Prenatal Assessment of Gestational Age - Case Presentation
تقدير عمل الحمل، حالة سريرية.
Faculty of Medicine of Syrian Private University
كليّة الطّبّ البشريّ في الجامعة السّوريّة الخاصّة
20-12-2015
Cervical incompetence is the inability for the cervix to retain an intra-uterine pregnancy till term as a result of structural and functional defects of the cervix.
Labour induction
Induction of labour
Guidelines on induction of labour
Guidelines on labour induction
induction of labour is not risk free
prostaglandins for induction of labour
Bishop score
Cervical ripening techniques
mechanical and pharmacological induction of labour
Post dates induction
options for cervical ripening
oral vs. vaginal misoprostol
advantages diadvantages and techniques for induction of labour
gynecology & obstetrics
Labour induction methods
review of guidelines for labour induction
Cervical incompetence is the inability for the cervix to retain an intra-uterine pregnancy till term as a result of structural and functional defects of the cervix.
Labour induction
Induction of labour
Guidelines on induction of labour
Guidelines on labour induction
induction of labour is not risk free
prostaglandins for induction of labour
Bishop score
Cervical ripening techniques
mechanical and pharmacological induction of labour
Post dates induction
options for cervical ripening
oral vs. vaginal misoprostol
advantages diadvantages and techniques for induction of labour
gynecology & obstetrics
Labour induction methods
review of guidelines for labour induction
07-08-2013
Faculty of medicine of Syrian Private University.
Please LIKE my page! http://facebook.com/NawrasAlHalabi
متلازمة كلاينفلتر وتقانات أطفال الأنابيب
.كلية الطب البشري في الجامعة السورية الخاصة
Communication with Children and Young Patients in MedicinesNawras AlHalabi
مهارات التواصل مع الأطفال والمرضى الصغار في الطّبّ
كلية الطب البشري في الجامعة السورية الخاصة
Please LIKE my page! http://facebook.com/NawrasAlHalabi
2014
Faculty of medicine of Syrian Private University.
Dr Ahmad Taha - Fetal Medicine Unit, Orient Hospital. Presented in Syrian Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Annual Meeting 2015 - Dama Rose Hotel.
Raynaud's disease, also known as Raynaud's phenomenon or Raynaud's syndrome, is a condition that affects blood flow to certain parts of the body—usually the fingers and toes. In Raynaud's disease, smaller arteries that supply blood to the skin constrict excessively in response to cold or stress, limiting blood supply to affected areas (vasospasm). This can lead to numbness, tingling, and color changes in the affected areas, typically turning them white or blue.
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Gestational age is a key piece of data used by healthcare providers to determine the timing of various screening tests and assessments of the fetus and mother throughout pregnancy. Gestational age may be assessed at any time during pregnancy, and several modes of assessment exist, each requiring different equipment or skills and with varying degrees of accuracy. Obtaining more accurate estimates of gestational age through better diagnostic approaches may initiate more prompt medical management of a pregnant patient.
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
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According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair: A New Horizon in Nephrology" explores groundbreaking advancements in the use of R3 stem cells for kidney disease treatment. This insightful piece delves into the potential of these cells to regenerate damaged kidney tissue, offering new hope for patients and reshaping the future of nephrology.
Health Education on prevention of hypertensionRadhika kulvi
Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
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CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
2. Medical History
• A woman is referred from the general practitioner for pregnancy dating.
She had a positive pregnancy test 3 days ago after she realized that she
had missed a period.
• In the past she had a regular cycles bleeding for 5 days every 28 days.
However she had been taking the combined oral contraceptive pill
(COCP) for the last 6 years and stopped only 10 weeks ago.
• She had a withdrawal bleed at the end of the last packet, followed by an
apparently normal period 5 weeks later. She has had no other irregular
bleeding or any abdominal pain. She has had regular intercourse
throughout the time since she stopped her COCP and is pleased now to
be pregnant.
4. Questions
• How can pregnancies be dated and what is the
approximate gestational age for this pregnancy?
• What further investigations would you like to do to
confirm this?
• Why is correct early pregnancy dating important?
6. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
Important for
the mother, who
wants to know
when to expect
the birth of her
baby.
This
information
related to
gestational is
invaluable!
7. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
• Important for Health care providers:
Most obstetrical management decisions are
strongly influenced by consideration of
fetal
age
which closely
correlates
with
fetal
development
8. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
Appropriate timing of gestation age-related
testing
Avoid iatrogenic newborn prematurity
Decisions regarding delivery timing
Decisions regarding treatment of PTL or PPROM
Determine when to initiate post term fetal
surveillance.
12. Methods – Naegele's rule
• Most common method of pregnancy dating.
• Using the date of the last menstrual period (LMP)
To calculate the Estimated Date of Delivery
("due date" or EDD).
EDD = LMP – 3 months + 7 days.
15. Methods – Naegele's rule
Inaccuracy occurs because:
Many women do not have regular 28-day cycles or conceive on day 14.
Many others are not certain of the date of their last period.
Early pregnancy bleeding or the presence of light bleeding.
Oral Contraceptive Pills (OCP).
Breastfeeding.
incorrect assumption of the date of ovulation
18. Physical examination
Often described in terms of fruit!
The uterus remains a pelvic organ until
approximately 12 weeks of gestation
It becomes Sufficiently large to palpate abdominally
just above the symphysis pubis.
Methods - Uterine size
19.
20. Methods - Uterine size
At 16 weeks, the
uterine fundus is
palpable Midway
between the
Symphysis Pubis
and Umbilicus
at 20 weeks it is
palpable at the
level of the
Umbilicus
At 36 weeks it is
palpable at the
level of the
Xiphoid process
At 40 weeks it is
decline away
from the Xiphoid
process
22. Leiomyoma Obesity
Uterine malposition Multiple gestation.
What interferes with accurate assessment
Other
factors
affecting
uterine size
or the
ability to
palpate the
uterus.
24. Methods - Sonographic assessment
• Ultrasound estimation of EDD in the first half of pregnancy is superior to
dating based on the last menstrual period or physical examination.
1. Mongelli M, Wilcox M, Gardosi J. Estimating the date of confinement: ultrasonographic biometry versus certain menstrual dates. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174:278.
2. Neilson JP. Ultrasound for fetal assessment in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; :CD000182.
3. Yang H, Kramer MS, Platt RW, et al. How does early ultrasound scan estimation of gestational age lead to higher rates of preterm birth? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186:433.
One study of 34,249 singleton pregnancies reported that
delivery occurred within seven days of the EDD more often
when sonography alone1.
A systematic review found reduced rates of induction of
labor for postterm pregnancy2.
A study of 44,623 women found that sonographic dating
resulted in a small downward estimation of gestational age
more often than an upward estimation
26. Methods - Sonographic assessment
• Menstrual cycles are irregular.
• Last menstrual period is unknown.
• Patients who conceive while using hormonal
contraception.
• Uterine size estimated on physical examination differs
from that predicted by menstrual dating.
During 1st trimester: Typically obtained by
transvaginal ultrasound examination
27. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Gestational sac
It is usually visible at 4.5 to 5 weeks
of gestation.
It is the first sonographic sign of
an intrauterine pregnancy
Double decidual sign appearing at
5.5 to 6 weeks
28. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Gestational sac
• The cursors should be placed on the sac itself and should not include the
echogenic region surrounding the gestational sac.
29. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Gestational sac
• A size of 2 to 3 mm is the smallest size that can be clearly visualized
within the uterine cavity = approximately 4 weeks and 1 to 3 days.
• Mean Sac Diameter (MSD): derived by calculating the mean of the three
orthogonal sac diameter measurements.
30 sac size
(mm)
Gestational
age (days)
31. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Yolk sac
• The first anatomic structure to appear within the
gestational sac.
• Provides confirmation of an intrauterine pregnancy.
• Noted initially at the beginning of the 5th week of
gestation
(MSD approximately 5 mm); Appear when MSD
approaches 8 mm.
• Abnormal gestation are MSD of 8 mm or greater
with an absent yolk sac.
32.
33. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Yolk sac
• The yolk sac continues to grow to a maximum diameter of
approximately 6 mm by 10 weeks of gestation.
• The yolk sac migrates to the periphery of the chorionic cavity,
and becomes undetectable sonographically by the end of the
first trimester.
The embryonic disc
becomes visible at
1 to 2 mm in length
gestational age of
5 to 6 weeks.
34. Crown rump length (CRL)
• Is the standard biometric measurement of the
embryo in the first trimester
(age up to 14 weeks).
• Is the longest straight-line measurement of the
embryo measured from the outer margin of the
cephalic pole to the rump.
Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
35. Methods - Sonographic assessment
1st trimester
Crown rump length (CRL):
• Standard practice for determining
gestational age is to take the mean of three
CRL measurements.
• Accuracy:
• 7-10 weeks; ±3 days.
• 10-14 weeks; ±5 days.
• 15 weeks; ± 8.4 days.
1. Ohuma EO, Papageorghiou AT, Villar J, Altman DG (2013). "Estimation of gestational age in early pregnancy from crown-rump length when gestational age range is
truncated: the case study of the INTERGROWTH-21st Project". BMC Med Res Methodol 13: 151. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-151. PMC 4029763. PMID 24314232
1
38. CRL < 25 mm 42 CRL
(mm)
GA
(days)
1. Goldstein SR, Wolfson R. Endovaginal ultrasonographic measurement of early embryonic size as a means of assessing gestational age. J Ultrasound Med 1994; 13:27.
2. Ohuma EO, Papageorghiou AT, Villar J, Altman DG (2013). "Estimation of gestational age in early pregnancy from crown-rump length when gestational age range is
truncated: the case study of the INTERGROWTH-21st Project". BMC Med Res Methodol 13: 151. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-151. PMC 4029763. PMID 24314232
1
2
44. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
During 2st and 3rd trimester: Typically obtained by
transabdominal ultrasound examination
Biparietal
diameter
(BPD)
Head
circumference
(HC)
Abdominal
circumference
(AC)
Femur
length
(FL)
Standard biometric parameters 2st and 3rd trimester
45. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
Biparietal diameter (BPD)
• The best studied biometric parameter
• Accuracy:
• 14-20 weeks; ±7 days
• Mid-late 3rd trimester, = ±(3-4) weeks.
• BPD is measured on a plane of section that in
tersects both the third ventricle and thalami.
46.
47.
48.
49. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
• The fetal cranium may not always display
a traditional shape.
• Cephalic index (CI):
the ratio of
BPD / occipitofrontal diameter
(OFD) × 100.
• The standard CI range for normal shaped craniums approximates one
standard deviation from the mean (>74 or <83).
• ⇨ CI measurement approaches the outer limits of the normal range, the
use of the BPD for estimation of gestational age is not accurate.
50.
51. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
• Accuracy:
• Prior to 20 weeks; ±1 week.
• Late third trimester; ±(3-4) weeks.
• The correct plane for the image passes through the thalami and
third ventricle.
Head circumference (HC)
• Provides a good estimate of
gestational age on routine sonograms.
• Also is useful
in the clinical setting of growth disorders.
52.
53.
54. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
Abdominal Circumference (AC)
• Appears to have a slightly lower ability to predict gestational age early in
the second trimester than the BPD, HC, and FL.
• Some of the variability may be due to error in ultrasound technique,
along with natural biologic variations.
• Accuracy:
• Second trimester; ±2 weeks.
• Late third trimester; ±(3-4) weeks.
55. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
Abdominal Circumference (AC)
• AC is often used for estimations of fetal weight and interval growth
evaluations rather than gestational age assessment.
• The image is taken at the level of the largest diameter of the fetal liver,
denoted by the point of union of the right and left portal
veins, which has a "hockey stick" appearance.
• The correct plane can be confirmed by visualizing the umbilical
segment of the left portal vein in its shortest length
56.
57.
58. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
Femur length (FL)
• Can be measured as early as 10 weeks gestational age because of its size
and echogenicity.
• Accuracy:
• Prior to 20 weeks; ±1 week;
3rd trimester; ±(2.1-3.5) weeks.
• Average femur length appears to vary slightly among ethnic groups.
59. Methods - Sonographic assessment
2st and 3rd trimester
Femur length (FL)
• Short femurs may be a normal finding or a marker of aneuploidy
(trisomy 21).
• Severely shortened (<5th percentile) or abnormal appearing femurs in
the second trimester suggest a skeletal dysplasia or early onset fetal
growth restriction
68. Use of multiple markers
• Various fetal body ratio indexes:
• Define how these measurements correlate in an average fetus.
• Determine if a parameter is potentially abnormal.
HC/AC
BPD/FL
FL/AC
69. Use of multiple markers
• After a careful assessment, it is usually appropriate to omit a single
discordant parameter from the gestational age calculation.
• Additional measurements may be useful when there are biometric
discrepancies.
• Ex: The transverse cerebellar diameter
(in millimeters) correlates with
gestational age up to 22 weeks of
gestation.
70. Signs of fetal maturity
When an early ultrasound
examination has not been
performed or menstrual dates
are unknown or uncertain.
There are several signs
suggestive of fetal maturity that
can be observed sonographically
and correlated with gestational
age.
71. Signs of fetal maturity
• Ex: the femoral epiphyseal and
proximal tibial ossification
centers are well visualized by 32
and 35 weeks gestational age,
respectively
• The proximal humeral epiphysis
also appears in the late third
trimester and correlates with
fetal lung maturity and
gestational age
72. Combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP)
• Often referred to as the birth control pill.
• Combination of an estrogen (estradiol)
and progesterone (progestin).
• When taken by mouth every day, these
pills inhibit female fertility.
• The most side effect is withdrawal
bleeding.
74. Medical History
• A woman is referred from the general practitioner for pregnancy dating.
She had a positive pregnancy test 3 days ago after she realized that she
had missed a period.
• In the past she had a regular cycles bleeding for 5 days every 28 days.
However she had been taking the combined oral contraceptive pill
(COCP) for the last 6 years and stopped only 10 weeks ago.
• She had a withdrawal bleed at the end of the last packet, followed by an
apparently normal period 5 weeks later. She has had no other irregular
bleeding or any abdominal pain. She has had regular intercourse
throughout the time since she stopped her COCP and is pleased now to
be pregnant.
79. The uterus remains a
pelvic organ until
approximately 12
weeks of gestation
It becomes
Sufficiently large to
palpate abdominally
just above the
symphysis pubis.
Clinical Assessment
Uterine Size
12 weeks
82. Sonographic
Assessment
Yolk Sac
The first anatomic
structure to
appear within the
gestational sac.
Provides
confirmation of an
intrauterine
pregnancy.
Noted initially at
the beginning of
the 5th week of
gestation
The embryonic disc
becomes visible at
1 to 2 mm in length
gestational age of
5 to 6 weeks.
84. First trimester screening
FIRST TRIMESTER COMBINED TEST
Maternal serum beta human chorionic
gonadotropin (beta-hCG)
Maternal serum pregnancy-associated
plasma protein-A (PAPP-A)
Ultrasound measurement of nuchal
translucency (NT)
To detect Down Syndrome and Trisomy 18
86. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
Important for
the mother, who
wants to know
when to expect
the birth of her
baby.
This
information
related to
gestational is
invaluable!
87. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
• Important for Health care providers:
Most obstetrical management decisions are
strongly influenced by consideration of
fetal
age
which closely
correlates
with
fetal
development
88. Importance of reliable pregnancy dating
Appropriate timing of gestation age-related
testing
Avoid iatrogenic newborn prematurity
Decisions regarding delivery timing
Decisions regarding treatment of PTL or PPROM
Determine when to initiate post term fetal
surveillance.
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
using the date of the last menstrual period (LMP) to calculate the estimated date of delivery ("due date" or EDD), and physical examination
The clinical assessment of gestational age or duration of pregnancy reflects the "menstrual age." In contrast, embryologists always date developmental events from the time of fertilization, which is the "embryonic age.
EDD is calculated by counting back three months from the last menstrual period and adding seven days.
This method assumes the patient has a 28-day menstrual cycle with fertilization occurring on day 14.
using the date of the last menstrual period (LMP) to calculate the estimated date of delivery ("due date" or EDD), and physical examination
The clinical assessment of gestational age or duration of pregnancy reflects the "menstrual age." In contrast, embryologists always date developmental events from the time of fertilization, which is the "embryonic age.
This method assumes the patient has a 28-day menstrual cycle with fertilization occurring on day 14.
using the date of the last menstrual period (LMP) to calculate the estimated date of delivery ("due date" or EDD), and physical examination
The clinical assessment of gestational age or duration of pregnancy reflects the "menstrual age." In contrast, embryologists always date developmental events from the time of fertilization, which is the "embryonic age.
On physical examination, the pregnant uterus is soft and globular
On physical examination, the pregnant uterus is soft and globular
3*(eg, retroverted uterus).
3*(eg, retroverted uterus).
Ultrasound is commonly used to estimate gestational age and thereby calculate the expected date of delivery (EDD)
*Several studies have demonstrated that:
1: with both certain menstrual dates and ultrasonographic biometry
2: among women who underwent ultrasound examination before 24 weeks concluded that routine ultrasound in early pregnancy enabled better gestational age assessment
3: who had both a normal last menstrual period and ultrasound examination before 20 weeks of gestation
Ultrasound is commonly used to estimate gestational age and thereby calculate the expected date of delivery (EDD)
*Several studies have demonstrated that:
1: with both certain menstrual dates and ultrasonographic biometry
2: among women who underwent ultrasound examination before 24 weeks concluded that routine ultrasound in early pregnancy enabled better gestational age assessment
3: who had both a normal last menstrual period and ultrasound examination before 20 weeks of gestation
Using transvaginal sonography
Using transvaginal sonography
Using transvaginal sonography
I A size of 2 to 3 mm is the smallest size that can be clearly visualized within the uterine cavity and correlates with a gestational age of approximately four weeks and one to three days [10-12]. As the gestation progresses
Gestational sac measurement is less accurate later in pregnancy, when the embryonic or fetal pole can be identified [19]; therefore, it is used for dating only very early pregnancies.
The crown rump length is a more accurate indicator of gestational age than mean gestational sac diameter so once the embryonic pole is evident and crown rump length should be used to determine an EDD. However, this mean sac diameter may be recorded when an embryo is not identified.
Using transvaginal sonography
I A size of 2 to 3 mm is the smallest size that can be clearly visualized within the uterine cavity and correlates with a gestational age of approximately four weeks and one to three days [10-12]. As the gestation progresses
Gestational sac measurement is less accurate later in pregnancy, when the embryonic or fetal pole can be identified [19]; therefore, it is used for dating only very early pregnancies.
The crown rump length is a more accurate indicator of gestational age than mean gestational sac diameter so once the embryonic pole is evident and crown rump length should be used to determine an EDD. However, this mean sac diameter may be recorded when an embryo is not identified.
The yolk sac is spherical with a sonolucent center and echogenic periphery.
However, since there is patient and scanning variability, this sac size should not be taken as an absolute threshold for diagnosis of an abnormal pregnancy. Either correlation with hCG and/or sonographic follow-up should be obtained if an initial evaluation of pregnancy shows an 8 mm empty sac without a yolk sac.
The yolk sac is spherical with a sonolucent center and echogenic periphery.
However, since there is patient and scanning variability, this sac size should not be taken as an absolute threshold for diagnosis of an abnormal pregnancy. Either correlation with hCG and/or sonographic follow-up should be obtained if an initial evaluation of pregnancy shows an 8 mm empty sac without a yolk sac.
As discussed above, the gestational sac and yolk sac lose their accuracy for gestational age assessment as the pregnancy advances
Direct measurement of the crown rump length of the embryo provides the most accurate estimate of gestational age once the embryonic pole is evident and should be used to determine an EDD
A length of at least 5 mm routinely allows visualization of the embryo, but some embryos as small as 2 to 3 mm can be seen.
This variation has been attributed to normal biological differences in embryologic development and variations in anatomical positioning of the fetal head and torso
Both first trimester growth delay and growth acceleration are active areas of investigation
**picture** Diagram showing crown-rump length bygestational age. The blue line is the mean and the green area delimits the 3rd versus the 97thpercentile.[1]
Image of an early gestational sac demonstrating the early embryo. Calipers are placed at both ends of the embryo measuring the longest length from the "crown to the rump" giving the crownrump length. This measurement is used for dating the pregnancy. Surrounding the embryo is the developing amnion as shown by the hyperechoic circular line.
Courtesy of Thomas Shipp, MD.
This variation has been attributed to normal biological differences in embryologic development and variations in anatomical positioning of the fetal head and torso
Both first trimester growth delay and growth acceleration are active areas of investigation
Last parameters were obtained by transvaginal ultrasound
Last parameters were obtained by transvaginal ultrasound
the calvarium should appear smooth and symmetrical in the plane of section
The appropriate image can be obtained by positioning the abdominal transducer perpendicular to the fetal parietal bones
The cursors are then placed on the outer edge of the proximal skull and the inner edge of the distal skull; this length represents the BP
****particularly with breech presentations, oligohydramnios, premature rupture of the membranes, and neural tube abnormalities.
Head compression or distortion from these conditions may result in an abnormal cranial conformation (eg, dolichocephaly) that lowers test performance of the BPD for gestational age estimation [19,59,60]. In these cases, the cephalic index should be measured.
in these cases, head circumference (HC) (discussed below) is recommended for cranial assessment because it provides a good estimate of gestational age despite the fetus' irregular cranial structure
However, additional intracerebral landmarks that must be visualized to obtain the appropriate measurement include the cavum septum pellucidum anteriorly and the tentorial hiatus posteriorly
The standard view should not include the cerebellum or the cerebral ventricles.
The calvarium should always appear symmetrical in the image. HC measurements are obtained by placing the cursors on the outer margins of the calvarium bilaterally [19], in contrast to BPD measurements, which extend from the inner calvarium on one side to the outer calvarium on the other side. By using the computerized ellipse function, the ultrasound machine will assist in the approximation of the outer perimeter of the calvarium. It is important to avoid measuring the outer margin of the skin overlying the scalp, since doing so will falsely increase the HC.
Axial view of the fetal head at the level used to measure the biparietal diameter and head circumference. The cavum septum pellucidum (large arrow) and slit-like third ventricle (short arrow) are indicated.
Courtesy of Andrew P MacKenzie, MD
However, the AC can be a valuable additional measure for dating during the second trimester, especially in fetuses with cranial or limb abnormalities
This plane was chosen because the size of the liver correlates well with overall fetal growth
]. Two additional guidelines for correct measurement are (1) positioning the transducer perpendicularly to the fetal abdominal wall and (2) visualizing the symmetrical appearance of the lower ribs [19]. The fetal stomach is typically visualized on the AC view. The measurement is taken by placing four calipers around the abdomen on the skin edge, not the rib cage (figure 6). This will improve test performance while reducing the risk of underestimation of the AC [19]. The ultrasound machine will approximate the abdominal circumference. Another method is to use the electronic ellipse function on the ultrasound machine.
**** The study of Prof Hammami; Syrian FL taller than Western.
Even though FL is a simple "one-dimensional" image, errors in measurement often occur [72-74]. The transducer should be aligned along the long axis of the femoral bone
**** The study of Prof Hammami; Syrian FL taller than Western.
Even though FL is a simple "one-dimensional" image, errors in measurement often occur [72-74]. The transducer should be aligned along the long axis of the femoral bone
The estimation of gestational age based on one parameter may be significantly different from that calculated from the others
A thorough evaluation is warranted to determine the etiology of the abnormal measurement
As an example, there may be a fetal abnormality such as hydrocephalus distorting the HC or BPD.
Human error and normal variation in fetal size can result in over- or under-estimation of gestational age. Regression equations using the four standard biometric parameters minimize, but do not eliminate, these problems and yield the best estimation.
The estimation of gestational age based on one parameter may be significantly different from that calculated from the others
A thorough evaluation is warranted to determine the etiology of the abnormal measurement
As an example, there may be a fetal abnormality such as hydrocephalus distorting the HC or BPD.
Human error and normal variation in fetal size can result in over- or under-estimation of gestational age. Regression equations using the four standard biometric parameters minimize, but do not eliminate, these problems and yield the best estimation.
However, as with all parameters discussed, the accuracy of additional measurements is age-dependent with significant variability in late pregnancy.
A potential source of bias is when the ultrasound screen displays the calculated gestational age next to each biometric measurement. The sonographer may adjust the position of the cursors to fit the expected fetal age as opposed to the actual anatomic reference points
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester.
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester.
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester.
Identification of such landmarks suggests the fetus has most likely attained these milestones in the third trimester
A single late examination cannot reliably distinguish between a pregnancy that is misdated and younger than expected
Clinicians should be particularly cautious when changing the EDD based upon measurements obtained from an ultrasound examination performed late in pregnancy.
pregnancy that is complicated by fetal growth restriction. Late pregnancy ultrasound measurements should never be used to change an EDD established by an examination performed earlier in pregnancy.
After 28 weeks of gestation, it is inappropriate to rely solely on a single set of the usual biometric parameters for fetal dating
When an EDD is revised because of smaller than expected size of the fetus on a second ultrasound examination, we suggest a follow-up ultrasound to evaluate fetal growth over time and make sure this finding was not due to early growth restriction.
****It is usually visible at 4.5 to 5 weeks of gestation.
It is the first sonographic sign of an intrauterine pregnancy
*****The first anatomic structure to appear within the gestational sac.
Provides confirmation of an intrauterine pregnancy.
Noted initially at the beginning of the 5th week of gestation
2*although the value of this test is questionable in women with normal blood pressure
2*although the value of this test is questionable in women with normal blood pressure
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
(serum screening, assessment of maturity, treatment of PTL, PPROM, induction of labor for postdate pregnancies…)
2*although the value of this test is questionable in women with normal blood pressure