Principles and Methods of Teaching-2022.pdf

Principles and
Methods of Teaching
Shela L. Caballero

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
Keys LET-sensitive
Syllabus
Drill
Integrative interdisciplinary
intradisciplinary

TEACHING APPROACHES
TEACHING MODELS
TEACHING METHODS
TEACHING PRINCIPLES
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
PRINCIPLES IN DESIGNING IMs
ART OF QUESTIONING
IDEAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPROACHES
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY*
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT*

TEACHING APPROACHES
TEACHING MODELS
TEACHING METHODS
TEACHING PRINCIPLES
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
ART OF QUESTIONING
Teaching

TEACHING APPROACHES
TEACHING MODELS
TEACHING METHODS
TEACHING PRINCIPLES
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
ART OF QUESTIONING
Learning

TEACHING APPROACHES
TEACHING MODELS
TEACHING METHODS
TEACHING PRINCIPLES
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
ART OF QUESTIONING
Environment

APPROACH MODELS METHODS DEVICE TECHNIQUE
Viewpoint
towards
teaching
Philosophy of
teaching
Guidelines or
sets of
strategies
Fundamental
framework of
the approach
Systematic
step-by-step
established
procedure
Manner of
implementation
or execution
(Lesson Plan)
Teaching-aid
or tool to
facilitate
instruction
Teacher’s
personal art
and skill of
delivering

Teaching Approaches
Inductive
Deductive
Teacher-lead
Student-lead
Collaboration
Inquiry-based Collaborative
Cooperative
Constructivist
Integrative
Reflective
2C-2I-1R
RA 10533
“E-BEA”

Deductive Approach
Teacher-centered
From general rules toward specific examples
Lecture
Presentation-teaching
Backward-design
Deductive reasoning
Advanced organizers

Process of lesson planning created by
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe
Used to introduce the Understanding by
Design (1998)
Steps Traditional Backward Design
1 Goals and objectives Goals and objectives
2 Activities Assessments
3 Assessments Activities

Starts with a general statement or
hypothesis and examines the possibilities
to reach a specific, logical conclusion.

Which of the following best describes
deductive reasoning?
a. Using logic to draw conclusion based on accepted
statements
b. Accepting the meaning of a term without definition
c. Defining mathematical terms to correspond with
physical objects
d. Inferring a general truth by examining a number of
specific examples

Graphic Organizers
Developed by David Ausbel
Directs to what is important.
Highlight relationships among ideas.

Subsumption Theory
A learner absorbs new information by
connecting it to existing concepts and
ideas that they have already acquired.

Subsumption Theory
Correlative
New material is an extension or
elaborations of what is already known.
Directs to what is important.

Subsumption Theory
Derivative
New material or relationships can be
derived from the existing structure.
Highlight relationships among ideas.

Teaching Approaches
Inductive
Deductive
Teacher-lead
Student-lead
Collaboration
2C-2I-1R
Inquiry-based Collaborative
Cooperative
Constructivist
Integrative
Reflective

Inductive Approach
Student-centered
From specific examples toward general rules
Discovery learning
Case-based learning
Project/Problem-based learning
Concept formation/attainment
Inductive Reasoning

Starts with observation and discerning a
pattern to formulate a generalization and
inference, explanation or theory.

Discovery Learning
Proposed by Jerome Bruner
Students draw from own experience and
existing knowledge.

Case-based Learning
Students develop skills in analytic
thinking and reflective judgement by
reading/discussing real-life scenarios.

Project-based Learning
Students formulate questions, investigate
for answers, create new knowledge, and
then communicate their learning to others.

Problem-based Learning
Students gain learning from complex, ill-
structured, open-ended real-world
problems.

Chicharro et al., 2019

Concept Formation
Students form a clear understanding of a
concept through studying small set of set
of examples of the concept.

Concept Attainment
Students compare and contrast
examples that contain the attributes of the
concept with examples that do not contain
those attributes.

Learners think about the way they learn
Reflective Approach
Student-centered
Metacognition
Identify gaps in their learning and areas for
improvement.

Metacognition
Thinking about thinking
Awareness of one's thought processes
and an understanding of the patterns
behind them.

Integrative Approach
Student-centered
Making connections among concepts and
experiences

Constructivist Approach
Student-centered
Learners build the meaning and knowledge
Scaffolding
Experiential learning

Scaffolding
Teacher models how to solve a problem
Student solves a similar problem
Proposed by Lev Vygotsky

Experiential Learning
Proposed by David Kolb
Concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract
conceptualization and active
experimentation form a four-stage
process (or cycle) transformed into
effective learning.

Inquiry-based Approach
Student-centered
Learners actively discover information to
support their investigations.
5Es

Collaborative/Cooperative Approach
Student-centered
Learners work together in mixed ability
Jigsaw
Think-Pair-Share

Teaching Models
1. Direct instruction
2. Indirect Instruction
3. Interactive Instruction
4. Experiential Learning
5. Independent Study

TEACHING MODELS TEACHER’S ROLE
Direct instruction Imparts knowledge
Indirect instruction Sets up strategies
Interactive instruction Organize and facilitates
Experiential learning Facilitator
Independent Study Coach

TEACHING MODELS TEACHER’S ROLE STRATEGIES
Direct instruction Imparts knowledge Lecture
Explicit Teaching
Drill and Practice
Demonstrations
Guided Activities

Indirect instruction Sets up strategies
Students make meaning
themselves
Case studies
Problem solving
Inquiry activities
Reading for meaning
Concept mapping
Concept attainment
Concept formation

Interactive instruction Organize and facilitates
Students interact with
each other and with the
information and
materials
Debates
Panel discussion
Role playing
Brainstorming
Peer practice
Laboratory groups
Cooperative learning
Problem solving
Interviewing

Experiential learning Facilitator
Students are actively
involved
Field trips
Experimenting
Simulations
Gamified activities
Focus group
discussions
Field observations
Role playing
Model building
Surveys

Independent Study Coach
Students interact with
the content more
CAI
Homework
Research Projects

Teaching Principles
•Acquire relevant knowledge about students
• to decide on appropriate lesson objectives, pacing
approach, etc.
• to help explain and respond to students’ difficulties

Teaching Principles
•Align 3 components of instruction
a. learning objectives
b. instructional materials and activities
c. assessment tools
• opportunities for students to demonstrate gained knowledge
and skills
• opportunities for teachers to give significant and relevant
feedback

Teaching Principles

Teaching Principles
•Articulate learning objectives and class rules for
productive learning environment.
•Know the subject matter.

Teaching Principles
•Actively involve learners considering their
capabilities and learning styles.
•Challenge learners to develop higher order
thinking skills and to apply what they have learned.

Teaching Principles
•Progressively refine teaching style based on
reflection and feedback.
•Establish and develop constructive and healthy
relationship with learners.

Teaching Principles
•Encourage “beyond the classroom”.
•Create and maintain a positive learning
environment.

Learning Principles
• Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.
• Students’ ways of organizing knowledge affects how
they learn and apply what they know.

Learning Principles
• Students’ motivation determines, directs and sustains
what they do to learn.
• Students develop mastery when they:
• acquire component skills
• practice integration of knowledge
• can determine when and how to apply knowledge

Learning Principles
• Students find significance in learning
• Students become self-directed learners
• Goal-directed practice and targeted feedback leads
to quality learning.

Learning Principles
What is a good feedback?
• explicitly communicates students’ performance relative
to specific target criterion
• provides helpful information for students to meet those
criteria
• timely given that allows it to be useful and relevant

Instructional Planning
Components of a Lesson Plan
1. Objectives
2. Subject matter
3. Learning materials
4. Procedures
5. Assessments
6. Assignment

Instructional Planning: Objectives
2 Views of Instructional Objectives
1. Very Specific
Robert Mager, 1975
2. General to Specific
Gronlund and Brookhart, 2009

Very Specific (Robert Mager, 1975)
• Student behavior intended
• Conditions under which behavior should occur or be
tested
• Degree of criteria

Eight-graders should be able to recite, with no more than
three errors, ten consecutive lines of a poem from the
unit.
Objective is S.M.A.R.T

Eight-graders should be able to recite, with no more than
three errors, ten consecutive lines of a poem from the
unit.

General to Specific (Gronlund and Brookhart, 2009)
• Terminal objective
general and primary objective
• Enroute or enabling
objective that leads to the attainment of terminal
behavior

General to Specific (Gronlund and Brookhart, 2009)
Students demonstrate how to perform simple
multiplication
• Can define what multiplication means in his or her own
words
• Can define relevant terms such as multiplier and
product

Domains
1. Cognitive – mental, thought, intellect
2. Affective – emotions feelings, values, attitude and
beliefs
3. Behavior – reflexive behavior, motor, acts/skills

Cognitive Taxonomy (Bloom)

Cognitive Taxonomy (Anderson, Kratwohl et al, 2001)
Taxonomy Description
Remember Recall and recognize
Understand Interpret, exemplify, classify, summarize infer,
compare, explain
Apply Execute, implement
Analyze Differentiate organize, attribute
Evaluate Making judgments based on criteria
Create Generate, plan, produce

Affective Taxonomy (Bloom, Krathwoh, Masia, 1964)
MNEMONIC: RR-VOC
Receiving Develops awareness, observe
Responding Shows willingness to share, comply,
conform, react
Valuing Belief and attitude. Shows that object or
person has worth
Organization Conceptualize or organize values into a
system
Characterization Internalize values, belief system, philosophy
of life

Psychomotor Taxonomy (Simpson, 1966)
MNEMONIC: PSGM-CAO
Perception Stimulation of sense organs
Set Readiness
Guided Response Attempt
Mechanism Basic proficiency
Complex Overt Response Expert proficiency
Adaptation Adaptable proficiency
Origination Creative proficiency

Psychomotor Taxonomy (Dave, 1970)
MNEMONIC: IMPAN
Imitation Copy action of another
Manipulation Reproduce activity from
Precision Execute skill reliably
Articulation Adapt and integrate expertise
Naturalization Automated, unconscious

Psychomotor Taxonomy (Harrow, 1972)
MNEMONIC: RF-PPSN
Reflex Movements Reactions not learned
Fundamental Movements Basic movements
Perception Response to stimuli
Physical Abilities Stamina
Skilled Movement Advanced learned
Non-discursive
Communication
Effective body language

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING SEQUENCE
1. Assess learners’ needs
2. Consider school goals
3. Map the plan
4. Give instructions
5. Evaluate
Motivation
Self-concept
Prior learning
Achievement level
Intelligence level
Reading
comprehension

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING LEVELS
1. Yearly planning – general outline, basic contents and
ideas
2. Term planning – elaborated outlines, weekly
schedule and activities
3. Unit planning – activities and sequence, content
written in plan book
4. Weekly planning – activity names, times, materials,
adjustments
5. Daily planning – lesson plans

HOW TO CHOOSE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
1. Appropriate
2. Authentic
3. Meaningful
4. Stimulating
5. Cost-effective
6. Comprehensive

HOW TO CHOOSE LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Relevant to objectives, subject matter and method of
teaching
2. Suitable to learners’ needs, interest, experience and
developmental level
3. Interactive
4. Apt to time and context
5. Multi-level, multi-sensory and well-sequenced
6. Responsive to principles of learning
7. Able to provide authentic learning experience

PURPOSES OF QUESTIONNING
1. Acquire information
2. Draw out interpretation
3. Promote thinking and develop reasoning ability
4. Develop skill to answer effectively
5. Review content learned and check retention
6. Provide drill and practice
7. Ensure that lessons are internalized and applied
8. Direct students to key points of lessons
9. Develop problem-solving and decision making
10.Allow expression of feelings

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTION
1. Simple, clear and easily understood
2. Definite, follows one distinct line of thoughts
3. Closely linked to lesson objectives
4. Stimulating and thought-provoking, allows the use of
HOTS
5. Adapted to the students’ age, abilities and interests
6. Relevant to students’ daily life situation
7. Requires an extended response, unless a drill

TECHNIQUES IN QUESTIONNING
1. Wait Time – 3 to 4 seconds or longer
2. Prompting – hints to help students come-up with
answers
3. Redirection – single question with several answers
4. Probing – promote critical thinking
5. Commenting – increase achievement and motivation

GUIDELINES IN QUESTIONNING
1. Tell students what to expect
2. Plan sequencing of questions (increasing cognitive level)
3. Open questions should predominate
4. Frequent questions following the exposition of new
content
5. Vary length and difficulty
6. Ask many learners as possible
7. Allows learners to ask their own questions
8. Create “safe to make mistake” environment
9. Move around the room for rapport and socialization

LEVELS OF QUESTIONNING
1. LITERAL
• Note or recall clearly facts and details
• Follow directions
• Associate quotation with speaker
2. INTERPRETATIVE
3. CRITICAL
4. INTEGRATIVE

1. LITERAL
2. INTERPRETATIVE
• Think and search questions
• Identify character traits, emotional reactions
• Interpret figurative language
• Imply meaning of words, phrases or sentences
3. CRITICAL
4. INTEGRATIVE

1. LITERAL
2. INTERPRETATIVE
3. CRITICAL
• Give opinion, reaction or judgments
• Discriminate fancy, reality, fact or opinion
• Weigh values
• Determine relevance
4. INTEGRATIVE

1. LITERAL
2. INTERPRETATIVE
3. CRITICAL
4. INTEGRATIVE
• “Tying up” questions
• Compare and contrast
• Synthesize ideas
• Making different ending

TYPES OF QUESTIONNING (Thinking Process)
1. LOW-LEVEL QUESTIONS
• Focus on facts
• Don’t test level of understanding or problem-solving
• Convergent questions
2. HIGH-LEVEL QUESTIONS

TYPES OF QUESTIONNING (Thinking Process)
1. LOW-LEVEL QUESTIONS
2. HIGH-LEVEL QUESTIONS
• Go beyond memory and facts
• More stimulating and challenging
• Involve abstractions and point of view
• Divergent questions

TYPES OF QUESTIONNING (Answer required)
1. CONVERGENT
• One correct answer, short information
• WH- questions
• Used for vocabulary, spelling, oral skills, facts
• Inductive approach
2. DIVERGENT

TYPES OF QUESTIONNING (Answer required)
1. CONVERGENT
2. DIVERGENT
• Many possible answers, open-ended, probing
• Why and How questions

TYPES OF QUESTIONNING (Open Discussion)
1. ELICITING QUESTIONS
• Encourage Initial response
• Promote participation
• Rekindle lagging or dying-out discussion
2. PROBING QUESTIONS
3. EVALUATIVE-THINKING QUESTIONS
4. CLOSURE SEEKING QUESTIONS

• Expand or extend ideas
• Justify and/or clarify ideas

• Require students to judge, value, choose, defend or
criticize

• Help students form conclusion, solutions or plans

OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONNING
1. FUNNEL QUESTIONS
• Asking more and more detail at each level
• Used by detectives in taking statements
2. LEADING QUESTIONS
3. FOCUSING QUESTIONS
4. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

1. FUNNEL QUESTIONS
• Lead respondents to your way of thinking

1. FUNNEL QUESTIONS
• Introduce a topic and indicates direction of discussion
• To refocus or sharpen discussion

1. FUNNEL QUESTIONS
• Aren’t really questions at all
• Don’t expect an answer
• Statements phrased in question form
• Example: Isn’t John work so creative?

HANDLING ANSWERS
1. CORRECT
• Acknowledge and indicate why it is a good answer
2. INCORRECT
3. PARTLY CORRECT
4. GUESSES

HANDLING ANSWERS
1. CORRECT
2. INCORRECT
• Simplify or provide prompts
• Throw questions to the class for discussion
3. PARTLY CORRECT
4. GUESSES

HANDLING ANSWERS
1. CORRECT
2. INCORRECT
3. PARTLY CORRECT
• Acknowledge the parts which are correct
• Use prompts to deal with incorrect parts
4. GUESSES

HANDLING ANSWERS
1. CORRECT
2. INCORRECT
3. PARTLY CORRECT
4. GUESSES
• Accept all answers as being equal worth
• Collaborate to find the best answer.

support to develop
levels of thinking and
application
personalized;
connects strongly
with communities and
practice
Promotes independence, interdependence
and self-motivation
integral part of
teaching and learning
Student-centered
(productive and
supportive)
Learners’
support
Resources/
environment
Assessment
Content
Skills

Classroom Management
Method to organize
 Classroom activities
 Instructions
 Physical structure
• To make effective use of time
• To create a happy and productive learning
environment
• To minimize behavior problems and disruptions

Classroom Management
 Entails discipline
 Being prepared for class
 Motivate students
 Provide a safe, comfortable learning environment
 Build students’ self-esteem
 Being creative and imaginative in daily lessons

Why Classroom Management
 Access to Learning
• Participation structures – rules, expectations,
values, signals
 Management for Self-Management
 More time for learning

• Help students become better in managing
themselves - Self-control and responsibility

• Allocated time – set aside for learning
• Time-on-task – engaged in learning task
• Academic time – really learning and understanding

3Cs of Classroom Management
 Context
 Content
 Conduct

 Context
- Classroom settings improve climate for learning
 Content
 Conduct

 Context
 Content
- Lesson design facilitates the delivery of lesson
 Conduct

 Context
 Content
 Conduct
- Pedagogy promotes orderly and safe environment

Positive Learning Environment
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSROOMS
• Multidimensional – crowded with people, tasks and
time pressure
• Simultaneity – everything happens at once
• Immediacy – fast pace
• Unpredictable events
• Public – seen and judged by all
• Have histories – effect of teacher’s and students’
past

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
• Personal territories
• Interest areas – action zones

GOOD ROOM ARRANGEMENT
• Decongest high traffic areas
• Students seated in a way they can be seen by
teachers
• Students can view presentation comfortably
• Frequently used supplies are accessible
• Room well-lighted and ventilated, relatively free from
distractions

ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES
• Decongest high traffic areas
• Students seated in a way they can be seen by
teachers
• Students can view presentation comfortably
• Frequently used supplies are accessible
• Room well-lighted and ventilated, relatively free from
disrtractions

Dos and Don’ts
• Written down and posted
• Specify expected and forbidden actions
• Consistent with school rules and principles of learning
• Positive and observable

Routines and Rules
• Formalized statements that provide general
guidelines
• Few rules are easier to remember than many rules
• Should be negotiated by teacher and pupils
• Simple and memorable
• Regularly reviewed for amendment

Consequences
• May be natural or logical
• Separate deed from doer
• Emphasize power of choice to students
• Encourage student reflection, self-evaluation, and
problem-solving
• Help student give rationale for what can be done
differently next time

Classroom Management Approaches
Student Problem Types (Teacher’s Description)
• FAILURE SYNDROME – expect to fail even after
succeeding
• PERFECTIONIST – unduly anxious about making
mistakes
• UNDER ACHIEVER – Do the minimum to “get by”
• LOW ACHIEVER – Low potential

Student Problem Types (Teacher’s Description)
• HOSTILE AGRESSIVE – Expresses hostility through
direct and intense behaviors
• PASSIVE AGRESSIVE – Indirectly oppose and resist
teacher
• DEFIANT – Resist authority and carry on a power
struggle with the teacher
• HYPERACTIVE – Excessive and constant movement

Assertive Approach
Teachers
• take charge of classroom immediately
• Are clear, firm, unhostile response to students’
misbehavior

Business Academic Approach
Teachers
• focuses on business-like and orderly accomplishment of
academic work
• Communicates assignments and feedback
• High degree of “time on task” and “academic engaged
time”

Behavioral Modification
Teachers
• assumes that behavior is shaped by environment
• Increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through
rewards
• Reduce the likelihood of inappropriate behavior through
punishments

Group Managerial Approach
Teachers
• Respond immediately to undesirable or inappropriate
behavior
• Prevention is better than cure

Group Guidance Approach
• Discipline and classroom control are produced through
group atmosphere and enhanced through group rapport

Acceptance Approach
• Allowing students to participate in decision and make
choices
• Attention seeking
• Power seeking
• Revenge seeking
• Withdrawal

Success Approach
• Teachers are supportive so that students develop their
self-worth and success in life

Jacob Kounin Classroom Management
WITHITNESS
• Teacher’s awareness of what is going on in the classroom
OVERLAPPING
• Supervising several activities at once
MOMENTUM
• Ability to have a steady movement or pacing throughout a
lesson

GROUP ALERTING
• Engaging the attention of the whole class
ENCOURAGING ACCOUNTABILITY
• Communication To the students that their participation will
be observed and evaluated
HIGH PARTICIPATION FORMATS
• Using lesson the define behavior of students when they
are not directly answering a teacher’s question

MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT
• Keeping the lessons and the group moving at an
appropriate space with smooth transition variety
RIPPLE EFFECT
• Contagious spread of behavior through imitation
HIGH PARTICIPATION FORMATS
• Using lesson the define behavior of students when they
are not directly answering a teacher’s question

SMOOTHNESS – Lesson continuity
• Dangles – teacher leaves one activity hanging
• Flip-flops – teacher goes to another activity and return
once again to the initial activity
• Thrusts – teacher barrels into an activity without attention
to pupil readiness
• Truncations – teacher aborts an activity and never
returns to it.

Forms of Power
COERCEIVE POWER
• Force someone to do something against their will
REWARD POWER
LEGITIMATE POWER
REFERRENT POWER
EXPERT POWER

Forms of Power
COERCEIVE POWER
REWARD POWER
• Do something in exchange of reward
LEGITIMATE POWER
REFERRENT POWER
EXPERT POWER

Forms of Power
COERCEIVE POWER
REWARD POWER
LEGITIMATE POWER
• Vested power
REFERRENT POWER
EXPERT POWER

Forms of Power
COERCEIVE POWER
REWARD POWER
LEGITIMATE POWER
REFERRENT POWER
• Power from another person liking you or wanting to be like
you
EXPERT POWER

Forms of Power
COERCEIVE POWER
REWARD POWER
LEGITIMATE POWER
REFERRENT POWER
EXPERT POWER
• Skill and knowledge

Teacher’s Leadership
AUTHORITATIVE Self-reliant, delay
gratification
Independent, thinkers and
doer students
AUTHORITARIAN Restrictive and
punnitive
Passive learners
PERMISSIVE Little support Inadequate academic skills
Low self-esteem

Pygmalion effect
Exceptional progress of a student as a result of higher
teacher expectations
Hawthorne effect
Productivity improves knowing that they are being
observed or watched

Behavior Student Teacher
Power-seeking Provoke teachers
into a struggle of
wills
- Direct attention to
other members of
the class
Attention-seeking Prefer being
punished,
admonished or
criticized than being
ignored
- Give attention
when on-task and
cooperating

Rambling Wandering around
off subject
- Refocus attention
- Direct questions to
focused group
- Ask how topic
relates to current
topic

Shyness or silence Lack of participation - Change teaching
strategies
- Give positive
reinforcement
- Involve him/her
directly
- Make eye contact
- Appoint to small
group talk

Talkativeness Knowing everything,
manipulation,
chronic whining
- Give limited time to
express
-Make eye contact
with other participant
- Acknowledge but
give attention to
others

Sharpshooting Trying to shoot you
down or trip you up
- Admit that you
don’t know the
answer
-Redirect question to
the group or to the
individual
- Ignore behavior

Heckling/Arguing Disagreeing with
everything you say
Make personal
attacks
-Redirect question to
the group or to the
individual
-Recognize
participant’s feelings
-Acknowledge
positive points

Grandstanding Getting caught-up in
one’s own agenda
“Can we restate that
as a question”
“We would like to
hear more about that
if there is time after
the presentation”

Over hostility /
Resistance
Angry, combative
behavior
-Respond to fear not
hostility
-Make eye contact
-Keep temper check,
remain calm and
polite
-Allow him/her to
retreat gracefully

Griping Legitimate
complaining
-Validate his/her
point
-Indicate time
pressure
-Discuss the
problem privately

Side conversations Discussion related to
the subject or
personal
May distract you
-Ask their opinion on
topic being
discussed
-Casually move
towards them
-Make eye contact
-Ask a question to
participants near
them
-Stop and wait

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