structure of the chopstick is shown below −
• semaphore chopstick [5];
• Initially the elements of the chopstick are initialized to 1 as the chopsticks are on the
table and not picked up by a philosopher.

The structure of a random philosopher i is given as follows −
do {
wait( chopstick[i] );
wait( chopstick[ (i+1) % 5] );
EATINGTHE RICE
signal( chopstick[i] );
signal( chopstick[ (i+1) % 5] );
THINKING
} while(1);
• In the above structure, first wait operation is performed on chopstick[i] and
chopstick[ (i+1) % 5].This means that the philosopher i has picked up the
chopsticks on his sides.Then the eating function is performed.
• After that, signal operation is performed on chopstick[i] and chopstick[ (i+1) % 5].
This means that the philosopher i has eaten and put down the chopsticks on his
sides.Then the philosopher goes back to thinking.

Deadlock
• A deadlock happens in operating system when two or more processes need some
resource to complete their execution that is held by the other process.
•

Coffman Conditions
A deadlock occurs if the four Coffman conditions hold true.
• Mutual Exclusion
• Hold and wait
• No Preemption
• Circular wait

• Mutual Exclusion
• There should be a resource that can only be held by one process at a time. In the
diagram below, there is a single instance of Resource 1 and it is held by Process 1
only.

• Hold and Wait - A process can hold multiple resources and still request more
resources from other processes which are holding them. In the diagram given
below, Process 2 holds Resource 2 and Resource 3 and is requesting the Resource 1
which is held by Process 1.

• No PreemptionA resource cannot be preempted from a process by force. A
process can only release a resource voluntarily. In the diagram below, Process 2
cannot preempt Resource 1 from Process 1. It will only be released when Process 1
relinquishes it voluntarily after its execution is complete.
•

• Circular Wait - A process is waiting for the resource held by the second process,
which is waiting for the resource held by the third process and so on, till the last
process is waiting for a resource held by the first process.This forms a circular
chain. For example: Process 1 is allocated Resource2 and it is requesting Resource
1. Similarly, Process 2 is allocated Resource 1 and it is requesting Resource 2.This
forms a circular wait loop

Deadlock Prevention
• Eliminate Mutual Exclusion
• Eliminate Hold and wait
• Eliminate No Preemption
• Eliminate Circular Wait

• Eliminate Mutual Exclusion
It is not possible to dis-satisfy the mutual exclusion because some resources, such
as the tape drive and printer, are inherently non-shareable.
• Eliminate No Preemption
Preempt resources from the process when resources required by other high
priority processes.

• Eliminate Hold and wait
• Allocate all required resources to the process before the start of its execution, this
way hold and wait condition is eliminated but it will lead to low device utilization.
for example, if a process requires printer at a later time and we have allocated
printer before the start of its execution printer will remain blocked till it has
completed its execution.
• The process will make a new request for resources after releasing the current set
of resources.This solution may lead to starvation.

• Eliminate Circular Wait
Each resource will be assigned with a numerical number. A process can request the
resources increasing/decreasing. order of numbering.
For Example, if P1 process is allocated R5 resources, now next time if P1 ask for R4,
R3 lesser than R5 such request will not be granted, only request for resources more
than R5 will be granted.

Deadlock Avoidance
Deadlock avoidance can be done with Banker’s Algorithm.
• Banker’s Algorithm
Banker’s Algorithm is resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm which
test all the request made by processes for resources, it checks for the safe state, if
after granting request system remains in the safe state it allows the request and if
there is no safe state it doesn’t allow the request made by the process.

Inputs to Banker’s Algorithm:
• Max need of resources by each process.
• Currently allocated resources by each process.
• Max free available resources in the system.

The request will only be granted under the below condition:
• If the request made by the process is less than equal to max need to that process.
• If the request made by the process is less than equal to the freely available
resource in the system.

The Banker's Algorithm is the combination of the safety algorithm and the resource
request algorithm to control the processes and avoid deadlock in a system:
• Safety algorithm
• Resource request algorithm

SafetyAlgorithm
It is a safety algorithm used to check whether or not a system is in a safe state or
follows the safe sequence in a banker's algorithm:
• Step 1:There are two vectors Wok and Finish of length m and n in a safety
algorithm.
Initialize:Work = Available
Finish[i] = false; for I = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… n - 1.
• Step 2: Check the availability status for each type of resources [i], such as:
Need[i] <= Available
Finish[i] == false
If the i does not exist, go to step 4.
• Step 3:Work =Work +Allocation(i) // to get new resource allocation
Finish[i] = true
Go to step 2 to check the status of resource availability for the next process.
• Step 4: If Finish[i] == true; it means that the system is safe for all processes.

Resource RequestAlgorithm
• A resource request algorithm checks how a system will behave when a process
makes each type of resource request in a system as a request matrix.
When the number of requested resources of each type is less than
the Need resources, go to step 2 and if the condition fails, which means that the
process P[i] exceeds its maximum claim for the resource. As the expression
suggests:
If Request(i) <= Need
Go to step 2;
If Request(i) <= Available
Else Process P[i] must wait for the resource since it is not available for use.

When the requested resource is allocated to the process by changing state:
Available = Available - Request
Allocation(i) = Allocation(i) + Request (i)
Needi = Needi - Requesti

• Consider a system that contains five processes P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and the three
resource types A, B and C. Following are the resources types: A has 10, B has 5 and
the resource type C has 7 instances.

Answer the following questions using the banker's algorithm:
1. What is the reference of the need matrix?
2. Determine if the system is safe or not.
3. What will happen if the resource request (1, 0, 2) for process P1 can the system
accept this request immediately?

Ans. 2:
Context of the need matrix is as follows:
• Need [i] = Max [i] - Allocation [i]
Need for P1: (7, 5, 3) - (0, 1, 0) = 7, 4, 3
Need for P2: (3, 2, 2) - (2, 0, 0) = 1, 2, 2
Need for P3: (9, 0, 2) - (3, 0, 2) = 6, 0, 0
Need for P4: (2, 2, 2) - (2, 1, 1) = 0, 1, 1
Need for P5: (4, 3, 3) - (0, 0, 2) = 4, 3, 1

• Ans. 2: Apply the Banker's Algorithm:
Available Resources of A, B and C are 3, 3, and 2.
Now we check if each type of resource request is available for each process.
Step 1: For Process P1:
Need <= Available
7, 4, 3 <= 3, 3, 2 condition is false.
So, we examine another process, P2.
For Process P2:
Need <= Available
1, 2, 2 <= 3, 3, 2 condition true
New available = available + Allocation
(3, 3, 2) + (2, 0, 0) => 5, 3, 2

P3 Need <= Available
6, 0, 0 < = 5, 3, 2 condition is false.
Similarly, we examine another process, P4.
• Step 4: For Process P4:
• P4 Need <= Available
• 0, 1, 1 <= 5, 3, 2 condition is true
• New Available resource = Available + Allocation
• 5, 3, 2 + 2, 1, 1 => 7, 4, 3
• Similarly, we examine another process P5

4, 3, 1 <= 7, 4, 3 condition is true
New available resource = Available + Allocation
7, 4, 3 + 0, 0, 2 => 7, 4, 5
Now, we again examine each type of resource request for processes P1 and P3.
New Available Resource = Available + Allocation
7, 4, 5 + 0, 1, 0 => 7, 5, 5
So, we examine another process P2.

New Available Resource = Available + Allocation
7, 5, 5 + 3, 0, 2 => 10, 5, 7
Hence, we execute the banker's algorithm to find the safe state and the safe
sequence like P2, P4, P5, P1 and P3.

• Ans. 3:
For granting the Request (1, 0, 2), first we have to check that Request <= Available,
that is (1, 0, 2) <= (3, 3, 2), since the condition is true. So the process P1 gets the
request immediately.

Process management in Operating System_Unit-2

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