This document defines and classifies prepositions according to their composition and meaning. It discusses prepositions of place, time, manner, cause and others. It also examines the structure and types of prepositional phrases, which can function syntactically as adverbials, postmodifiers in noun phrases, or complements of verbs and adjectives. Prepositional complements can be realized through prepositional phrases, adjectives, adverbs, nominal clauses and wh-interrogative clauses.

1. I. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS
1. What is a preposition?
Prepositions are words belonging to closed-system parts of speech which are used to express
relationships between two entities, one being prepositional complement.
Example: He went to London in November.
2. Classification of prepositions
a. According to their composition, prepositions fall under two groups:
(i) Simple prepositions: those that consist of one word. They are rather small in number
Example: by, at, on, in, to, of, off, for, since, with, between, like, against, under, up, down.
(ii) Compound prepositions: These include two subgroups:
+ Prepositions with two components linked closely
Example: into; onto, behind, below, beneath, underneath, until, within, without, upon
+ Prepositions with separate components:
- Adv. + Prep.: out of, away from, according to, thanks to, up to.
- Prep. + N + Prep.: in front of, on top of, at the back of, in spite of, on account of, in accordance with,
with the exception of, etc.

2. b. According to the meanings of the prepositional phrases (or meaning of preposition for short), we have:
• Prepositions of place: at, on, in, up, down, off, etc....
• Prepositions of time: at, on, in, for, since, during, pending....
• Prepositions of reason: out of, because of, due to, on account of,...
• Prepositions of manner: like, as, in accordance with....
• Prepositions of concession: in spite of, despite, in defiance of,...
II. PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS
1. Place:
Prepositions of place may be further classified into:
a. Prepositions denoting position:
• Point: at the post office, at the grocer’s, at the doctor's, off the road
• Surface/line: on the wall, on a straight line
• Volume: in the car, in that house
b. Prepositions denoting destination and direction:
Example: to the post office, to London, to the market, onto the floor, off the road, into the room, out of the car
c. Prepositions denoting passage:
Example: across the street, down the road, up the stream

3. d. Relative position
(i) Vertically relative: above, over, on top of, under, underneath, ...
(ii) (ii) Horizontally relative: before, in front of, behind, after,...
2. Time:
a. Point (when) :
Example:
• at Christmas, at noon, at night, at dawn, at dusk, at 12.00 sharp, at 4.30 a.m.
• on Tuesday(s), on holidays, on Sunday morning
• in Summer, in 1920, in June, in the XIX century
b. Duration:
Example:
• for 20 years, since 1979; for another six weeks, up to that time, during the last war
c. Relationship:
Example:
• after the war, before 1986, between five and six o'clock, from three to five, by the end of October, until last
year

4. 3. Manner, cause, purpose and others:
a. Manner (means):
Example: like a brother to me, as a child/ boy..., by doing so, without saying anything, with a knife in his hand.
b. Cause:
Example: because of ill health, on account of your absence, due to your carelessness,....
c. Instrument:
Example: with that knife, by saying so
d. Purpose:
Example : for freedom, for a better life
e. Opposition:
Example : against their rule
III. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
1. Structure of prepositional phrases
Preposition + Prepositional complement
For freedom
Against exploitation and injustice

5. 2. Prepositional complement may be realised by:
PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
Prepositional phrases
adjectives adverbs
Nominal
clause
V-ing
participle
clause
Wh-
interrogati
ve clause
Noun
phrases

6. 1. Adjectives: an adjective modifies a noun or pronoun and gives more
information about it-which one, what kind, how many.
• Look at the boat with the blue sail.
• Please hand me the pen next to the telephone.
• Have him moved the truck with the trailer?
• I want to meet the girl in the green sweater. (tells which girl)

7. 2. Nominal relative clause:
I was interested in whatever he was saying at the time.
3. V-ing participle clause:
I don’t know what he means by doing so.
Without being accepted
At his coming late
4. Wh-interrogative clause
On what the Government will decide
In why you want to do that

8. 5. Yes-no interrogative clauses:
I am not aware of whether she likes me (or not).
It depends on whether he would win the match or not.
------
NOTE: That–clause can never function as Cprep.
I know that she likes me.
That she likes me is obvious.

9. 6. Noun phrase:
With his greatest efforts
In accordance with the regulations
7. Adverbs: an adverb modifies a verb, and adjective, or another adverb;
and it tells when, where, why, how, under what condition, to what
extent.
• The book is on the counter. (tells location of the book)
• In the morning, I have to go to school. (tells when you will go)
• After breakfast, we are going swimming.
• Put your dishes in the sink.
• The carpet in our house is brown.

10. IV. SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
State the syntactic functions of Prep P. Examples for illustration.
Syntactically, Prep P can function as:
• Adverbial (A)
Adjunct: We are in the classroom (A).
She came on Monday (A).
Disjunct: To my surprise (A), he failed his exams.
Conjunct: In addition (A), he missed the train.
• Postmodifier in a NP:
The bag on the desk / the girl by me

11. • Complementation of a verb
It depends on his decision.
• Complementation of an adjective
I’m sorry for my late arrival.