Phonetics and phonology are related fields that study speech sounds. Phonetics examines the physical properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how to transcribe them. Phonology looks at how speech sounds are organized into systems and combine in a language. It examines patterns in sound sequences, syllable structure, stress, and phonemes versus allophones. The document provides examples and explanations of these key linguistic concepts.

1. The University of the Holy Quran
and Islamic Sciences
Faculty of Education
English Language Department
Second Year
Second Year
Phonlogy

2. Phonetics
•Phonetics is the systematic study of human
speech sounds. It provides means of
virtually

3. Phonetics
The central concerns in phonetics are :
• the discovery of how speech sounds are
produced,
• how they are used in spoken language,
• how we can record speech sounds with written
symbols
•and how we hear and recognise different sounds.

4. Phonology
•Phonology is the branch of
linguistics that studies how
languages systematically
their sounds.

5. Phonology
•The most basic activity in phonology
is phonemic analysis, in which the
objective is to establish what the
phonemes are and arrive at the
phonemic inventory of the
language.

6. Phonetics and Phonology
• Phonetics -- What are the sounds? How are they made in the vocal tract?
• Phonology -- How do sounds combine? How do they affect each other?
• Phonetics deals with the physical properties of the elements of the sound
system, e.g. how the sound is physically produced.
• Phonology deals with the sound system of languages.
• Which sound sequences might be a word in our language thrim/blamp vs.
gdit/rpukn
• How speech sounds are organized into systems in different languages
• How sounds are combined and the relation between them and how they
affect each other.

7. Phonetics Phonology
What are the sounds?
How are they made in the
vocal tract?
How do sounds combine?
How do they affect each other?
deals with the physical
properties of the elements
of the sound system, e.g.
how the sound is
physically produced.
How speech sounds are organized into
systems in different languages
• Which sound sequences might be a word in
our language thrim/blamp vs. gdit/rpukn
•How speech sounds are organized into
systems in different languages
How sounds are combined and the relation
between them and how they affect each other.

8. Phonology
• One can look at suprasegmental phonology –
the study of stress, rhythm and intonation;
• One can look into the detailed characteristics
of each unit in terms of distinctive features;
the way in which sounds can combine in a
language is studied in phonotactics and in the
analysis of syllable structure.

9. Phonotactics:
Phonotactics are constraints on the sequence
or position of phonemes permitted
arrangements of sounds.
English will allow you to find some
combination of sounds as acceptable and
some as not. e.g lig, vig but not fslg or nglsb

10. Phonemes and Allophones
• Pronounce the following words:
Top stop little kitten hunter
The [t] is different in each word.
• [t] in ‘top’ is aspirated and non-aspirated in ‘stop’
•American English [t] a flap in ‘little’
• [t] in ‘kitten’ is a glottal stop
• American English– there is no [t] in ‘hunter’

11. Phonemes and Allophones
• The phoneme :is the smallest
speech sound that distinguishes
meaning. Its serves to create
meaning differences, e.g. /t/ is
different from /d/.

12. Phonemes and Allophones
• The allophone:
• Each phoneme may have different realisations depending on the context
in which it is found.
• The different articulations of /t/ /s/ in seen and soon. ‘seen’ is
produced with spread lips, as /i:/ follows.
‘soon’ is realised with rounded lips, to prepare for the following rounded
vowel, /u/.
This second, rounded /s/ is a variation, or allophone of the phoneme.
• Allophones are what we actually produce and hear.

13. Phonemes and Allophones
• Allophones of /t/
There are more [t]’s than you know
Example: the [t] in time is aspirated, but that in stop is not. aspiration=
pause + air release prior to next sound
All these are allophones of the phoneme /t/.
These differences are usually expressed using phonological rules. word
transcription context
• 1 stop [stɔp] After [s]
• 2 time [tʰaim] Syllable initial
• 3 butter bʌtər Between vowels

14. Phonemes and Allophones
• Allophones of /t/
There are more [t]’s than you know
Example: the [t] in time is aspirated, but that in stop is not. aspiration=
pause + air release prior to next sound
All these are allophones of the phoneme /t/.
These differences are usually expressed using phonological rules. word
transcription context
• 1 stop [stɔp] After [s]
• 2 time [tʰaim] Syllable initial
• 3 butter bʌtər Between vowels

15. Syllables
•Syllables are the most basic unit in
speech:
•Every language has syllables, and
babies learn to produce syllables
before they can manage to say a
word of their native language.

16. How many syllables?
4 5 3 1 2 3
4 3 5 1 2
4 3 5 1
2 2
1 4 5

17. Structure of the syllable
•Phonologists are interested in the
structure of the syllable, since there
appear to be interesting observations to
be made about which phonemes may
occur at the beginning, in the middle
and at the end of syllables.

18. Structure of the syllable
• Vowels and consonants typically do not act alone; there are very
few words or word-like noises which consist of only one sound
(they include I, eye, oh, m).
• The vast majority of English words contain a combination of
vowels (V) and consonants (C), such as
• CV (go),
• VC (up),
• CVC (cat),
• CCVCC (stops), and
• CCCV (screw)
• The combined units are called syllables.

19. Syllable

20. Onset
•Onset refers to the first part of a syllable.
•In English this may be zero (when no consonant
precedes the vowel in a syllable)
•There can be one consonant, or two, or three.
•There are many restrictions on what clusters of
consonants may occur in onsets: for example, if
an English syllable has a three-consonant onset,
the first consonant must be /s / and the last one
must be one of /l, w, j, r/.

21. peak
• The centre of the syllable is its peak or
nucleus; this is normally a vowel, but it
is possible for a consonant to act as a
peak instead.

22. Coda
•Coda refers to the end of a syllable.
•The central part of a syllable is almost
always a vowel, and if the syllable contains
nothing after the vowel it is said to have no
coda (“zero coda”).
•English allows up to four consonants to
occur in the coda, so the total number of
possible codas in English is very large –
several hundred, in fact.

23. Structure of the syllable
• The words which contain only one such unit are called
monosyllabic words.
• The words that contain more than one syllable (polysyllabic
words) – most of the words in the language are polysyllabic words
• The word that contains two-syllable is (disyllabic) : despite
/dispait/ (CVCCVC), and
• a three-syllable word is (trisyllabic), instances /instansiz/
(VCCCVCCVC), and
• The word, polysyllabic /pɒliːsIlabIk/ has five-syllables ,despite its
length has a simple syllable structure (CVCVCVCVCVC).

24. Structure of the syllable
•cluster
•We can find several consonant phonemes in a
sequence, with no vowel sound between them: for
example, the word begins with three
consonants, and ends with four.
•Sequences of two or more consonants within the same
syllable are often called consonant clusters.
•It is not usual to refer to sequences of vowels as vowel
clusters.

25. Structure of the syllable
•Initial consonant clusters
•[pl], [pr], [bl], [br]
•plead – please – pleasant
•preach – priest – pretty – prepare
•bleed – bleak – blink – bliss – bless
•breed – breeze – breathe – brief – bring

26. Structure of the syllable
[tr], [dr]
•tree – treat – trim – trip – trick
•dream – drill – drink – drip
[kl], [kr], [gl], [gr]
•clean – clear – click – cling – clever
• crane – cry – crime – crisis – crowd – crown
•glad – glance – glue – gloomy – glide – global
•green – Greek – grief – grease – grin – grab – grand – grasp –
groom – group – great – grade – grave – ground – grow –

27. Structure of the syllable
[fl], [fr]
flee – flint – flip – flesh – flap – floor – flock – flew – flu – flirt – flame – fly
free – freeze – frequent – friend – fresh - frog – frost – fruit – phrase –
[θr], [shr]
three – thread – threat – through – threw – throat – throw – thrown
shriek – shrimp – shrink – shrine;
[sk], [skr]
ski – skin – skip – skim – scare – scan – scatter – scar – score – school –
skirt – skull – sculpture – skate – scale – sky – scout – scope – scold;
scream – screen – screw – scrape – scroll;

28. Structure of the syllable
[sl], [sm], [sn]
sleep – sleet – sleeve smear – Smith – smell – smash – smack
sneeze – sneak – sneer – sniff – snip – snare – snack – snap –
snatch
[sp], [spl], [spr]
speak – speed – spin – spit – spill – spirit – spend – special
spleen – split – splint – splinter – splendid
spring – sprint – sprinkle – spread – sprang

29. Structure of the syllable
[[st], [str]
steal – steam – steel – steep – steer – stick – still
street – stream – streak – strict – string – strip – stress
[sw], [tw], [dw], [kw], [skw], [gw]
sweet – sweep – swim – swift – switch – swing –
tweed – twin – twist – twig – twelve – twenty
dwarf – dwell – dwindle
queen – queer – quick – quit – question
squeeze – squeak – squeal – squid – square – squad
Gwen – Gwendolen – Guatemala

30. Final consonant clusters
[ft], [kt]
drift – gift – lift – sift – left – draft – shaft – loft – soft;
act – fact – tact – elect – affect – depict – deduct;
[lt], [ld]
belt – dealt – felt – melt – built – guilt – kilt – tilt – halt – malt – fault – default – vault – bolt – colt – jolt;
old – bold – cold – fold – gold – hold – mold – scold – sold – told – child – mild – wild – field – build – held –
bald – world;
[lk], [lp], [lb]
milk – silk – elk – bulk – hulk – skulk – sulk;
help – yelp – palp – scalp – pulp;
bulb – light bulb;
[lf], [lv]
self – elf – shelf – golf – gulf – wolf – Ralph – Rolph – Rudolph;

31. Final consonant clusters
[lch], [lj], [lm], [ls]
belch – filch – gulch – mulch – squelch;
bilge – bulge – divulge – indulge;
film – elm – helm – realm;
else – false – pulse – impulse;
[mp], [mf]
limp – temp – camp – lamp – ramp – stamp – stomp – bump – dump – jump – plump – rump – stump;
lymph – nymph – triumph;
[nt], [nd]
mint – lint – sent – spent – bent – tent – want – hunt – paint – saint – pint – point – joint;
wind – send – spend – lend – friend – behind – rind – wind – found – round – sound – pound;
[nch], [nj]
finch – pinch – bench – French – branch – ranch – launch – bunch – crunch – hunch – lunch;
change – range – strange – binge – cringe – fringe – tinge – sponge – lunge – plunge – lounge;

32. Final consonant clusters
[ns], [nz]
rinse – since – mince – wince – dense – fence – sense – absence – license – science – chance – dance – fragrance
– ounce;
cleanse [klenz] – lens [lenz];
[ŋk]
pink [piŋk] – ink – drink – think – link – mink – sink – shrink – wink – bank – banker – sank – rank – frank – spank
– tank – honk – monk – monkey – drunk – junk – punk – skunk – anchor;
wrinkle – uncle – ankle – twinkle – sprinkle;
distinct – jinx – anxious – banquet ['bæŋkwit];
[ŋg]
finger ['fiŋgər] – linger – hunger – anger – longer – longest – stronger – strongest – younger – youngest – lingo;
hungry – angry – congress (noun) – mongrel;
single – jingle – angle – strangle – tangle – jungle;
language – linguist – distinguish – extinguish – penguin;

38. Minimal pairs
A minimal pair is a pair of words that have different meanings and
which differ in only one sound. Here is an example from English:
Sip [sɪp] Zip [zɪp]
•Minimal pairs : Four golden rules for minimal pairs:

39. Minimal pairs
sink – think
sing – thing,
first – thirst
ton – tongue
bit – bid

40. Stress
In all languages some syllables are stronger than other syllables; these
syllables are described as stressed.
Stressed syllables are produced with greater effort than unstressed, this
effort is manifested in the air pressure generated in the lungs for
producing the syllable.
Stressed syllables tend to be longer.
Stressed syllables tend to be louder than unstressed.
In English, one can argue that if one takes the word ‘indicator’ as an
example, the first syllable is the most strongly stressed, the third
syllable is the next most strongly stressed and the second and fourth
syllables are weakly stressed, or unstressed. This gives us three levels:
In English, the position of stress can change the meaning of a word, as
in the case of ‘import’ (noun) and ‘import’ (verb).

41. Stress
For example, in the word ‘beheaded’, ‘head’ is the stressed syllable,
whereas ‘be’ and ‘ded’ remain unstressed. Words have different
stressed syllables. It can be the first syllable, the second syllable, any
syllable in the middle, or the final syllable.
ahead amended radiator abbreviated authoritarian
wonderful although genius incredibly frustrating
appreciate implicit explain allege emphatic
demonstrable cause because invoke hoodwink
acoustic confront confirm recite devout
exploit beauty beautiful deactivate accuse

42. Stress on the first syllable
government
question office power money
family country service area order
council interest person problem body
father management morning century air
language union paper quality cost

43. Words with Stress on Second Syllable
society idea experience decision approach
police community support result account
production example control position committee
research effect report authority award
computer security success performance agreement

44. Words with Stress on Third Syllable
volunteer contradict override overlap overthrow
disregard underpin underlie disappoint overrun
intercept overwhelm disapprove recollect overdo
engineer disentangle overflow discontinue apprehend
resurrect contravene supersede rehabilitate intersect

45. Word Stress
• Some words have different stress patterns when they are used as a noun or a
verb.
• Part A:
1 noun: CONtract, 2 verb: conTRACT, 3 noun: PERmit, 4 verb: perMIT,
5 noun: RECord, 6 verb: reCORD.
• Rule: used as nouns - stress on the first syllable; used as verbs - stress on the
second syllable.
• Part B:
1 verb: conDUCT, 2 noun: PRESent, 3 noun: SUSpect, 4 noun: OBject,
5 noun: PROduce, 6 verb: preSENT, 7 verb: disCOUNT, 8 noun: CONduct,
9 verb: proDUCE, 10 verb: susPECT, 11 verb: obJECT, 12 noun: Discount.

46. Word Stress
•Another trick to help know where word stress normally falls
in English is to look at the suffix of complex words. Here's
the basic rule:
•Words that end in -ic, -sion, and -tion stress the penultimate
(second-to-last) syllable. Examples: LOGic, VIsion, and
BAStion. Or, check out some 3-syllable words like
geoGRAPHic.
•Words that have a suffix of -al, -cy, -ty, -phy, or -gy are more
likely to stress the antepenultimate syllable (third-to-last)
Examples: founDAtional, deMOcracy, flexiBIlity,
calLIGraphy, or ALlergy

47. Word Stress
•The rules for compound words are similar to rules for
2-syllable words in that they differ for nouns,
adjectives, and verbs. Each compound word is a
synthesis of two words, and nouns stress the first part.
Examples include WHITEhouse, KNEEcap, or
BANDwagon.
•Figure out the stress for this word: Fingernail. It's a
compound noun, so the stress goes on the first word
(finger). The normal rule for 2-syllable nouns is that
the stress falls on the first syllable, so this word would
be pronounced FINgernail.

48. Word Stress
•Compound adjectives and verbs both stress
the second part of the word, as we can see in
worldWIDE or underSTAND. However, if
the second part of the compound is more
than one syllable long, then the normal rules
for that second word apply. By that logic, the
compound adjective cross-country would be
stressed as cross-COUNtry.

49. Stress: verbs or nouns Part A
• contract permit record
1 They won the contract to build the new museum.
2 As they cool, metals contract.
3 You need a permit to fish here.
4 The rules don't permit mobile phones in the school.
5 The time was a new world record.
6 I asked if I could record her lecture.
• Rule
When these words are used as nouns they have stress on the
............... syllable, and when they are used as verbs they have
stress on the ................... syllable.
first
second

50. Stress: verbs or nouns Part B
• conduct discount object present produce suspect
1 I've always wanted to conduct an orchestra.
2 She gave me a watch as a present.
3 Thomas was the main suspect in the crime.
4 What's that strange object on the top shelf?
5 The vegetable shop sold only local produce,
6 It's my pleasure to present Dr Stevens.
7 We can't discount the possibility that John has had an accident.
8 The children's conduct during the concert was excellent.
9 I have to produce the report by the end of the week.
10 When she asked for money I began to suspect her honesty.
11 Would anyone object if we finish the meeting early?
12 Will you give me a discount on the price if I buy three?

51. (S)ame or (D)ifferent?
• 1 around-below
• z computer-overseas
• 3 furniture - tomorrow
• 4 timetable-granddaughter
• 5 education -scientific
• 6 moustache - ugly
• 7 journalist-wonderful
• 8 politics-overweight
• 9 Argentina - biology
• 10 pyjamas-attractive
1. S: oO
2. D: 0O0/00O
3. D: O00/0O0
4. S: Ooo
5. S: 00O0
6. D: 0O/O0
7. S: Ooo
8. D: O00/00O
9. D: 00O0/0O00
10. S: 0O0

52. weak form
• Many very common words have not only a strong or full
pronunciation (which is used when the word is said in
isolation), but also one or more weak forms which are used
when the word occurs in certain contexts.
•Words which have weak forms are, for the most part,
function words such as ;
conjunctions (e.g. ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’),
articles (e.g. ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’),
pronouns (e.g. ‘she’, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘him’),
prepositions (e.g. ‘for’, ‘to’, ‘at’) and
 some auxiliary and modal verbs (e.g. ‘do’, ‘must’, ‘should’).

53. weak form
• Generally the strong form of such words is used when
 the word is being quoted (e.g. the word ‘and’ is given its strong form in the
sentence “We use the word ‘and’ to join clauses”),
when it is being contrasted (e.g. ‘for’ in “There are arguments for and
against”) and
 when it is at the end of a sentence (e.g. ‘from’ in “Where did you get it
from”).
• Often the pronunciation of a weak-form word is so different from its strong
form that if it were heard in isolation it would be impossible to recognise it:
for example,
 ‘and’ can become n- in ‘us and them’, ‘fish and chips’,
 and ‘of’ can become f - or v - in ‘of course’. Tea for two t
• The reason for this is that to someone who knows the language well these
words are usually highly predictable in their normal context.

54. Assimilation
1. B a ho/p/pizza
2. C a goo/p/price
3. C seve/p/people
4. B a shor/p/boy
5. B a re/b/bike
6. C a brow/m/beard
7. C a whi/k/coffee
8. B a ba/g/cold
9. B te/ꓨ/cars
10. C li/k/green
11. C a wi/ɡ/gap
12. C a gree/ꓨ/grass

55. Consonants
Bila
bial
Labi
oden
tal
Den
tal
Alve
olar
Postal
veolar
Pala
tal
Vel
ar
Glott
al
Plosive P b t d k g
Nasal m n ꓨ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ 3 t∫
dʒ
h
Lateral l
Approxi
mant
w r j

56. Bilabia
l
Labiodent
al
Denta
l
Alveola
r
Postalv
eolar
Palata
l
Velar Uvula
r
Glottal
Plosive P b t d k g
Nasal m n ꓨ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ 3 t∫ dʒ h
Lateral l
Approxima
nt
w r j