The document provides a detailed history and overview of photography. It discusses key early inventions and photographers that helped develop the technology, such as Niepce creating the first permanent photograph in 1822 and Daguerre developing the daguerreotype process in 1839. The document also covers the development of color photography starting in the 1850s, the rise of digital photography using CCD sensors in the late 20th century, and different photographic techniques and processes over time.

1. The photography
"Photos" requests are redirected here; other meanings of the term "Photography", "
Photo " and "Photos" see. Photo (disambiguation) .
Photography is a technology for recording an image by registering optical radiation using a
photosensitive photographic material or a semiconductor converter . Unlike some other
languages, in Russian the word "photography" is used only in relation to static images. At the
same time, in professional cinematography, this term denotes the pictorial solution of a film
created by a cinematographer . Photographs also refers to the final prints of a photographic
image, produced on photographic paper by a chemical method or by a printer .
Photographic art is based on photography technologies , which is considered one of the types of
fine art and occupies a key place in modern mass culture . The first permanent photographic
image was created in 1822 by the French inventor Joseph Nicephorus Niepce , but it has not
survived to this day. The date of the invention of the technology by the decision of the IX
International Congress of Scientific and Applied Photography is January 7, 1839 , when
Francois Arago made a report on daguerreotype at a meeting of the French Academy of
Sciences.
The person who takes the photograph is called the photographer . In most cases, he also
performs all the other stages of creating a photographic image, but often the technical part of
the work is performed by photographic assistants, retouchers, photo editors and representatives

2. of other professions. In professional studio photography, the photographer delegates some of
the responsibilities to his assistants.
History of photography
History of the photographic lens, and History of photographic art.
Painting a landscape with a pinhole camera

3. The invention of photography was made possible by combining several discoveries made long
before that. The ancient Chinese philosopher Mo-tzu described the action of a camera obscura
back in the 5th century BC [8] . Perhaps the mention of a camera obscura is found in Aristotle ,
who wondered how a circular image of the Sun can arise when it shines through a square hole
[9] . Artists began using this device to create perspective paintings as early as the Middle Ages ,
and among Renaissance artists, the camera obscura was widely known as the "dark room".
In 1694, Wilhelm Homberg described photochemical reactions in which substances change
color when exposed to light. He also drew attention to the sensitivity to light of silver nitrate ,
discovered three centuries earlier by Albert the Great [10] . The first person to prove that light,
not heat, makes silver salt dark was the German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze . In 1725,
while trying to prepare a luminous substance, he accidentally mixed chalk with nitric acid , which
contained some dissolved silver.... Schulze noticed that when sunlight hit the white mixture, it
became dark, while the mixture, protected from sunlight, did not change at all. This experiment
gave impetus to a whole series of observations, discoveries and inventions in chemistry, which,
a little over a century later, led to the invention of photography.
The invention of photography
The first known chemical fixation attempt was made by Thomas Wedgwood and Humphrey
Davy . Already in 1802, they could obtain photograms using silver salts, without knowing how to
fix them [11] . The first practical success on the way to the emergence of photography was the
invention by Nicephorus Niepce of heliography ( fr. Héliographie ) [10] . The earliest surviving
image captured with this technology by a camera obscura is dated 1826 and is known as " View
from the window at Le Gras". With minor improvements, heliography was later widely used to
replicate ready-made images obtained by other methods, but for shooting from nature it turned
out to be unsuitable, giving an image that was too contrasting with almost no halftones and
small details .

4. On December 14, 1829, Niepce signed a notarial agreement on further joint work with the
creator of the first diorama, Louis Daguerre , who conducted his own experiments in the field of
image fixation. For some time, the inventors carried out their work in parallel, but success was
achieved by Daguerre after the death of a partner. In 1839, he published a method for obtaining
an image on a silver-plated copper plate . After exposure, the plate was developed with heated
mercury vapor , and then fixed in a solution of sodium chloride... Under certain lighting
conditions, a single copy of the photograph obtained in this way looked like a high-quality
positive , displaying in detail the smallest details of the subjects of photography. Daguerre called
his method of obtaining a photographic image " daguerreotype " and on June 14, 1839,
transferred it into the public domain in exchange for a life pension.
Almost simultaneously with L. Daguerre, the Englishman William Henry Fox Talbot invented a
negative-positive technology for obtaining a photographic image, which he called " calotype ".
As a carrier of the image Talbot used paper impregnated with silver chloride. The process made
it possible to replicate a positive image using contact photographic printing . The resulting
positive was inferior to the daguerreotype in quality due to the display of the fibrous structure of
the paper and coarse halftones. This fact, along with the need for patent royalties for the use of
technology, played a key role in the fact that daguerreotype became the dominant photo
process for a long time.... One of its main uses has been portraiture. By the mid-1840s, the
daguerreotype photographic portrait almost completely replaced the miniature portrait , forcing
the majority of artists in this direction to retrain as photographers.
Hippolyte Bayard remained practically unknown in the history of photography , in 1839 he
presented photographs obtained using his own direct positive method. In addition, in 1833, the
French-Brazilian inventor and artist Hercule Florence published a method for obtaining
photography using silver nitrate . He did not patent his method, and his research became known
only in the 1970s. Daguerreotype and calotype were used until the second half of the 19th
century, giving way to the wet collodion process , which combined the advantages of the
negative-positive Talbot method and high photosensitivity. The albumin seal that appeared at
the same time produced high quality paper prints from glass collodion negatives. The main
disadvantage of wet collodion was the need for exposure and laboratory processing of wet
photographic plates for several minutes after pouring the emulsion, while the photosensitive
layer remains permeable to processing solutions.

5. The problem was solved only after the invention by the English physician Richard Maddox in
1871 of the gelatin-silver process and the so-called "dry" photographic plates.
A final innovation was the possibility of using flexible celluloid instead of glass as a substrate ,
thanks to the invention of a gelatin anti- curl counter layer by Hannibal Goodwin in 1887. So the
place of photographic plates at the beginning of the 20th century was taken by sheet and roll
film with a silver gelatin emulsion , which dominates in analog photography to this day. The
improvement of technology and the simultaneous simplification and reduction of the cost of
photography has led to the widespread use of photography. According to historians, this
provoked a kind of "portrait mania". Then, in the 19th century, the first family photo albums
appeared , in which they began to store photographs.

6. Color photography
The first attempts to obtain photographic images in natural colors began immediately after the
invention of photography. Even Niepce tried to fix the color directly, relying on the property of
some substances to change color under the influence of colored radiation. The first result in this
direction of research was "heterochromia", which the American Levi Hill tried to patent in 1853.
However, the details of the technology were not disclosed by the inventor, and most of his
contemporaries considered him a fraud, passing off painted daguerreotypes as a color
photograph. Known for the work carried out in the same direction by Alexander Becquerel, in
1849, received a color image of the visible spectrum on a chlorinated silver plate , which quickly
fades under direct light. The logical conclusion of these studies was the invention in 1891 of the
Lippmann process , which provided physically accurate reproduction of color, but was
unsuitable for practical use.
The main efforts in the development of color photography were concentrated in the field of
tricolor technologies, based on the theory of color perception , created in 1855 by James
Maxwell . She relied on the Helmholtz-Jung theory of the existence of three types of
light-sensitive cones in the retina of the human eye . According to this theory, light should be
divided into three main components, which are separately recorded, and then re-combined,
giving a full-color image due to the phenomenon of metamerism . The first permanent color
photograph of the Tartan Ribbon was taken by Thomas Sutton using this method in1861 year .
However, the photographic materials that existed at that time were insensitive to green, yellow
and red light, allowing only the blue-violet and ultraviolet components of the spectrum to be
recorded. Therefore, the second most important step towards the creation of color photography
was the discovery in 1873 by the German photochemist Hermann Vogel of the phenomenon of
spectral sensitization using substances capable of imparting sensitivity to silver compounds to
long-wavelength regions of the spectrum.

7. Color photograph of Prokudin-Gorsky and a plate with color-separated positives
The progress of sensitization of photographic materials went in stages, starting with the receipt
of orthochromatic emulsions by Joseph Eder using erythrosine. The entire visible spectrum
became available for registration only after the discovery of the red sensitizer pinacyanol by
Benno Gomolka in 1906. Only after that, the three-color photography was able to fully display
the natural colors of the shooting objects. Numerous designs of "color" cameras appeared,
which carried out color separation by sequential or simultaneous shooting with different light
filters . The most popular type of cameras for sequential shooting with an extended
panchromaticThe photographic plate was designed by the German scientist Adolph Mite , and
the mass production was set up by Wilhelm Bermpol. Using the Bermpole-Mite camera, Russian
photographer Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky created one of the largest collections of color
photographs for his time.
Along with the separate shooting of partial color-separated images, from the beginning of the
20th century, raster methods of color photography began to actively develop, fixing different
components of the spectrum on a common photographic material. In particular, in 1907 the "
Autochrome " photographic plates by the Lumiere brothers were patented and went on the free
sale , which made it possible to obtain color transparencies.an ordinary camera. Despite
numerous shortcomings (low resolution and impossibility of replication), the method quickly
gained popularity, and by 1935 50 million autochromic records were produced worldwide. Most
of the shortcomings of early color photography technologies could be eliminated only in
multilayer photographic materials that register partial images in different emulsion layers located
one above the other. The decisive role was played by the invention of chromogenic
photographic materials , the synthesis of color in which took place in accordance with the
principles implemented by the German scientists Rudolf Fischer and Johann Siegrist in 1912
[33] . The process was fully implemented in 1936, thanks to Agfa, which released the reversible
photographic film "Agfacolor Neu" [34] [35] . Almost simultaneously, a photographic version of a
similar film " Kodachrome ", released in the United States a year earlier, was released.

8. Duplication and photo illustration
One of the main problems of daguerreotype turned out to be the almost insurmountable
difficulties of replicating a photographic image, made in a single copy. Cameras with several
lenses appeared very quickly, making it possible to obtain the same number of ready-made
daguerreotypes. Nevertheless, full-fledged replication turned out to be available for calotyping,
which made it possible to print an unlimited number of positive copies from one negative . Talbot
immediately took advantage of this, publishing in 1844 the photo album "The Pencil of Nature"
from hand-printed photographs. However, this method turned out to be too expensive, since, in
addition to printing, it required careful laboratory processing.... Louis Desiree Blancard-Evrard
tried to reduce the cost of the process by organizing streaming photo printing with a clear
division of labor at different stages. But even the thus reduced cost of the final print turned out to
be unacceptable for the mass distribution of photographic works, quickly leading Evrard's
workshop to ruin. Research in the direction of high-quality polygraphic reproduction of
photographic images was carried out within the framework of a competition organized in 1856
by the patron of the arts Honore d'Albert de Luin.
Cover of one of the largest illustrated magazines "Life" in 1944
Photomechanical processes have become a cardinal solution to the problem, which makes it
possible to replicate a grayscale image using a typographic cliché. Historically the first in 1855

9. by Alphonse Poitvin (fr.)rus.a phototype was patented , which in its original form was not perfect
enough for practical use. The first major success was achieved in 1865 with the invention of
woodburytype , suitable for gravure printing of photographic reproductions. The phototype
received the mass market under the new name " collotype " after improvements introduced in
1868 by Joseph Albert. Replacing the lithographic stone with a glass substrate made it possible
to increase the print run durability of the cliché, from which up to 1000 cheap high-quality prints
were printed. In this way, which remained in use until the end of the 20th century in some
branches of the printing industry, postcards were printed., prints and book illustrations. The most
high-quality method of reproducing photographs was a photo engraving , improved in 1878 by
the artist Karel Klich.
Snapshot
Instant photography is a type of analog photography that allows you to get ready-made positive
images in a few minutes without processing in a darkroom . The first patent for a camera
suitable for instant photography was obtained in 1923 by Samuel Schlafrock. The device was a
bulky combination of a filming camera and a portable darkroom, which only slightly reduced the
time it took to get the finished negative . The solution to the problem was photographic materials
of a complex design with integrated photoreagents and the possibility of immediate positive
reception . Their development was started by Agfa.in the late 1930s, but mass production was
established by Polaroid only in November 1948, simultaneously with the advent of the Polaroid
Land 95 camera.
A patent for the transfer photo process was registered by the founder of the company Edwin
Land in 1947 [50] [51] . In the future, the name of the company Polaroid, which had an almost
monopoly on the production of single-stage photographic materials, became synonymous with
instant photography. In the USSR , attempts were made to produce single-stage cameras "
Moment " (1952-1954) and " Foton " (1969-1976). But this type of photography did not develop
in the Soviet Union due to the inability of the industry to organize the mass production of
high-quality photo sets [53] . Success was achieved only during the years of Perestroika After
the creation of the joint Soviet-American enterprise "Svetozor", which produced cameras under
the Polaroid license. Photo sets for them were imported from Europe
Digital photography
Modern photography technology originated in 1969 when researchers Willard Boyle and George
Smith formulated the idea of ​
​
a charge-coupled device ( CCD ) for image recording [56] . The
first experimental besplonochny camera, based on the photoelectric conversion made in 1975
by the engineer company Eastman Kodak Steven Sassoon ( Eng. Steven Sasson ). The CCD

10. matrix used in it had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels , and the data was recorded onto a
compact cassette. The first consumer-grade digital camera in1988 became the "Fuji DS-1P"
using a removable SRAM card for recording. In the same year, Kodak created the first digital
SLR , the Electro-Optic Camera, based on the Canon New F-1 small format camera . The data
obtained was recorded using a separate video tape recorder connected to the camera with a
cable.
One of the first digital SLR cameras "Kodak DCS 420"
As a result of cooperation between Nikon and Kodak in August 1994, a hybrid digital camera
"Kodak DCS 410" was created based on the Nikon F90 camera , the removable back cover of
which was replaced by an attachment with a CCD-matrix with a resolution of 1.5 megapixels.
The data was recorded on a PCMCIA card embedded in the digital back. In March 1998, the
first digital SLR camera “ Canon EOS D2000 ” of non-detachable design appeared on the
market. All of these samples were intended for photo services of news information agencies and
cost from 15 to 30 thousand dollars. The price of the cheapest cameras like the Canon EOS
D30Released in 2000, it exceeded $ 2,500, staying unacceptable for most photographers
Traditional photography
The most common photography technique is to take a two-dimensional image with a camera. In
this case, the lens builds a real image of objects located in its field of view, on a flat light
detector, which can be a photographic plate , photographic film or photoelectric converter .
The resulting flat image causes the illusion of three-dimensionality of the depicted objects due to
the observance of the laws of linear perspective , the overlap of distant objects closer, and the
display of chiaroscuro. At the same time, human vision uniquely identifies an image as
two-dimensional and lacking depth. The illusion of three-dimensionality can be enhanced with

11. the help of expressive means borrowed by photography from the visual arts with a flat display of
three-dimensional objects: painting and graphics
Stereo photography
A photographic image can create the illusion of depth of space by simultaneously shooting two
frames of a stereo pair of lenses, the parallel optical axes of which are located at a distance of
the stereo base. As a result, when examining the finished image due to parallax, an illusion of
volume arises, which is absent in ordinary flat photographs. In addition to lenses, most of the
other camera devices are most often duplicated: the shutter, aperture and photo matrix. The first
stereo camera for taking double daguerreotypes in 1844 was designed by Ludwig Moser [74] .
In the second half of the 19th century, collecting stereo photographs for a home stereoscope
becomes a craze, and photographers get a huge market for selling stereo images of a wide
variety of content, from species photography to eroticism. At the beginning of the 20th century,
with the advent of cinema, the trend began to decline, making stereo photography an exotic
version of the traditional "flat". Modern stereo photography can be either analog or digital. The
term " 3D photo " is often used to refer to it .
Panoramic photography
A kind of panoramic photography can be considered a two-sided photograph , in which the
shooting takes place simultaneously with two cameras deployed in opposite directions. The
quality and resolution of these cameras may vary. Sometimes the rear camera is used for taking
selfies . Such a device is typical for some action cameras and most modern smartphones .
Sometimes double-sided photography uses fisheye lenses with 180 ° field of view each. As a
result, a spherical panoramic view can be obtained.