Global Health Issues; A perspectives from global eradication of Wild-Polio Virus
The document discusses polio eradication as a global health issue. It explores the biological and social factors associated with the persistence of polio in some countries. While vaccination programs have reduced polio cases by 99%, the remaining 1% of cases are located in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria. Eradicating the final 1% faces challenges including political instability, conflict, and poor health infrastructure in these endemic countries. A holistic approach is needed that considers how global diplomacy impacts health interventions.
This document provides an introduction to global health. It defines global health as health problems that transcend national boundaries and are best addressed through international cooperation. Reasons for interest in global health include moral duty, public diplomacy, and investment in self-protection. Key challenges are limited past resources, uncoordinated present efforts wasting resources, lack of stable leadership, and high turnover causing strategic uncertainty. The future direction of global health depends on expanding the talent pool in developing countries, effective disease prevention and treatment systems, and strengthening health infrastructure.
Global health is an emerging field that draws from public health and international health. While these fields share similarities like a focus on populations and prevention, global health is distinct in that it addresses health issues that transcend national borders and involve multiple countries and disciplines. The document presents a definition of global health agreed upon by an international panel as "an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide." It emphasizes transnational health problems and solutions, an interdisciplinary approach, and a balance of population-based prevention and individual clinical care.
1) Nepal is endemic for 8 neglected tropical diseases including lymphatic filariasis (LF), trachoma, soil-transmitted helminths (STH), dengue fever (DF), kala-azar, leprosy, rabies, and cysticercosis. Dengue cases in Nepal have increased significantly in 2019.
2) Nepal has developed national plans and programs to control and eliminate several NTDs, including kala-azar elimination by 2020, LF elimination by 2020, and trachoma elimination through the SAFE strategy. Integrated preventative chemotherapy is conducted for LF and STH.
3) Major challenges for NTD control in Nepal include addressing climate change and den
This document provides an overview of tropical medicine and global health issues. It discusses diseases that disproportionately impact those living in tropical regions, including neglected tropical diseases. It also covers non-communicable diseases, trauma, urbanization, vector-borne diseases, influenza, avian influenza, measles, malaria, Ebola virus disease, and long-term consequences of the 2014-2015 West Africa Ebola outbreak. Health worker migration is also briefly discussed. The document contains detailed information on the transmission, epidemiology, and impact of various tropical and global health challenges.
Global health issues with focus on food safety in Southeast AsiaILRI
This document summarizes a presentation on global health issues with a focus on food safety in Southeast Asia. The following key points were discussed:
1) A WHO report estimated that foodborne diseases result in 33 million DALYs globally each year, a burden similar to HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Diarrheal diseases cause over half of the burden.
2) Developing countries face a higher burden from infectious diseases like respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases. Emerging economies are seeing a shift toward noncommunicable diseases.
3) A study in Vietnam found Salmonella prevalence increasing along the pork value chain, with over 45% of final pork products contaminated. Cross-contamination in households was identified
Global health is the health of populations in the global context;
It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide".Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being in which disease and infirmity are absent. Global health practices can respond to some of the major health responsibilities such as non-communicable diseases (heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases) or injuries that occur in varying degrees in many countries, no matter how advanced.
The guidelines set out the principles and practices that government can look at when making laws and regulating food programs. Inequality affects the health of the world.
The future of global health is at risk and needs urgent strategies. Also, technology is contributing at a vast pace to overcome the various health challenges all over the world.
For prevention of non-communicable diseases(NCD):
Ban all forms of tobacco advertising, promotion, and sponsorship.
Restrictions on the availability of retailed alcohol.
Replacement of trans fats with polyunsaturated fats.
Scale-up early detection and coverage starting with very cost-effective, high-impact interventions.
The document discusses recommendations from the National Vaccine Advisory Committee regarding adult immunization programs. It provides an overview of adult immunization levels and targets, noting that rates for influenza and pneumococcal vaccines have increased but remain below Healthy People 2010 goals. Burden of vaccine-preventable diseases in adults is significant, with estimates of tens of thousands of influenza-associated deaths annually in the US. Recommendations focus on improving coordination, evaluation, and collaboration across federal agencies to increase adult vaccination uptake.
This document discusses emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It begins by outlining the objectives and key terms. It then provides background on how human diseases have changed as humans migrated and civilization developed. The document identifies several potential contributing factors to new diseases emerging, such as population growth, poverty, human behavior changes, and technological advances. It also discusses challenges like antibiotic resistance and how diseases spread through increased population movement and globalization. Finally, it examines the development of global surveillance networks and international agreements to control infectious diseases.
This document provides an introduction to global health. It defines global health as health problems that transcend national boundaries and are best addressed through international cooperation. Reasons for interest in global health include moral duty, public diplomacy, and investment in self-protection. Key challenges are limited past resources, uncoordinated present efforts wasting resources, lack of stable leadership, and high turnover causing strategic uncertainty. The future direction of global health depends on expanding the talent pool in developing countries, effective disease prevention and treatment systems, and strengthening health infrastructure.
Global health is an emerging field that draws from public health and international health. While these fields share similarities like a focus on populations and prevention, global health is distinct in that it addresses health issues that transcend national borders and involve multiple countries and disciplines. The document presents a definition of global health agreed upon by an international panel as "an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide." It emphasizes transnational health problems and solutions, an interdisciplinary approach, and a balance of population-based prevention and individual clinical care.
1) Nepal is endemic for 8 neglected tropical diseases including lymphatic filariasis (LF), trachoma, soil-transmitted helminths (STH), dengue fever (DF), kala-azar, leprosy, rabies, and cysticercosis. Dengue cases in Nepal have increased significantly in 2019.
2) Nepal has developed national plans and programs to control and eliminate several NTDs, including kala-azar elimination by 2020, LF elimination by 2020, and trachoma elimination through the SAFE strategy. Integrated preventative chemotherapy is conducted for LF and STH.
3) Major challenges for NTD control in Nepal include addressing climate change and den
This document provides an overview of tropical medicine and global health issues. It discusses diseases that disproportionately impact those living in tropical regions, including neglected tropical diseases. It also covers non-communicable diseases, trauma, urbanization, vector-borne diseases, influenza, avian influenza, measles, malaria, Ebola virus disease, and long-term consequences of the 2014-2015 West Africa Ebola outbreak. Health worker migration is also briefly discussed. The document contains detailed information on the transmission, epidemiology, and impact of various tropical and global health challenges.
Global health issues with focus on food safety in Southeast AsiaILRI
This document summarizes a presentation on global health issues with a focus on food safety in Southeast Asia. The following key points were discussed:
1) A WHO report estimated that foodborne diseases result in 33 million DALYs globally each year, a burden similar to HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Diarrheal diseases cause over half of the burden.
2) Developing countries face a higher burden from infectious diseases like respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases. Emerging economies are seeing a shift toward noncommunicable diseases.
3) A study in Vietnam found Salmonella prevalence increasing along the pork value chain, with over 45% of final pork products contaminated. Cross-contamination in households was identified
Global health is the health of populations in the global context;
It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide".Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being in which disease and infirmity are absent. Global health practices can respond to some of the major health responsibilities such as non-communicable diseases (heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases) or injuries that occur in varying degrees in many countries, no matter how advanced.
The guidelines set out the principles and practices that government can look at when making laws and regulating food programs. Inequality affects the health of the world.
The future of global health is at risk and needs urgent strategies. Also, technology is contributing at a vast pace to overcome the various health challenges all over the world.
For prevention of non-communicable diseases(NCD):
Ban all forms of tobacco advertising, promotion, and sponsorship.
Restrictions on the availability of retailed alcohol.
Replacement of trans fats with polyunsaturated fats.
Scale-up early detection and coverage starting with very cost-effective, high-impact interventions.
The document discusses recommendations from the National Vaccine Advisory Committee regarding adult immunization programs. It provides an overview of adult immunization levels and targets, noting that rates for influenza and pneumococcal vaccines have increased but remain below Healthy People 2010 goals. Burden of vaccine-preventable diseases in adults is significant, with estimates of tens of thousands of influenza-associated deaths annually in the US. Recommendations focus on improving coordination, evaluation, and collaboration across federal agencies to increase adult vaccination uptake.
This document discusses emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It begins by outlining the objectives and key terms. It then provides background on how human diseases have changed as humans migrated and civilization developed. The document identifies several potential contributing factors to new diseases emerging, such as population growth, poverty, human behavior changes, and technological advances. It also discusses challenges like antibiotic resistance and how diseases spread through increased population movement and globalization. Finally, it examines the development of global surveillance networks and international agreements to control infectious diseases.
This document discusses the debate around AIDS exceptionalism. It argues that AIDS requires an exceptional response in some contexts but not others. Specifically:
- In countries with low HIV prevalence, AIDS should be normalized and treated as a public health issue, while still addressing the human rights and stigma faced by at-risk groups.
- In countries with mid-level prevalence, AIDS can also be normalized except where treatment depends on outside resources, as is the case in most African countries, due to sustainability challenges.
- Countries with high HIV prevalence over 10% still require an exceptional response, due to substantial morbidity, mortality, and challenges providing effective prevention and treatment programs. The impacts on demography, society and development are significant
Disease elimination aims to reduce the incidence of a disease to zero within a defined geographical area through deliberate efforts. Eradication aims to permanently reduce the worldwide incidence to zero. The document defines disease elimination, eradication, extinction, and control. It provides examples of diseases that have been eliminated, such as leprosy in India and measles in the US. Criteria for disease elimination include biological feasibility, effective intervention tools, surveillance capabilities, and societal support. Elimination and eradication programs require careful evaluation and commitment to succeed in reducing disease incidence to zero.
Sharing from USAID:
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is pleased to announce the release of its “Annual Progress Report to Congress: Global Health Programs FY 2014.” The report presents a summary of USAID’s key global health accomplishments during the previous fiscal year. From improving children’s nutrition to supporting antiretroviral treatment for millions of individuals, USAID programs had a great impact in 2014.
As the largest investor in global health, USAID is leading efforts to improve and save lives worldwide. In partnership with countries, non-governmental organizations, the faith-based community, and the private sector, the Agency is reaching people with the greatest need in the most remote areas. USAID works to further President Barack Obama’s vision to end extreme poverty through its ongoing contributions to ending preventable child and maternal deaths, creating an AIDS-free generation and protecting communities from infectious diseases.
This document discusses epidemiology and screening. It defines epidemiology as the study of distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations. The history and scope of epidemiology are described, including key figures like John Snow. The aims and approaches of epidemiology, like asking questions and making comparisons, are outlined. Concepts around disease causation and the natural history of disease are explained. Finally, the document defines screening as searching for unrecognized disease in healthy individuals and discusses the aims, uses, and types of screening.
The course offers an opportunity to develop a holistic understanding of Global health, its functions, and scope. The course attendants will learn the principles of Primary Health Care, the course is expected to help the students to understand and internalize international health and public health transition facilitating the integration of health sector with other sectors.
A guide for the media on communicating in public health emergencies Jamaity
A public health crisis or emergency is characterised by its ability to cause ill health and death among hundreds, thousands or sometimes millions of people.
In a health crisis, the media has the power to save lives.
Effective communication can help to prevent or reduce the
spread of disease, and guide those affected towards health
services and treatment.
This manual provides tips for media practitioners on how to
help audiences during health emergencies.
It can be read in conjunction with BBC Media Action’s
Lifeline Production Manual (available online) which provides
more general guidance on how to communicate with
people affected by humanitarian crises in order to help save
lives and reduce suffering.
Public health emergencies can start quickly or very slowly.
This manual will address those that start relatively quickly: rapid onset public health emergencies.
King Holmes, MD, PhD: Present and Future Challenges in Global Public HealthUWGlobalHealth
King Holmes, MD, PhD: Present and Future Challenges in Global Public Health, Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Sept. 12, 2009.
Past and future of eradication and elimination of different diseases. How to plan for elimination and eradication. What are the diseases can be eliminated? OPV to IPV shift!
Public Health and infectious disease prevention discusses the history and concepts of public health including social medicine, community health, and achievements in public health such as vaccination programs. It also covers challenges like emerging infectious diseases and inequality. Infectious disease prevention strategies are discussed including vaccination, sanitation, and health education. Herd immunity is described as resistance to disease when a large proportion of a group is immune. Major infectious diseases causing death are identified as respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, and malaria.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in human populations and the factors that influence health. It involves measuring disease frequency, investigating causes, and controlling health problems. The goals of epidemiology are to understand and reduce the burden of disease in society. Key aspects include describing disease distribution, identifying risk factors, and evaluating interventions. The history of epidemiology began with early physicians like Hippocrates and made advances through pioneers such as John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow, who conducted seminal studies linking disease to environmental factors. Epidemiology now covers a wide range of fields and plays an important role in public health.
A presentation on tuberculosis control efforts in Cuba vs. Haiti. Presented for my class Intensive Study of Public Health Services in Cuba, June 25, 2015.
This document discusses aging and new disease patterns. It describes an epidemiological transition where chronic and degenerative diseases are replacing infectious diseases as the leading causes of death and illness globally. This is due to improvements in healthcare and living standards that have led to lower mortality and fertility rates. The burden of non-communicable diseases like heart disease, cancer and diabetes is increasing and projected to account for over half of the disease burden in developing countries by 2030. Early life health conditions and malnutrition are also linked to increased risk of adult diseases and disabilities in old age.
This document summarizes a presentation on epidemiology given by several speakers. It covered the introduction of epidemiology, the basic terminology and definitions, the types of epidemiology classified by study area, and the key components of the epidemiology triangle including host, agent, and environment. It also discussed descriptive and analytical epidemiology, and the role of community pharmacists in areas like pharmacoepidemiology, community diagnosis, and providing updated information to patients and the public health system.
This document provides a history of epidemiology, from Hippocrates hypothesizing environmental influences on disease to modern epidemiological studies using quantitative methods and experimental designs. It discusses key individuals like John Graunt, John Snow, Austin Bradford Hill, and the Framingham Heart Study researchers. It also outlines the roots of modern epidemiology in fields like acute disease investigation, medicine, statistics, social sciences, computer science, and genomics. Finally, it discusses evolving causes of mortality, practical/ethical issues in epidemiology, levels of inference, and prevention approaches.
This document discusses non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and provides information on their global burden, definitions, surveillance, risk factors, and social and economic implications. It notes that NCDs caused 36 million deaths globally in 2008, with 80% of NCD deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries. In India specifically, NCDs account for 53% of total deaths and their economic costs are substantial. The four main NCDs are cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes. Surveillance of NCDs and their risk factors is important for planning prevention and control programs.
The document discusses disease elimination and eradication, and levels of prevention for infectious diseases. It defines eradication as permanently reducing the worldwide prevalence of a disease to zero, with smallpox being the only example. Elimination is reducing prevalence in an area or globally to zero or negligible levels, with polio and measles as examples of eliminated infections. The document also covers objectives to discuss these concepts, three levels of prevention and their application to infectious diseases, and national disease control programs.
This document summarizes a board meeting discussing strategies to address tropical diseases in underdeveloped areas like Malawi. It outlines key tropical diseases like malaria and cholera, their symptoms, treatments, and prevention methods. It discusses factors exacerbating tropical diseases like poverty and sanitation. The meeting proposes a comprehensive strategic plan from APOH to deliver relief, promote health education, and build local capacity through partnerships with groups like CDC and WHO.
Infectious Diseases of Public Health Importance and the Benefits of Vaccinati...Stephen Olubulyera
Review of infectious diseases of public health important and the benefits of vaccinating medical & health practitioners and the subordinate staffs against the disease at a hospital setting
LuciousDavis1-Practices in Public Health-01-Unit9_ AssignmentLucious Davis
The document discusses improving global public health through international collaboration. It describes the Global Health Security Agenda created to work with nations and organizations to prevent infectious diseases. Eleven action plans were developed to implement strategies like educating the public on health risks. However, lack of funding is a barrier to properly resourcing programs. Greater investment is needed to address health inequalities and control diseases worldwide in our increasingly interconnected world.
The global burden of disease (GBD) is a regional and global assessment conducted by the WHO on mortality and disability from diseases and injuries. It aims to make disease burden information globally available. Developing countries experience a large burden from diseases assessed in the GBD such as infectious diseases and maternal/neonatal conditions. Cost-effective interventions could help address this excess burden, such as oral rehydration therapy for childhood diarrhea and skilled birth attendance.
This document discusses the debate around AIDS exceptionalism. It argues that AIDS requires an exceptional response in some contexts but not others. Specifically:
- In countries with low HIV prevalence, AIDS should be normalized and treated as a public health issue, while still addressing the human rights and stigma faced by at-risk groups.
- In countries with mid-level prevalence, AIDS can also be normalized except where treatment depends on outside resources, as is the case in most African countries, due to sustainability challenges.
- Countries with high HIV prevalence over 10% still require an exceptional response, due to substantial morbidity, mortality, and challenges providing effective prevention and treatment programs. The impacts on demography, society and development are significant
Disease elimination aims to reduce the incidence of a disease to zero within a defined geographical area through deliberate efforts. Eradication aims to permanently reduce the worldwide incidence to zero. The document defines disease elimination, eradication, extinction, and control. It provides examples of diseases that have been eliminated, such as leprosy in India and measles in the US. Criteria for disease elimination include biological feasibility, effective intervention tools, surveillance capabilities, and societal support. Elimination and eradication programs require careful evaluation and commitment to succeed in reducing disease incidence to zero.
Sharing from USAID:
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is pleased to announce the release of its “Annual Progress Report to Congress: Global Health Programs FY 2014.” The report presents a summary of USAID’s key global health accomplishments during the previous fiscal year. From improving children’s nutrition to supporting antiretroviral treatment for millions of individuals, USAID programs had a great impact in 2014.
As the largest investor in global health, USAID is leading efforts to improve and save lives worldwide. In partnership with countries, non-governmental organizations, the faith-based community, and the private sector, the Agency is reaching people with the greatest need in the most remote areas. USAID works to further President Barack Obama’s vision to end extreme poverty through its ongoing contributions to ending preventable child and maternal deaths, creating an AIDS-free generation and protecting communities from infectious diseases.
This document discusses epidemiology and screening. It defines epidemiology as the study of distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations. The history and scope of epidemiology are described, including key figures like John Snow. The aims and approaches of epidemiology, like asking questions and making comparisons, are outlined. Concepts around disease causation and the natural history of disease are explained. Finally, the document defines screening as searching for unrecognized disease in healthy individuals and discusses the aims, uses, and types of screening.
The course offers an opportunity to develop a holistic understanding of Global health, its functions, and scope. The course attendants will learn the principles of Primary Health Care, the course is expected to help the students to understand and internalize international health and public health transition facilitating the integration of health sector with other sectors.
A guide for the media on communicating in public health emergencies Jamaity
A public health crisis or emergency is characterised by its ability to cause ill health and death among hundreds, thousands or sometimes millions of people.
In a health crisis, the media has the power to save lives.
Effective communication can help to prevent or reduce the
spread of disease, and guide those affected towards health
services and treatment.
This manual provides tips for media practitioners on how to
help audiences during health emergencies.
It can be read in conjunction with BBC Media Action’s
Lifeline Production Manual (available online) which provides
more general guidance on how to communicate with
people affected by humanitarian crises in order to help save
lives and reduce suffering.
Public health emergencies can start quickly or very slowly.
This manual will address those that start relatively quickly: rapid onset public health emergencies.
King Holmes, MD, PhD: Present and Future Challenges in Global Public HealthUWGlobalHealth
King Holmes, MD, PhD: Present and Future Challenges in Global Public Health, Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Sept. 12, 2009.
Past and future of eradication and elimination of different diseases. How to plan for elimination and eradication. What are the diseases can be eliminated? OPV to IPV shift!
Public Health and infectious disease prevention discusses the history and concepts of public health including social medicine, community health, and achievements in public health such as vaccination programs. It also covers challenges like emerging infectious diseases and inequality. Infectious disease prevention strategies are discussed including vaccination, sanitation, and health education. Herd immunity is described as resistance to disease when a large proportion of a group is immune. Major infectious diseases causing death are identified as respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, and malaria.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in human populations and the factors that influence health. It involves measuring disease frequency, investigating causes, and controlling health problems. The goals of epidemiology are to understand and reduce the burden of disease in society. Key aspects include describing disease distribution, identifying risk factors, and evaluating interventions. The history of epidemiology began with early physicians like Hippocrates and made advances through pioneers such as John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow, who conducted seminal studies linking disease to environmental factors. Epidemiology now covers a wide range of fields and plays an important role in public health.
A presentation on tuberculosis control efforts in Cuba vs. Haiti. Presented for my class Intensive Study of Public Health Services in Cuba, June 25, 2015.
This document discusses aging and new disease patterns. It describes an epidemiological transition where chronic and degenerative diseases are replacing infectious diseases as the leading causes of death and illness globally. This is due to improvements in healthcare and living standards that have led to lower mortality and fertility rates. The burden of non-communicable diseases like heart disease, cancer and diabetes is increasing and projected to account for over half of the disease burden in developing countries by 2030. Early life health conditions and malnutrition are also linked to increased risk of adult diseases and disabilities in old age.
This document summarizes a presentation on epidemiology given by several speakers. It covered the introduction of epidemiology, the basic terminology and definitions, the types of epidemiology classified by study area, and the key components of the epidemiology triangle including host, agent, and environment. It also discussed descriptive and analytical epidemiology, and the role of community pharmacists in areas like pharmacoepidemiology, community diagnosis, and providing updated information to patients and the public health system.
This document provides a history of epidemiology, from Hippocrates hypothesizing environmental influences on disease to modern epidemiological studies using quantitative methods and experimental designs. It discusses key individuals like John Graunt, John Snow, Austin Bradford Hill, and the Framingham Heart Study researchers. It also outlines the roots of modern epidemiology in fields like acute disease investigation, medicine, statistics, social sciences, computer science, and genomics. Finally, it discusses evolving causes of mortality, practical/ethical issues in epidemiology, levels of inference, and prevention approaches.
This document discusses non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and provides information on their global burden, definitions, surveillance, risk factors, and social and economic implications. It notes that NCDs caused 36 million deaths globally in 2008, with 80% of NCD deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries. In India specifically, NCDs account for 53% of total deaths and their economic costs are substantial. The four main NCDs are cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes. Surveillance of NCDs and their risk factors is important for planning prevention and control programs.
The document discusses disease elimination and eradication, and levels of prevention for infectious diseases. It defines eradication as permanently reducing the worldwide prevalence of a disease to zero, with smallpox being the only example. Elimination is reducing prevalence in an area or globally to zero or negligible levels, with polio and measles as examples of eliminated infections. The document also covers objectives to discuss these concepts, three levels of prevention and their application to infectious diseases, and national disease control programs.
This document summarizes a board meeting discussing strategies to address tropical diseases in underdeveloped areas like Malawi. It outlines key tropical diseases like malaria and cholera, their symptoms, treatments, and prevention methods. It discusses factors exacerbating tropical diseases like poverty and sanitation. The meeting proposes a comprehensive strategic plan from APOH to deliver relief, promote health education, and build local capacity through partnerships with groups like CDC and WHO.
Infectious Diseases of Public Health Importance and the Benefits of Vaccinati...Stephen Olubulyera
Review of infectious diseases of public health important and the benefits of vaccinating medical & health practitioners and the subordinate staffs against the disease at a hospital setting
LuciousDavis1-Practices in Public Health-01-Unit9_ AssignmentLucious Davis
The document discusses improving global public health through international collaboration. It describes the Global Health Security Agenda created to work with nations and organizations to prevent infectious diseases. Eleven action plans were developed to implement strategies like educating the public on health risks. However, lack of funding is a barrier to properly resourcing programs. Greater investment is needed to address health inequalities and control diseases worldwide in our increasingly interconnected world.
The global burden of disease (GBD) is a regional and global assessment conducted by the WHO on mortality and disability from diseases and injuries. It aims to make disease burden information globally available. Developing countries experience a large burden from diseases assessed in the GBD such as infectious diseases and maternal/neonatal conditions. Cost-effective interventions could help address this excess burden, such as oral rehydration therapy for childhood diarrhea and skilled birth attendance.
Alhajji 1
Alhajji 6
JafarAlhajji
Professor:
English homework
May 1, 2019
Vaccines safety and effectiveness
Do you think vaccination is an important or just harmful substance forced by pharmaceutical companies cooperating with the governments to inject into people? A vaccine can be defined as "biological preparations that, when introduced into the body, cause an individual to acquire immunity to a specific disease” (Davidson. 7). So, for decades, vaccines have been considered one of the best revaluation in medical practice. A long time ago, people all around the world tried to fight with different kinds of fatal diseases by different ways, and one of the most Significant ways is to make a vaccine, to prevent such life-threatening diseases. The first vaccine was against the Smallpox disease. Smallpox is a highly contagious disease and caused a lot of fatalities all around the world, and it is transmitted between people by inhalation of droplets of virus or direct contact with smallpox lesion secretions (Davidson 25). It is a deadly disease, it caused blindness and permanent scars in the patients that survived. Finally, after several attempts to make a vaccine for Smallpox, Edward succeeded to produce an effective and safe vaccine in 1796 by using the cowpox vaccine to protect from smallpox. Cowpox is a disease caused by cows and transferred to a human, and Jenner's theory was based that whoever had cowpox will be immunized against smallpox (Davidson29).“Edward Jenner was an English country doctor who introduced the vaccine for smallpox. Previously a keen practitioner of smallpox inoculation.”
Then, century after century, the vaccine after the vaccine was developed for different kinds of diseases. In the 20th century, one of the most known vaccines was Diphtheria and Tetanus vaccines. Diphtheria is a respiratory illness, causing the release of exotoxin from Corynebacterium diphtheria bacteria which leads to the death of mucous cells in the throat, mouth, and nose, and as a result of cells accumulation the pseudo-membrane are build up and block the airways of the patients which causes death (Davidson42) After years of experiments and trials to make a vaccine to fight this disease, Gaston Ramona French veterinarian and biologist who realized that attenuated Diphtheria toxin is able to activate the immune system of people without causing serious side effects, and by 1927, the toxoid vaccine was freely used all around the world, and it succeeds to drop the number of cases of diphtheria. Then, by using the same way of toxoid, combined Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoid vaccines were produced. Tetanus can be described as a nerves system infection that leads to spasm and contract of body muscles, especially jaw muscles which make the patients unable to open their mouths (Davidson. 44)
Another example of one of the most significant vaccine is a Polio vaccine. Polio disease, mainly affecting children under 5 years old, and leading to paralysis and often to .
Running head global health case study analysis1 global healtDIPESH30
This research proposal examines how conformity and obedience are impacted by group size and anonymity. It hypothesizes that conformity will increase as group size increases, but decrease when anonymity is removed. The study would randomly assign participants to small or large groups to rate line lengths under anonymous or identifiable conditions. Results could help understand how social influence is impacted by these factors.
Running head: THE EFFECTS OF GROUP SIZE AND ANONYMITY ON CONFORMITY
The Effects of Group Size and Anonymity on Conformity
Introduction
Conformity and obedience to authority are well
Major Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD)Updesh Yadav
This report analyzes the growth of research on neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) over the past two decades using data from scientific publications. It finds that while NTDs impact over a billion people and cause over 500,000 deaths per year, they received very little research funding and attention historically compared to other global health issues. However, there has been growing recognition of NTDs in recent years, driven by advocates and new funding from organizations like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. A landmark 2012 meeting saw over $785 million pledged towards NTD research and treatment, demonstrating new commitments to addressing these neglected issues. The data shows significant increases in scientific publications on NTDs in the past decade, though research is still disproportionately low relative to
Epidemic diseases are spread by insects passing on microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa when they feed or bite. Mosquitoes in particular spread serious epidemic diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, African sleeping sickness, and West Nile virus. Malaria is one of the deadliest diseases worldwide, spread by the bite of the Anopheles mosquito between dusk and dawn across over 100 countries. Yellow fever is also spread by mosquitoes and causes varied symptoms with most improving after a few days but some experiencing liver and kidney failure. Vaccines exist for these diseases but are not always accessible in developing areas.
1) Global health innovation aims to improve health standards worldwide through new techniques and measures that save lives, from simple tools to vaccines.
2) Major organizations working on innovations include the World Health Organization, USAID, and CARE, which help combat pandemics like COVID-19 and support developing countries.
3) Global health faces challenges including pandemics, environmental factors, economic disparities, political issues, and animal health, which innovations aim to address to improve health globally.
The document discusses immunization and its importance as a public health intervention. It notes that immunization prevents millions of deaths each year by stimulating the body's immune system to develop immunity against diseases. However, some challenges remain as an estimated 22 million children still lack basic vaccines. The document then focuses on polio immunization efforts in Nigeria, with the specific aim of assessing oral polio vaccine implementation activities in an urban slum. It reviews factors that influence vaccine uptake and outlines strategies to improve access.
The WHO played both positive and controversial roles in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic:
- Positively, the WHO helped countries prepare and respond, provided accurate information to counter myths, ensured supplies reached health workers, trained health workers, and coordinated vaccine research. However, the pandemic was still preventable.
- Controversially, the WHO was slow to declare a global emergency and was accused of turning a blind eye to China's initial response. Early recommendations on face masks also caused confusion.
- An independent review found the WHO and countries' combined response was inadequate and the world remains vulnerable to future pandemics without changes to strengthen global health cooperation.
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.In y.docxgasciognecaren
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a paper of 500-1,000 words and include the following:
Discuss cultural beliefs and influences relative to the health issue.
Differentiate any religious/spiritual beliefs and values relative to the issue.
Appraise how religious/spiritual beliefs and values have influenced progress in addressing the issue–either negatively or positively.
Compare differences in ideologies related to the issue across political party lines, geographic regions, and countries of the world.
This is APA format aqt least 500 word, references. I have added all the topics that have been added so far, I have topics 1-4 added. the one that will worked on is Topic 5
Topic 1
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abramson, 2011).
Necessary global scientific researches are being ca ...
The document discusses immunization and infectious diseases. The main goals are to increase immunization rates and reduce preventable infectious diseases. Immunization works by stimulating the body's natural defenses to recognize and attack specific bacteria or viruses. This helps prevent disease or reduce severity if exposed. While vaccines have reduced many diseases, some remain issues and new threats may emerge. Maintaining surveillance and immunization programs is important for protecting public health.
Covid-19 (https://youtu.be/r8Qj5D38GQU)Tasneem Ahmad
The document discusses COVID-19, including its origins, symptoms, diagnosis, negative consequences such as increased anxiety, depression, and stress among students. It outlines coping strategies like religious coping, social distancing, and protective measures like hand hygiene and mask use that are recommended. Vaccination is discussed though there is currently no vaccine available for COVID-19. The pandemic has disrupted education worldwide and increased psychological distress.
alhajji1alhajji 2Jafar AlhajjiVaccines Safety and Effectiven.docxsimonlbentley59018
alhajji1
alhajji 2
Jafar Alhajji
Vaccines Safety and Effectiveness
Do you think vaccination is an important or just harmful substance forced by pharmaceutical companies cooperating with the governments to inject into people? Vaccine can be defined as “biological preparations that, when introduced into the body, cause an individual to acquire immunity to a specific disease” (Davidson. 7). So, for decades, vaccines have been considered one of the best revaluation in medical practice. A long time ago, people all around the world tried to fight with different kinds of fatal diseases by different ways, and one of the most Significant ways is to make a vaccine, to prevent such life- threatening diseases. The first vaccine was against the Smallpox disease. Smallpox is a highly contagious disease and caused a lot of fatalities all around the world, and it is transmitted between people by inhalation of droplets of virus or direct contact with smallpox lesion secretions (Davidson 25). It is a deadly disease, it caused blindness and permanent scars in the patients that survived. Finally, after several attempts to make a vaccine for Smallpox, Edward succeeded to produce an effective and safe vaccine in 1796 by using the cowpox vaccine to protect from smallpox. Cowpox is a disease cause by cows and transferred to human, and Jenner’s theory was based that whoever had cowpox will be immunized against smallpox (Davidson 29). “Edward Jenner was an English country doctor who introduced the vaccine for smallpox. Previously a keen practitioner of smallpox inoculation.”
Then, century after century, vaccine after vaccine was developed for different kinds of diseases. In the 20th century, one of the most known vaccines was Diphtheria and Tetanus vaccines. Diphtheria is a respiratory illness, causing the release of exotoxin from Corynebacterium diphtheriae bacteria which leads to death of mucus cells in the throat, mouth and nose, and as a result of cells accumulation the pseudo-membrane are build up and block the airways of the patients which causes death (Davidson 42) After years of experiments and trials to make a vaccine to fight this disease, Gaston Ramon a French veterinarian and biologist who realized that attenuated Diphtheria toxin is able to activate the immune system of people without causing serious side effects, and by 1927, the toxoid vaccine was freely used all around the world, and it succeeds to drop the number of cases of diphtheria. Then, by using the same way of toxoid, combined Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoid vaccines were produced. Tetanus can be described as a nerves system infection that leads to spasm and contract of body muscles, especially jaw muscles which make the patients unable to open their mouths (Davidson. 44)
Another example of one of the most significant vaccine is a Polio vaccine. Polio disease, mainly affecting children under 5 years old, and leading to paralysis and often to death due to immobilization of respi.
6Health and SafetyJupiterimagesStockbyteThinkstockLe.docxalinainglis
This document discusses health and safety issues affecting children worldwide and throughout development. It covers major global health concerns like early childhood mortality and efforts to prevent it through immunizations and access to clean water. Specific safety risks for older children and adolescents discussed include homicide, suicide, and unintentional injuries which remain leading causes of death. The importance of preventative measures to reduce accidents is emphasized.
International health organizations work to improve global health and deal with health issues across national boundaries. The main organizations discussed are the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations (UN), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), US Department of Global Health, and Global Health Council. Each organization works to combat diseases, increase access to healthcare, provide aid during disasters, and address other public health challenges around the world through initiatives, partnerships, and technical support.
This is a CLC assigment, I have attached topic 1, 2 and 3 , APA form.docxgasciognecaren
This is a CLC assigment, I have attached topic 1, 2 and 3 , APA format, 3 references, 500 words
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a formal paper of 500-1,000 words that examines the previously addressed aspects of health policies, finance, global/national prevention, or treatment initiatives related to the health issue by identifying applicable ethics principles.
Differentiate how application of the identified ethics principles to the health issue has resulted in population disparities.
Hypothesize how existing disparities might be eliminated using alternate ethics principles.
Critique whether the applicable ethics principles are consistent with the ANA's Code of Ethics for Nurses.
Topic 1
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abramson, 2011).
Necessary global scientific researches ...
This is an apa format, 3 references, This is topic 3 of this assignm.docxdohertyjoetta
This is an apa format, 3 references, This is topic 3 of this assignment, I have attached topic one and 2 essays of this paper at the bottom of this paper.
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a paper of 500-1,000 words that includes the following in addressing the health issue:
Discuss past and present funding for initiatives that address the health issue. Include both public and private sources.
Analyze past and present quality initiatives that address the health issue. Include both public and private sources.
Differentiate how being insured versus uninsured impacts health outcomes relative to this issue.
Compare health outcomes for the issue between the United States and a country with universal health coverage.
Topic 1 essay on unfluenza
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abrams ...
1. Are there relationships between personal (hygiene, eating habits.docxgasciognecaren
1. Are there relationships between personal (hygiene, eating habits, wearing of masks) social (public gatherings, proximity to one another) demographic (age, gender, education, racial ethnicity), and economic (occupation, level of education, annual income, home environment) factors and the spread, severity, and mortality rates of COVID patients worldwide?
2. Is there a difference in behaviour changes in people who have undergone cognitive behaviour therapy versus those who undergo pharmacologic intervention alone?
3. What is the difference in infection rates, pain intensity, inflammation, and restoration of functionality in people who have received prophylactic antibiotics and those who do not receive the prophylactic antibiotics during endodontic surgery?
4. What are nurses' perceptions towards patients who are non-adherent to the prescribed medications and are always complaining of deteriorating health?
Question one
: dependent and independent variables.
The dependent variables in the first question are hygiene eating habits, wearing masks, public gatherings, proximity to one another, occupation, level of education, annual income and home environment (variables), COVID patients (Population) and spread, severity, and mortality rates. (testability). The independent variables include age, gender, and race.
Why question 1?
The end of 2019 set the beginning of what would become a life-changing experience for virtually everyone worldwide in the following one year. When COVID-19 first struck in Wuhan China, nobody speculated that the disease would later spread across the globe, killing millions of people and negatively impacting the livelihood of the affected. Other than the deaths that the disease has brought upon innocent people, their governments across the nations have implemented stringent policies to help curb the spread, such as national lockdowns, closure of schools and other institutions, curfews, and other strict rules, all intended to prevent the infection rates. These government intervention measures had a huge economic, social, and personal impact on people and led to other problems, including but not limited to mental health.
Surprisingly, the disease was affecting different nations on varying intensities. For example, back in March 2020 COVID deaths in Italy were ranging above 700 on a daily basis while during the same time, there were very few cases and deaths in Africa (Di Lorenzo & Di Trolio, 2020; Onder et al., 2020). There were speculations that upon reaching Africa, COVID would lead to very high infection and mortality rates due to the poor healthcare systems and the relatively low economic status of most African countries. However, this turned out to be wrong as to date, the developed countries such as the USA, UK, and other European countries have the largest numbers of COVID cases and deaths (Bamgboye et al., 2020).
The relatively low numbers of new cases and deaths in Africa is intriguing. This calls for res.
This summary provides an overview of an epidemiology paper on respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections in children. The paper discusses the epidemiological triangle as it relates to RSV, describing the agent (RSV virus), host (infants and young children), and environment (fall, winter, early spring seasons). It also covers the types of epidemiology (descriptive and analytic) and levels of prevention (primary, secondary, tertiary) for RSV infections.
Similar to POLIO AS A GLOBAL HEALTH CONCERN-TO (20)
1. Global Health Issues; A perspectives from global eradication
of Wild-Polio Virus
Yahaya Oloriegbe H.
School of Health; Comparative Health Studies
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
It is paramount to state that global action towards control of any disease should go beyond funding and
knowledge contribution, rather global health actors need to take more holistic approach by encompassing
diplomacy for the good of all instead of focusing on individual donor countries interest. High-income countries
need to note that other activities such as diplomacy for personal interest during conflict situation deters the
primary aim of health intervention. These interventions are been funded using tax payer money, as such tax-
payers need to seek justification for the way their money are been channelled. Nonetheless, global health is
important for every individual worldwide but the sole purpose of global public good should always be the goal of
global health intervention.
Introduction
The World Health organisation-WHO declared wild Polio
virus prevalence as an “international public health
concern” in 2014 (Global Polio eradication initiative
GPEI, 2014). Apart from the fact that the virus is close to
been eradicated globally, achieving this stride has always
been a global challenge for the past decades (GPEI,
2010). However, with series of global effort; one of which
is the creation of an institution – the global polio
eradication initiative GPEI, It is safe to assume that this
has contributed to the reduction of the polio virus by
almost 99% (Independent monitoring board of GPEI,
2014). The remaining 1% lingers in three countries;
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Nigeria in Southeast Asia and
Sub-Saharan Africa respectively (GPEI, 2010). The
prevalence of the polio virus has been attributed to the
mutating biological characteristics of the wild Polio virus.
Furthermore, analysis has shown that causation factors of
polio virus goes beyond its biological characteristics,
rather series of associated social factor may have also
contributed to the prevalence of the virus. Thus, this essay
will explore the biological and social factors associated
with the prevalence of Polio from a global health
perspective while also understanding efforts that is been
put in place to eradicate the diseases that has lingered for
several decades.
In other to get a clear understanding of the complexity
surrounding the resurgence of polio globally, it is
paramount that this issue is explored from a global health
perspective. Therefore, the next paragraphs will explore
the scopes and perspectives of global health. To further
understand the scopes of global health, a series of the
global health issues will be explored. Focus will then be
drawn towards eradication of Polio virus as a global
health issue.
What is global health and what are the global health
issues?
To understand the term “global health” seems to be a
major debate both in the academic and practice field.
According to Rowson et al. (2012), global health was
described as a field that owes its origin and scope to the
trend in which the global society addresses health issue.
However, it can be argued that Rowson et al. has not
really been able to distinct their view of the term “global
health” from that of public health activities. Rowson et al.
definition of global health imitates the scope of public
health activities where individual countries prevent cross
border infectious diseases by developing policies to
protect their social and economic interest. Interestingly,
Kickbush (1993) argued that global health goes beyond
individual countries interest. He would further go to argue
that global health encompasses the interrelatedness of
globalisation on individual countries health and how this
globalisation affects the distribution of health across
different countries.
Nonetheless, there is a concession in the academic field
reported by Beaglehole and Bonita (2010) that Koplan et
al. definition of global health seems appropriate to
describe the scope and activities of global health. Koplan
et al. (2008) defined global health as ‘an area for study,
research, and practice that places a priority on improving
health and achieving health equity for all people
worldwide’. Beaglehole and Bonita would however depict
Koplan and Kickbush definition to be “too wordy,
uninspiring, broadly focused and has no clear goal.
Instead, Beaglehole and Bonita (2010) defined global
health to be a “collaborative trans-national research and
action for promoting health for all”.
From the analysis above, it can be suggested that defining
the activities, scope and meaning of global health
represent one of the issues in global health itself. More so,
defining what the global health issues are, represents an
additional global health concern. For example, the US
department of health (2014) identified disabilities, global
health security, health diplomacy, LGBT, global water
supply, non-communicable diseases, maternal and child
health as the global health issues. Whereas the World
health organisation, considering burden of disease as
2. 2
Global Health and its issues; Polio as a focus www.northampton.ac.uk
School of Health; Comparative Health studies
global health concern; listed HIV/Aids, diabetes, Tobacco
use, cardiovascular diseases, disability, child health /
newborn diseases and maternal health issues as the global
health issue. In another description of what the global
health issues are, Ronal and Jerry (2003) categorised
global health into environmental global degradation such
as (green house effect, biodiversity, water shortage and
deforestation); Socio-economic issues (increasing
poverty, financial instability, digital instability and
taxation, etc.); and lastly, cross cutting issues such as
(governance, food security, war and conflict amongst
others). Therefore, it can be concluded that global health
issues cover a wide range of topics and cannot be limited
to a particular theme, as such description of global health
issues depends on the position of the actor engaged with
it.
Thus, description of global health issues could be based
on a developed country seeking to address issues that
poses social and trade threat or low-middle income
countries who tends to reduces burden of diseases from
communicable diseases or researchers and students who
identifies global health issue from a critical point of view.
It is based on these premises that this essay will focus on
polio as a global health issue by exploring the biosocial
association with its global prevalence.
Associated Biological and social factors to prevalence
of Wild polio virus
Polio is an entero-virus infectious disease of three strains
(wild polio virus type1-3) that affects children under the
age of 5years (WHO, 2014). The virus enters the human
system through faecal-oral route, multiplies in the
intestine and enters the blood stream, which may then
invade the central nervous system, and often leads to
paralysis of the lower limbs (WHO, 2000, 2014). In rare
conditions, mortality may arise from the invasion of the
brain stem, which causes breathing difficulty and
eventually death (WHO, 2000; WHO, 2014). One in 200
Polio infections leads to irreversible paralysis with 5-10%
deaths recorded in those paralysed (WHO, 2014).
The virus spreads through agents such as food, water and
sometimes flies when they are contaminated with faeces
of infected children (GPEI, 2010). The long period of
paralysis manifestation in infected children allows the
silent spread of the virus in a community. Therefore, it is
for this reason W.H.O. considers a confirmed single case
of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP), evidence for a polio
epidemic especially in a community with previous low
prevalence of polio cases (GPEI, 2010). The virus
however, doesn’t have a cure but can be eradicated
through the use of vaccines such as oral polio vaccine,
inactivated polio vaccine, monovalent OPV and bivalent
OPV (GPEI, 2010; WHO, 2014). Genetic alteration of the
OPV vaccine through poor handling, storage, and
administration are associated to the incidence and
prevalence of circulating vaccine derived polio vaccine-
CVDPV (GPEI, 2010). In addition, low immunisation
coverage in a community facilitates the spread of this
strain of virus. For example, CVDPV constitutes the
highest percentage of the remaining reported polio cases
globally with more countries suffering polio outbreak
from CVDPV than WPV for the first time in 2012 (WHO,
2013). Therefore, programmatic errors could be said to be
an on-going challenge in the complete eradication of polio
in low-middle income countries.
Nonetheless, Humans are the only susceptible host of the
virus, therefore allowing for easy control of the diseases.
Thus, global focus on polio intensifies day to day due to
its susceptibility to eradication once and for all.
According to Bruce et al., (2014) eradication of the
Poliovirus represents a good example of public good for
health. This is because once an infectious disease such as
polio is controlled or eradicated; every person in receipt
of this protection diminishes the protection enjoyed by
others and therefore provides protection for every
newborn entering the global community (Bruce et al,
2014).
Although polio is deemed to be a high morbidity rate
disease with about 1000 paralysis recorded everyday
globally in 1988; moreover, its detrimental effect on
global economy due to the paralytic effect on mostly
children under 5 makes it a public health concern.
However, the establishment of the global eradication
initiative (GPEI) by the world health assembly in 1988
has led to the reduction poliovirus from 350,000 polio
cases to 406 polio cases in 2012 (GPEI, 2012). As such,
three countries (Nigeria, Pakistan and Afghanistan)
remain endemic, constituting the last 1% of the remaining
poliovirus globally (WHO, 2014). Public-private
partnership activities spearheaded by national
governments, WHO, Rotary international, United States
centre for disease control (CDC), United Nations for
children fund (UNICEF) and other partners such as the
Bill and Melinda gates foundation and Gavi-alliance
enhanced the process of eradicating of polio globally
(WHO, 2014). Their activities since the creation of the
GPEI has majorly been the facilitation of donor
governments, knowledge and technical support amongst
other activities. For example, Rotary international,
through its ‘Polio plus’ initiative and 1.2 million
volunteer worldwide has not only facilitated contribution
from donor governments but also contributed about
US$600million alone by itself in 2005 (). Other
organisations such as the International Red Cross, Red
Crescent Movement, Medicines San Frontiers, Save the
Children, World Vision, CARE, and the U.S. based NGO
umbrella-organization CORE have all contributed both
technical strategies and funding to the eradication of polio
especially in low-middle income countries.
Despite the recorded success, the role of the WHO as a
global health leader has been questioned in different
consensus. It is being argued that the role of WHO has
only been that of a figure head rather than a unilateral
organization such as the Bill and Melinda gates
foundation, Rotary international and Gavi-alliance whom
have all taken leadership roles in not only polio-
eradication but also in changing the trend of
implementing vertical interventions in low-middle income
countries (Cox, 1997; Ruggie 1998; Barnet and
Finnemore 2004). Having said this, it is important to note
that the WHO through the strategic advisory group of
experts on immunisation (SAGE) provides technical
leadership for the eradication of polio through agreement
on strategic planning, policy development, resolution of
technical concerns and priority setting (Bruce et al.,
2014).
Nevertheless, the threat posed by the 3 remaining
endemic countries remains a global health concern. This
is due to the fact that as long as a child is infected,
children across the globe remains at risk of getting
infected. According to WHO (2014), failure to eradicate
the last 1% could led to a prevailing 200,000 new cases of
3. 3
Global Health and its issues; Polio as a focus www.northampton.ac.uk
School of Health; Comparative Health studies
polio yearly. Thus, it is important to note that limiting the
causative factor of polio prevalence to its biological
characteristics pose a great risk to the eradication of the
virus. Analysis has shown that social factors play a major
pact in the resurgence of the poliovirus. According to
global polio eradication initiative (2014), conflicts,
political instability, hard-to-reach areas and poor health
infrastructure pose threat to the eradication of the
poliovirus. Other co-founding factors such as the
economy status of a country also plays a role in the
lingering poliovirus globally.
Research and knowledge patency by high-income
countries can be explained to be one of the major factors
affecting the eradication of polio. This is because;
countries especially the low-middle income countries find
it difficult sustaining immunisation programs due to its
related high cost of vaccines purchase (Sidsel et al.,
2013). This suggests that knowledge and research
ownership by developed countries creates barriers for
low-middle income countries to produce and utilize these
necessary vaccines. Nevertheless, the establishment of the
GAVI-alliance, which encompasses a public-private
partnership between developed nations and international
financial firms, research institutes, vaccine manufacturers
and NGOs, through whom funding and technical
knowledge where facilitated for the production and
purchase of vaccines at lower cost for low-middle income
countries (GAVI-alliance, 2013). It can be argued that on
the positive side, GAVI has brought about increased
attention and adequate resources to promoting
immunisation, but the power exerted by global actors
based primarily but not exclusively on their financial
resources, exacerbates the asymmetric relationship
between strong and weak actors, thus threatening the
already limited autonomy-especially the low-middle
income countries (Sidsel et al., 2013). As such, vertical
program is imposed on low-middle countries by donor
countries, which endangers the eradication of diseases as
homogeneous “one size fits all” solution disallow
development of programs based on country/community
needs, therefore reducing the effectiveness of these
interventions.
Most donor countries support to low-middle countries as
regards disease control including polio eradication
includes technical and financial contribution with less
emphasis on good governance, this is despite the agreed
conditions that stipulate this. For example, the term of
reference (TOR) between GAVI and receiving countries
highlights ensuring accountability at all level of
government. Corruption in the health sector and the
governments in low-middle countries prevent the required
downstream approach in eradicating polio globally. For
example, field experience of the author revealed that
funding allocated for the training of health workers at
local government levels are cut and diverted without
getting to the intended recipient (health worker), therefore
little amount of budgeted fees are paid to the staff and as
such, the workers are less motivated to give optimal
performance. Further experience has shown that health
workers prioritise vertical programs such as polio
eradication over other routine health services as the huge
sum of donation from donor countries and organisations
encourages health workers to affiliate more to vertical
programs in other to meet their financial need. As a result
of this, health workers in this category view the
eradication of the poliovirus globally to mean an end
to their source of livelihood. This phenomena thinking
weakens the health system through the neglect of other
areas of the health system.
The eradication of polio from India gives the consensus
amongst stakeholders that polio eradication globally can
be a reality. Eradicating polio from India was thought
impossible at some point due to the demographic
characteristics of the nation; a large population, high
social-economical disparities, difficult geographical
terrain and poor governance amongst others were some of
the threat to polio eradication in India. However,
Initiatives such as advocacy through the use mega
Bollywood faces for polio eradication, intense
supplemental immunisation, and government
accountability amongst other strategies contributed to the
eradication of Polio in India (GPEI, 2014). Global health
actors (WHO, 2014; GPEI, 2014) have suggested that
eradicating the last 1% in the three endemic countries
depends largely on how they can emulate lessons from the
India success story. This author however argues that
eradicating polio in the remaining three countries goes
beyond science and other programmatic approaches used
in India, rather a more holistic view into how global
diplomacy through political activities affects the
eradication needs to be explored.
An analysis of the three endemic countries shows that
they are all affected by civil unrest and political
instability. Resurgence of poliovirus has been recorded in
the past where these conflicts took place. For example, in
Nigeria, the activity of the terrorist group ‘Boko Haram’
hinders health workers from reaching children in the
northern part of Nigeria. Result of this threat is a
reduction in the immunisation coverage rate, which
inherently facilitates the spread of poliovirus not only
within the affected states but also to other neighbouring
communities. Therefore, it is paramount to state that
global action towards eradication of any disease should go
beyond funding and knowledge contribution, rather global
health actors need to take more holistic approach by
encompassing diplomacy for the good of all instead of
focusing on individual donor countries interest. As such,
countries like Syria, Palestine, Russia amongst others
where diplomacy war amongst high-income countries
sustains continuous conflict in this war zone, facilitates
resurgence of not only polio virus but other
communicable diseases due to a weak government and
eventually the health system.
In conclusion, the development of the polio-end game
strategic plan 2013-2018 which aims to eradicate polio by
2018 is a unique plan, in that for the first time, all strains
of the polio virus are targeted simultaneously encouraging
concurrent eradication of both wild polio virus and
vaccine derived polio virus (GPEI, 2014). However, as
argued initially, the success of this plan will depend not
only on the continuous global support of the eradication
but largely on how challenges surrounding polio
eradication can be approached holistically. Therefore,
assumptions such as the “one size fits all” solutions,
concentration on vertical programs, prioritising high
income countries vested interest in global-policy
development should be reviewed towards ensuring global
public good for health. Most importantly, high-income
countries need to note that other activities including
global diplomacy in conflict situation and other situation
deters the effect of any intervention which they invest tax
payer money on, as such it is paramount for tax-payers to
4. 4
Global Health and its issues; Polio as a focus www.northampton.ac.uk
School of Health; Comparative Health studies
always seek for justification in the spending of their
money. Nonetheless, global health is important for every
individual worldwide but the sole purpose of global
public good should always be the goal of global actors.
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