PHILOSOPHY_Q1 (1).docx

INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF THE HUMAN PERSON 1
ISABELA COLLEGES, INC.
Africano St., Cauayan City, Isabela
S.Y. 2020 – 2021
First Quarter: Week1
I. LEARNING COMPETENCIES
 Distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view
 Recognize human activities that emanate from the deliberate reflection
 Do a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective
II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON
Lesson 1: doing philosophy
Definition of Philosophy
Etymologically speaking, the term philosophy came from two Greek words: philos (love) and Sophia
(wisdom). Thus philosophy is defined as the “love of wisdom.”
According to several accounts and testimonies, the discovery of philosophy may be attributed to
Pythagoras of Samos who was the first to use the term “philosopher.”
Msnly P. Hall, a freemasonic philosopher, wrote in his book, The Secret Teachings of All Ages (1928).
“Pythagoras went to Phlius, and made a great display of his learning before Leo the prince of the Phliasians.
The prince, charmed with his discourse, asked him what art he professed. He answered that he knew no art,but was
a Philosopher. Leo, surprised at his new name, asked, what are Philosophers and wherein do they differ from
others? Pythagoras answered,that human life is like the Olympic Games,some attend for gory, some for profit, and
some to observe curiously what is there performed.
These despise both glory and profit, and empoy themselves studiously to inquire into the causes of all things.
These are inquiries after wisdom or Philosophers.” (Cicero Tuscul. Quaest. 5) valerius Maximus relates also that
when Pythagoras founded his school, he was asked what was the name of his System, and answered, I am not
Sophos, wise: but Philo-sophos, a lover of wisdom: and my followers shall be called Philosophers.”
There is a big difference between being a lover of wisdom and a mere receiver of knowledge. For
philosophers, they aim to be wise in almost all aspects of human discipline, inquiring and investigating all
forms of human phenomena. They seek to answer the questions of the world, not because they are forced to
do do, but because they are passionate in their quest for wisdom.
These is the reason why philosophers are known to be entities or beings of wisdoms, for their teachings
helped shed light to many questions of humankind. Over the years philosophy went beyond its etymological
definition. It became a discipline and a field of study that desires to understand and comprehend the mysteries
of reality, to unveil the nature of truth, and examine the significance of life.
It also encompasses the examination of the relationships between a person and his/her environment,
and between the individual person and his/her society.

Exercise 1
Reflect on the following questions.
1. What makes someone a philosopher?
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2. Can anyone become a philosopher? Explain your answer.
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Natures and Functions of Philosophy
One cannot simply divorce himself/herself from philosophy. The moment someone starts asking
anything about his/her environment, himself/herself, and his/her society, this person is already philosophizing.
It is in the nature of philosophy that a person inquires for the meaning of himself/herself and the world
around him/her. It inquires about the entire breadth of reality, and gives a purely rational explanation of its
totality. Moreover, philosophy also has an exclusively speculative end.
There are three general statements that attempt to explain what philosophy is all about.
1. Philosophy integrates itself with other disciplines to achieve a comprehensive and coherent world
view.
Philosophy as a discipline is encompassing. It never confines itself to a portion of human experience
or to a certain aspect of a human phenomenon. Philosophy enables a person to understand the various
intricacies of all disciplines and paves the way for his/her understanding of reality.
For example, most people’s concept of humans is not only limited to the kind of society, culture, or
tradition that they have at the moment. For a consistent and coherent world of view of humans, one has to
consider the various disciplines and sciences that affect a person’s existence in this world.
2. Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of other disciplines.
Philosophy concerns itself with the roots of disciplines such as art, science, and even religion. It
explores and examines all their underpinnings.
For example, philosophers do not ask if the conduct or the administration of euthanasia is correct.
Instead they question the morality of the act and the ethical standard from which such act was based.
3. Philosophy analyzes and criticizes treasured beliefs and traditions
Philosophy is always on the lookout in putting things to their proper perspectives. It always has this
gift of logical consistencies where it forces to see the importance of one’s beliefs, attitudes, and traditions. It
weeds out all of the insignificant traces of inconsistency, superstition, and irrationality.

Exercise 2
Read the following text. Then, answer the questions that follow.
That is not a science of production is clear even from the history of the earliest philosophers. For
it owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize; they wondered
originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little and stated difficulties about the greater
matters e.g. about the phenomena of the moon and those of the sun and of the stars, and about the genesis
of universe. And a man who is puzzled and wonders thinks himself ignorant (whence even the lover of
the myth is in a sense of lover of Wisdom for the myth is composed of wonders); therefore since they
philosophized order to escape from ignorance; evidently they were pursuing science in order to know, and
not for any utilitarian end. And this is confirmed by the facts; for it was when almost all the necessities of
life and the things that make for comfort and recreation had been secured, that such knowledge began to
seek. Evidently then we do not seek it for the sake of any other advantage; but as the man is free, we say,
who exists for his own sake and not for another’s, so we pursue this as the only free science, for it alone
exists for its own sake.
-Aristotle, Metaphysics (350 BCE)
1. How did Aristotle relate the act of “wondering” to philosophy?
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2. Is philosophy a science? Explain your answer.
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3. What is meant by the statement “…but as the man is free, we say, who exists for his own sake and not for
another’s so we pursue this as the only free science, for it alone exists for its own sake?”
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4. How do you consider philosophy as a free science?
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Core Branches of Philosophy
Philosophy as a field of study and as a discipline has four core branches: metaphysics, epistemology,
ethics, and aesthetics. These branches have their own focus and concentration.
1. Metaphysics
Derived from the Greek word metaphysika (beyond physics), this branch of philosophy deals with the
true nature of reality. It focuses on the study of existence. Metaphysics seeks to answer the question “What
is?” and encompasses everything that exists, as well as the true nature of existence itself. It also answers the
question, “Is the world real, or merely as illusion?”
Metaphysics is considered as the science of ultimate reality as it seeks to present what is absolutely
real in contrast to what is perceived by the naked eyes; hence, it aims to draw the demarcation line between
appearance and reality.
General metaphysics seals with the study of being, also known as ontology. On the other hand, special
metaphysics focuses on freedom of the will, immorality, and mind-body problem. This discipline is divided
into three: cosmology, rational psychology, and natural theology.
Metaphysics usually investigates answers to the following questions.
 What is the nature of reality?
 How did the world come to be?
 What is the first principle (or origin) from which all things came to be?
 Does the world exist outside of the mind?
 How can the incorporeal mind affect the physical body?
 Does God exist?
 What does it mean to be a person?
 Do human beings have souls?
 Is there an afterlife?
 Do human beings have will?
 Does time exist, or is it just an illusion?
 Did the universe ever have a beginning?
 Is time infinite?
2. Epistemology
This brand of philosophy deals with the study of the nature and scope of knowledge and justified
beliefs. Derived from two Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos 9 to study), epistemology
investigates the acquisition of knowledge- encompassing the nature and the construction of concepts, logical
reasoning, and even the validity of the perception of the senses. It deals with the process by which people are
led to know that something is true.
There are two significant domains in epistemology: rationalism and empiricism.
Rationalism
Views reason as the chief source of knowledge and the most important element in the acquisition
of knowledge.
A popular proponent of this view was Rene Descartes who was well-known for the quote, “cogito,
ergo sum- I think, therefore I am.”
He contended that a person was born with innate a priori or theoretical knowledge and could
deduce truths through mental reasoning.

Empiricism
Asserts that all of a person’s knowledge comes from his/her five senses.
The chief proponent of this view was john Locke who conceived the concept of mind being a
tabula rasa (empty tablet/blank sheet) upon which one could write and store his/her ides on
experiences and learn out those experiences.
He argued that it was only through experience that one could derive knowledge.
As a matter of fact, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), Locke eliminated the
idea of having innate knowledge.
Locke provided two forms of experience where a person could acquire knowledge:
a. Sensation (a kind of experience where the human mind grasps the world outside through the five senses);
and
b. Reflection (a kind of experience where the human mind goes internal, recognizing the ideas regarding its
own essence-thinking, doubting, and believing).
Epistemologists explore questions such as the following.
 What is knowledge?
 How does a person acquire knowledge?
 How much can a person possibly know?
 Is an object of knowledge a by-product of the mind?
 Does the world exist independently from the way people see it?
Exercise 3
Below are the defining questions of epistemology. Answer them from two points of view: as a rationalist
and as an empiricist.
1. How can people gain knowledge?
RATIONALIST EMPIRICIST
2. What are the limits of human knowledge?
RATIONALIST EMPIRICIST

3. Ethics
Also called moral philosophy, Ethics came from the Greek word ethos which means “custom” or “habit.”
As a branch of philosophy, it is a discipline which aims to synthesize the concepts or right and wrong behavior.
Modern philosophers have divided ethics into three domains: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.
Metaethics
Deals with the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.
It respond to questions focusing on the meaning of ethical terms such as “good” and “bad,” issues
on the universally accepted truths, and even people’s justifications of their own judgments.
Normative Ethics
Part of moral philosophy concerned with the setting of certain standards of what is morally right
and morally wrong.
It involves the formulation of set of values or moral norms which have an impact as to what should
be the people’s actions and ways of life.
Applied ethics
The domain of moral philosophy that attempts to apply theories to situations in real life.
It involves examining controversial issues such as abortion, euthanasia, infanticide, environmental
concerns, and even animal rights.
The solutions to these problems are being used in the formulation of policy.
4. Aesthetics
This is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and
good taste.
Derived from the Greek word aisthetikos which means “of sense perception,” aesthetics
(sometimes also spelled as esthetics), encompasses all the responses people may solicit from all
forms of art, be it negative or positive.
Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher considered as one of the most important thinkers of Europe,
contended that beauty and art were both objective and universal.
This means that there were things beautiful and pleasing to everyone’s eyes.
Aesthetics usually focus on questions like:
 Can art be a vehicle of truth?
 What makes an art outstanding?
 How can one say that something is beautiful?
 Is a person’s judgment of art objective or subjective?
 How does art relate to spirituality and religion?
 Is there a link between morality and art?
 Can people communicate their emotions through art?
 How can people relate the arts to issues on economy and politics?
 How do people relate artistic expression and meaning to culture?
 Can everybody become artists?

Development of Philosophy
1. Pre- Socratic philosophy
The Ionians
The birthplace of philosophy was believed to be in Miletus, a province of Ionia, which is a Greek
colony in Asia Minor.
The Ionian philosophers were the first to employ a rational explanation on the origin of the word
and other physical phenomena, divorcing from the realm of mythology and fables as means to
explain the origin of things.
“Well-known philosophers of this period were Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus.
Thales of Miletus
Considered as the first philosopher, contended that cosmos (universe) was made up of water, and
firmly believed that it was the principle from which all things came to be.
Anaximander
Believed that the first principle of things was aperion or infinite and limitless
Heraclitus
Affirmed that everything was in a constant flux and becoming was the only thing that remain
constant.
This doctrine of universal change was considered as one of Heraclitus’ primary contributions to
pre- Socratic thought.
2. Classical Philosophy
Philosophy took its greatest flight during the time of the three great Greek triumvirate, namely:
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Socrates
Was one of the greatest philosophers who wrote nothing.
Focused more on the cultivation of soul
Firm in his belief that philosophy must accomplish sensible and realistic results for the greater
good of society.
According to him, the highest possible wisdom came from the mastery of the self or from fully
knowing oneself, and that the more knowledgeable and wiser person becomes, the closer he/she is
to true and genuine happiness.
Plato
Socrates’ best student and perhaps the most popular and highly influential philosopher of all time.
Plato’s philosophy was highlighted by his claims of the existence of the greater realm of reality
apart from the humans’ own physical world, making him contend that the world perceived by the
senses (sensible reality) were mere representations of the pure ideal forms existing somewhere
known as Platonic realism.
Aristotle
He was more of an empiricist compared to Plato and Socrates, and was known for criticizing
Plato’s theory of forms.
Known as the “father of Logic” as he was the first to formalize a system of reasoning.
He contended that the validity of one’s judgment could be determined, not necessarily by its
content, but by its structure he called this argument syllogism.
He also introduced the Nichomachean ethics, by which he laid down a certain code of conduct
anchored on a person’s strong sense of conviction on what was supposed to be “good living.”
Viewed ethics as instrumental to humans’ quest for the highest good and happiness.

Value of Philosophy
Philosophy may not be able to give all the certainties that people seek in the world of uncertainty.
But in their pursuit for what is certain (truth), people are developed in a highly qualitative aspect.
Philosophy enables every person who pursues it to think outside of the customary, and challenges
the reason of any law imposed by his/her society.
Think Tank
A. Give the characteristic features of the following pillars of philosophy.
1. Ionians
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2. Classical philosophers
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B. Identify the branch of philosophy. Choose your answer from the given choices in the box below. Write the
letter that corresponds to your answer.
_______________1. What can justify people’s beliefs?
_______________2. Is teaching reasonable?
_______________3. Does time exist?
_______________4. What is a work of art?
_______________5. Is justifications internal, or external?
_______________6. Does knowledge have a limit?
_______________7. is euthanasia immoral?
_______________8. Is abortion legal?
_______________9. How are consequences or actions judged?
_______________10. How does the brain actually work?
_______________11. How can an argument be valid?
_______________12. Why do things exist?
_______________13. Why do people find certain things beautiful?
_______________14. How should people act?
_______________15. What happens to consciousness upon the expiration of the body?
a. metaphysics c. ethics e. aesthetics
b. epistemology d. logic

S.Y. 2020 – 2021
 Distinguish opinion from truth
 Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth
 Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations
Lesson 2: determining truth
Truth is central in the study of philosophy. A person’s quest for truth is the reason why philosophy exists.
But truth somehow is as elusive as ever, which made philosophers agree that there is no definite measure in
determining the truth. Somehow the thinkers of the past and the present conceded to the idea that truth is
relative to the kind of standard one adheres to.
Philosophy is distinguished from the other fields of study by the methods it employs. The methods in
philosophy involve a strong sense of commitment to reason as a source of knowledge in arriving at the truth.
Philosophical processes are designed to determine ways of knowing and finding out the truth in all phenomena
of human experience. Since philosophy is mainly characterized as an inquiry in the totality of reality, this
lesson provides the different theories developed by contemporary philosophers in determining the nature of
truth. From here, one may be able to discern how he/she can best determine the truth.
Truth, Fact, and Opinion
Although oftentimes used synonymously, the terms fact” and “truth” for many philosophers are different.
Fact is a piece of information having objective reality which is acknowledged by the greater whole. Truth,
on the other hand, is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
Consider the case of a delinquent student, for example. Many teachers detest the student for his/her
slackness – absences in class, missing projects, and constant failures in exams. It is a fact that this particular
students is indeed slack, for many evidences support the said allegation. However, in a sense, this cannot also
be the truth. The said students could be experiencing challenges at home; difficulties in coping with the class;
or having personality disorders which make him/her delinquent in school. Therefore, the fact that the students
is a slack may or may not be the truth at all.
Opinion is another concept. It is a judgment based on personal convictions, which may or may not be
factual, truthful, or false. Regardless of factuality, one’s opinion can be free from another’s opinion.
Distinguishing truth from falsehood can be done through deductive proofing using logic, which will be
discussed later in this lesson.

Theories of Truth
Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated several theories to understand truth.
1. The Correspondence Theory
The Correspondence Theory is an ancient concept that dates back even to the time of Plato. It is the most
popular theory which states that the truth of a propositions is determined by its relationship (correspondence)
to the way things actually are in the world (reality). Hence, for this realist theory, a proposition is true if, and
only if, what it contends relates to what is real. Truth, therefore, corresponds to facts; hence, truth is absolute.
For example, the proposition “birds can fly” is true because in reality, birds can really fly. The proposition
“cats can bark”, however, is false because cats do not bark; only dogs do.
The term “correspondence theory” was coined by the analytic language philosophers Bertand Russell
(1912) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1914 – 1916).
2. The Coherence Theory
The Coherence Theory of truth contends that a proposition is true if it is consistent with a system of other
propositions considered true. The truthfulness, therefore, of a person’s judgment (proposition) is based on
his/her statements’ coherence to a certain set of established beliefs.
This idealist theory of truth puts premium to the culture of a person and his/her set of beliefs as imposed
by the society. Since people have different cultures and traditions, it goes to show that what may be true to
one culture and society may not be true to others. There is a possibility of different “truths” from different
perspectives.
From example, the proposition “pigs are unclean animals” is true to the Muslim community. However,
such truth for the Muslims is not shared by the Christians.
This theory which was originally developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Baruch Spinoza
describes how one’s interpretation of truth actually works. Simply put, a belief is true if one could incorporate
it, through a consistent and rational manner, into a bigger and more complex system of beliefs.
EXERCISE 1
Name at least five Filipino beliefs which cohere with the beliefs of other races in the world.
Filipino beliefs Race/Country which has the same beliefs
1. ___________________________________ ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________ ___________________________________
3. ___________________________________ ___________________________________
4. ___________________________________ ___________________________________
5. ___________________________________ ___________________________________
3. The Pragmatic Theory
The Pragmatic Theory holds that a proposition is true if it is useful. Pragmatics linked the nature of truth
with the principle of action and the concept of utility. This theory also contends that judgment must be
continually verified and validated by having close encounter and interaction with the world.

This theory implies that in order to know the truth, a person must engage oneself with something that
would give him/her the benefit or the highest form of success. Suffice it to say that a belief can be considered
true if it is proven to have practical use in the life of an individual.
For example, the belief in the power of prayer is said to be true as it is needed for one’s salvation. In an
example set by Sigmund Freud, he said that many people, in order to avoid despair, need to believe there is a
God who keeps a watchful eye on everyone.
EXERCISE 2
On the space provided, list down the things, beliefs, and practices which you hold to be true.
1. Personal Beliefs
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2. Universal Beliefs
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3. Traditions
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Fallacies
Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can determine the truth.
One is by looking into error in reasoning (judgment). It is a settled fact that a human is a rational animal, but
his/her sense of rationality must first be validated in order to determine the truthfulness of his/her contention.
There are times when a person utters arguments that deceive and prove nothing. These arguments
somehow could sound convincing and be very persuasive in order to shape other’s opinion and deliver flawed
judgment and reason. These arguments are called fallacies.
For example, the thought that a woman was refused employment for a secretarial job y reason that she
married twice is an example of a fallacy. This is because the reason has nothing to do with the standards set
for employment for a secretarial job.

Below are the different type of fallacies.
Fallacy Definition Example
Ad hominem
Attacking the individual person instead of the
argument
“You are irritatingly ugly,
that is why you cannot be
promoted”.
Appeal to force
Telling the hearer that something bad will happen
to him/her if he/she does not accept the argument
“You have to pass this
text message to 10 people
or else you will receive
bad luck”.
Appeal to pity
Urging the hearer to accept the argument based
upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
“I cannot take the exam.
You have to consider, my
dog just died”.
Appeal to popular opinion
Urging the hearer to accept a position because
majority of the people hold to it
“Everybody wants
him/her to be president;
we should support
him/her too”.
Appeal to tradition
Trying to get someone to accept something
because it has been done or believed for a long
time
“We have been doing this
since time immemorial,
therefore this is the right
thing to do”.
Begging the question
Assuming the thing that you are trying to prove is
true
“I am pretty because my
mom said I am pretty, and
I believe her”.
Fallacy of composition
Assuming that what is true of the part is true to
the whole
“Hydrogen (H) is air.
Oxygen (O) is air.
Therefore, 𝐻2𝑂 is air”.
Fallacy of division
Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for
the parts
“Her entire family is a
family of beauty queens.
I’m sure she will be a
beauty queen too”.
Fallacy of equivocation
Using the same term in an argument in different
places but the word has different meanings
“Her grandmother loves
to eat apples but she is the
apple of the eye of her
grandmother. I’m sure her
grandmother will have a
hard time eating her”.
EXERCISE 3
Look at least two samples of fallacious statements, ideas, or concepts from different media
(commercials, periodicals, or magazines). Identify the type of fallacies being referred to by the said
statements or concepts.
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A E
I O
The square of Opposition
One of the schemes to determine the truth and falsity of propositions is the square of opposition. It is a
chart which represents the logical flow or relationships between propositions (categorical statements that
either affirm or deny something). It was believed to have been introduced during the time of Aristotle.
In determining truth using the square of opposition, the propositions are represented by the symbols A, E,
I, and O.
The symbol A stands for affirmative universal or singular statements.
e.g. All men are living beings.
Every man is a thinking being.
The symbol E stands for negative universal or singular statements.
e.g. No man is immortal.
An animal is not a plant.
The symbol I stands for affirmative particular statements.
e.g. Some men are professionals.
Some plants are fruit-bearing.
The symbol O stands for negative particular statements.
e.g Some men are not achievers.
Most Filipinos are not white.
Singular propositions stand for one definite group or individual. Particular propositions stand for a part or
an indefinite part of a whole, while universal propositions are those which universally apply to everybody or
everything.
Categorical propositions are characterized by subject-predicate relationship. The predicate is the one that
affirms or negates (denies) the subject. Both the subject and the predicate are linked by the copula. Hence the
elements of a proposition are:
a. Subject
b. Predicate
c. Copula
In the statement, “All men are immortal”:
a. subject: men
b. predicate: immortal
c. copula: are

A E
I O
Using the subject-predicate relationship, propositions could be represented by the following patterns:
For A propositions - All S are P.
Every S is P.
For E propositions - No S is P.
Every S is not P.
*Note: The intersection of the two circles is shaded.
For I propositions - Some S are P.
For O propositions - Some S are not P.
The square of oppositions is a convenient and effective tool in determining the truth value of
propositions. To do this, the relationship of the propositions are depicted on the table.
X
X
Subalterns
Sub contraries
Subalterns

1. Contradictories
The two pairs of contradictories are A-O and E-I. These are universal propositions as against
particular propositions. Here, if A is true, then O is false. This goes to show that propositions are
contradictory if the truth of one proposition implies the falsity of the other.
For example, if it is true that all men are mortal; then, the proposition that some men are not mortal
is false.
A, E O, I
T F
F T
Examples:
a. If it is true that all men are rational beings, then the statement that some men are not rational beings is
false.
b. If it is false that some men are immortal, then the claim that no man is immortal is true.
2. The Contraries
There is only one set of contraries in the square of opposition. This is A-E, where both propositions
are universal statements, but one is affirmative and the other is negative.
Propositions are considered contraries if both statements cannot be true. For example, the A
proposition “all men are mortal” cannot be true at the same time as its counterpart E proposition “no man
is mortal”.
In contrary propositions, if one is true, the other is false; but if one is false, the other is doubtful.
A E
T F
F ?
Examples:
a. If it is true that all men are rational beings, then the statement that no man is rational being is false.
b. If it is false that men are immortal, then the statement that no man is immortal is doubtful.
3. The Subcontraries
Like the contraries, there is only one pair of subcontraries in the square of opposition. This is the
opposition of particular propositions. Statements or propositions can be considered subcontraries if it is
impossible for both to be false.
In subcontraries, if one is true, the other is doubtful, and if one is false, the other is true.
I O
T ?
F T
Examples:
a. If it is true that some animals are feathered creatures, then the claim that some animals are not feathered
creatures is doubtful.
b. If it is false that some Filipinos are not philosophers, then, the claim that some Filipinos are philosophers
is true.
E A
T F
F ?
O I
T ?
F T

4. Subalterns
The subalterns come in two pairs: A-I and E-O.
In this particular opposition, if the universal proposition is true, the particular proposition is also
true. But if the universal proposition is false, the particular proposition is doubtful.
If the particular proposition is true, the universal proposition is doubtful; but if the particular
proposition is false, the universal proposition is false.
A, E I, O
T T
F ?
Examples:
a. If it is true that men are rational beings, then the claim that some men are rational beings is also true.
b. If it is false that some men are immortal, then the claim that all men are immortal is also false.
EXERCISE 4
Assess the truth or falsity of the given propositions by completing the statements. Then, give the
symbol (A, E, I, O) and the kind of opposition (contradictories, contraries, subcontraries, subalterns)
each proposition states.
1. If it is false that no person is logical, then the proposition –
Symbol Kind of opposition
a. “all people are logical” is
__________.
b. “some people are logical”
is __________.
c. “some people are not
logical” is __________.
2. If it is true that every man is a sentient being, then the proposition –
Symbol Kind of opposition
a. “some men are sentient
beings” is __________.
b. “no man is a sentient
being” is __________.
c. “some men are not sentient
beings” is __________.
Think tank!
A. Write the word true if the statement shows evidence of truth, and the word opinion if it manifests such.
If the statement is “truth”, give the theory that justifies its truth. Write your answer on the space provided
before each number.
_______________1. The snow is white.
_______________2. The sun is the center of the solar system.
_______________3. Masculinity is the superior sex.
_______________4. Filipino voters are personality-oriented rather than issue-oriented.
I, O A, E
T ?
F F

_______________5. The apple is red and crunchy.
_______________6. Federalism is what the Philippines needs in order to improve the lives of the people.
_______________7. Divorce is both illegal and immoral.
_______________8. The moon is the satellite of the Earth.
_______________9. Education is the key to success.
_______________10. 𝐻2𝑂 is a chemical substance that all living organisms need in order to survive.
B. Identify the type of fallacy being referred to by the following statements. Write your answer on the
space provided before each number.
_______________1. Asking Senior High School students to wear uniform is like talking to a wall.
_______________2. We should not bother to accept him as a part of the school. He is ugly.
_______________3. Punching my face when my tooth aches has cure my pains, so it will work for you
too.
_______________4. People who have MacBook are extremely rich. MacBook is such a status symbol.
_______________5. We should not approve her loan because she did immoral acts.
C. Determine the truth values of the symbols in the box below. Write T for true, F for false, and ? for
doubtful.
1. Given that the I proposition is false, what are the truth values of the other propositions?
A E
F
I O
2. Given that the A proposition is true, what are the truth values of the other propositions?
A E
T
I O
3. Given that the E proposition is true, what are the truth values of the other propositions?
A E
T
I O

S.Y. 2020 – 2021
 Recognize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence
 Evaluate own limitations and the possibilities for their transcendence
LESSON 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT
In a world where one is able to comprehend complex things extensively, the question about what a
person essentially is remains to be a puzzle. Through generations, humans were able to witness how their
specie had transcended beyond being rational and political animals. However, the same question as to what
their true nature is remains unanswered.
It is easy to claim that everyone is gifted with intelligence to make decisions, impose judgment, and
possess consciousness and self-awareness.
Undoubtedly, humans are the most mysterious sentient being to ever walk on eath. In addressing such
mystery, the true nature of humans must be investigated and subjected to an extensive philosophical inquiry.
Over the course of time, various thinkers have given peoples theories and explanations on the true
nature of humans which led them to a conclusion that there is something in them that transcends beyond their
mortality. They say that there is an "inner self" human that gives him/her that sense of discernment: one that
give him/her the power of will and intellect. This had led them to conclude that a person is an embodied spirit-
a being possessed with a soul.
The Notion of the Soul
1. Pre-Socratic Thought
Even before the human person became the central theme in the study of philosophy, the thinkers of
the past nave already conceived the idea of the soul as an integral part of a person. Heraclitus, the father of
universal change, believed in the existence of the soul as an infinite part of a human being. He believed that
the soul is associated with fire, and there is something in store for the soul the moment it leaves the body.
The same belief of Heraclitus was shared by the Pythagoreans, the philosophers who believed that
numbers are the first principle, contending that a human being is a composite of body and soul. According to
them, the soul existed before the body until such time when the soul committed sins, and it was jailed inside
the body as a punishment. This particular belief became the driving force of the Pythagoreans to work for the
purification of the soul to liberate it from being jailed inside the body. According to them, to achieve this goal,
one had to engage in highly intellectual activities. The Pythagoreans also taught the transmigration and
immortality of the soul.
2. Socratic Dualism
Socrates believed that human nature is determined by one's soul. This principle is the focal point of
Socrates philosophy, viewing the soul as the center of moral life. Most of the accounts that talk about Socratic
thought describe his philosophy as ethics.

According to Socrates, knowledge paves the way for the perfection of the soul and enables a person
to achieve the highest form of happiness. These are the reasons why he advocated activities which are
considered food for the soul, something where knowledge could be derived. Since he identified knowledge
with virtue, Socrates believed that knowledge is the mainspring of all virtues.
Socrates also advocated the concept of self-mastery, which puts premium to the soul over the body.
Self-mastery implies mastery of reason over the sensible nature of a person. This notion of sell-mastery gives
a person a sense of freedom that leads to a degree of happiness he/she is destined to experience. Also closely
associated to his concept of the soul is Socrates notion of a daimonion or a divine voice inside one's being
that is aimed to be guiding his/her actions.
"You have heard me speak at sundry times and in diverse places of an oracle or sign which comes to me, and
is the divinity which Meletus ridicules in the indictment. This sign, which is a kind or voice, first began to come
to me when I was a child; it always forbids but never commands me to do anything which I am going to do."
-Socrates,as mentioned in Plato's Apology
Exercise 1
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the role of the "soul" in Socrates' ethical philosophy?
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. In what way can knowledge become a source of virtue?
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Plato's Dualism
Like his master Socrates, Plato also believed in the idea that a person is his/her soul. He argued that
the soul did not come into existence with the body and it came to be prior to being joined in the body. AS the
body dies, the soul survives; hence, for Plato, the soul goes through a cycle of reincarnation or transmigration.
The most important concept in understanding Plato's dualism is his theory which claims that
everything that exists has a corresponding form or idea. For Plato, the soul is able to obtain knowledge through
remembrance of these forms.
"The soul, then, as being immortal, and having been born again many times, and having seen all things that
exist, whether in this world or in the world below, has knowledge of them all."
-Plato, Meno (380 BCE)
Plato's sense of dualism is anchored on the relationship between reincarnation and the means of
obtaining knowledge through recognition of forms. In connection to this, Plato expresses the irreconcilable
nature of the body and soul. He described that the body is the prison of the soul, and that one must work harder
to reach genuine wisdom to purify the soul.

Here are Plato's four arguments for dualism, as provided in the dialogue Phaedo.
1. Life and Death (The Cyclical Argument)
This is the cycle of transmigration or reincarnation of the soul. When the body dies, it paves the way
for another body which means that if life leads to death, then death must lead to life.
2. Knowing is Reminiscing (The Recollection Argument)
This banks on the idea that all knowledge is a form of remembrance or reminiscing on the part of the
soul. According to Plato, since the soul has pre-existed over the body, it becomes a witness to everything;
hence, the process of knowledge is recollecting on what had always been there in the soul.
3. Incorruptibility of the Soul (The Affinity Argument)
The third argument attempts to prove that the soul arguing that it is capable to know immutable and
eternal realities, must be immortal.
4. The Argument from Opposites
Plato believed that the body and soul are not only different from each other, but they are also opposites
an irreconcilable. Claiming that the soul is the essence of a person, Plato even considered the body as the tomb
of the soul, and contended that one does not experience the true meaning of life as he/she is stuck in the body.
Exercise 2
1. What is the reason for Plato's claim that death is the beginning of true life?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Does Plato's dualism subscribe to Socrates' intellectualism?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. How did Plato explain the irreconcilability of the body and the soul?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Aristotle's View on the Soul
Aristotle's view on the soul is taken from his hylomorphic doctrine of reality, which banks on the idea
that everything is composed of matter and form. For Aristotle, the soul is part of the body that animates it-
meaning, the soul is what gives life to the body. Hence, the body and the soul are inseparable.
"But since it is also a body of such a kind, viz. having life, the body cannot be soul; the body is the subject or
matter,not what is attributed to it. Hence the soul must be a substance in the sense of the form of a natural body

having life potentially within it. But substance is actuality, and thus soul is the actuality of a body as above
characterized. Now the word actuality has two senses corresponding respectively to the possession of
knowledge and the actual exercise of knowledge. It is obvious that the soul is actuality in the first sense, viz.
that of knowledge as possessed, for both sleeping and waking presuppose the existence of soul, and of these
waking corresponds to actual knowing, sleeping to knowledge possessed but not employed, and, in the history
of the individual, knowledge comes before its employment or exercise.
-Aristotle, De Anima (Book II, Par. 1)
Committed to the view that the substantial reality of human nature is the union of body and soul,
Aristotle assumed that every soul has only one body. As the body is corrupted, so does the soul. The soul does
not survive death; hence, Aristotle dismisses the concept of transmigration or reincarnation of the soul.
Aristotle also claimed that the soul is not a substance, but a form that actualizes matter into a composite
being. This actualized being becomes the substance known as the embodied soul.
Exercise 3
1. Does the claim of Aristotle regarding the true nature of the soul make him a dualist, or a materialist?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. How did Aristotle connect intelligence or reason with that of the soul?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. St. Thomas Aquinas and the Nature of the Soul
St. Thomas Aquinas identified three divisions of the soul: the vegetative, the sensitive, and the
intellectual or rational soul.
The vegetative soul is intrinsically dependent upon matter (food, home, etc.) to survive. The sensitive
soul is inherent to all animals, and is used for sensation and locomotion. The rational or intellectual soul, on
the other hand, is specific and exclusive only to a human. Such soul is responsible for thinking and reasoning.
According to Aquinas, humans possess all three kinds of Soul.
"The reason of this diversity lies in the various souls being distinguished accordingly as the operation of the
soul transcends the operation of the corporeal nature in various ways; for the whole corporeal nature is subject
to the soul, and is related to it as its matter and instrument. There exists, therefore, an operation of the soul
which so far exceeds the corporeal nature that it is not even performed by any corporeal organ; and such is the
operation of the 'rational soul." Below this, there is another operation of the soul, which is indeed performed
through a corporeal organ, but not through a corporeal quality, and this is the operation of 'sensitive soul; for
though hot and cold, wet and dry, and other such corporeal qualities are required for the work of the senses,yet
they are not required in such a way that the operation of the senses takes place by virtue of such qualities; but
only for the proper disposition of the organ. The lowest of the operations of the soul is that which is performed
by a corporeal organ, and by virtue of a corporeal quality. Yet this transcends the operation of the corporeal
nature; because the movements of bodies are caused by an extrinsic principle, while these operations are from
an intrinsic principle; for this is common to all the operations of the soul; since every animate thing, in some
way, moves itself. Such is the operation of the “vegetative soul."

-Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Q78 (1485)
Aquinas contended that the rational/intellectual soul is the highest form of soul as it enables a person
to engage in highly cognitive functions which transcend beyond the ability to retain ideas through sensory
perception. Such soul gives him/her the power to be self-aware, to be able to gain the knowledge of universals,
and the power to be independent from the body a soul that transcends beyond the corporeal qualities of a
human.
He also believed that though the soul independently of the body, it (soul) still needs the body to
manifest its powers. Without the body, the soul is an incomplete substance as it cannot exercise its natural
qualities. Thus, the rational soul can exist without the body, but it cannot do anything without it may work
The Human Mind: The Link between the Body and the Soul
The human mind is said to be the connection between the body and the soul as it possesses
potentialities and faculties which are metaphysical in nature. The human mind is a powerful entity in itself. A
human's complex character is so advanced that it could enable anyone to do things beyond imagination.
Various researches and studies are conducted each day to decipher the true nature of humans but none of them
have come close enough to fathom the limits of this specie's potential.
The mind is a mystery that is yet to be uncovered in the human body. How would one explain the state
of consciousness, memory, and intelligence? These are attributes of the human mind that transcends beyond
mere brain functions.
People still have yet to fathom the nature of the human mind, they have identified already the different
faculties of the human mi which could be developed and trained in order for a person to have a meaningful
existence in this world.
Here are some of the identified faculties of the human mind.
1. Mental Faculty of Perception
Perception is the faculty of apprehension by the senses. This is sometimes called one's point of view.
The mental faculty or perception may be pertinently considered to be relative. For example, let us say that
there are two persons looking at the same object. They may have different ideas about the object, but both of
them are right because their ideas came from their own points of view. It is a matter of perception.
The given example points out that there are similar objects that appear differently from each other
when viewed from entirely different perspectives. However, in as far as each perspective is concerned, both
seem to be correct. To illustrate further, some of you may view things positively; simultaneously, others may
view them negatively. One may view an act as for the good of all, while another may view it as a wrongful
act. But at the end of the day, you will realize that you are simply referring to the same thing or idea, using
the mental faculty of perception in opposing points of view.
2. Mental Faculty of Reasoning
The mental faculty of reasoning enables a person to form conclusions and render judgments based
from facts and premises. But one's sense of reasoning is largely dependent on amount of knowledge he/she
has gained all throughout his/her lifetime, whether perceived by the senses or ideas gained through education
or other intellectual activities.
In this era of technological advancement, one is frequently exposed to a multitude of information
coming from different sources. The advancement of one's sense of rationality reasoning ability) is due to
exposure to different ideas, concepts, and studies conducted. A person's ability to reason is also the one that
sets him/her apart from the other species of the animal kingdom. He/she may have been left unarmed in the

evolution of life, but his/her reasoning ability may serve as enough weapon to defend himself/herself from
his/her environment.
Being reasonable is more often than not mistaken to being logical. But in a real sense, logic is simply
a means to reason out but is not reason itself. There are times when one's reasons are illogical if they are
anchored on fallacies, baseless assumptions, or unproven contentions. However, logical contentions make up
sound reasoning, and in this way, reasoning itself could be a means to seek truth.
Exercise 4
1. How can one use reasoning to arrive at truth?
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2. Discuss the role of knowledge in reasoning.
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3. Mental Faculty of Imagination
Also known as the ability to visualize, the faculty of imagination refers to the forming of images in
the mind. When a person is forming an idea in his/her mind, he/she is creating an image corresponding to
such particular idea as to how it is in reality. Imagination, when used profitably, enables a person to create
various circumstances that are beneficial to him/her.
The power of imagination is considered one of the most valued miracles of the human being, for it is
through the use of the imagination that great things are created and invented. It has paved the way for the
advancement in technology and the betterment of humanity. In short, imagination has made innovation and
invention possible.
Imagination enables a person to experience an entirely different world inside the mind. Here, one can
create all the things that he/she wants where the only limitation is imagination itself. It also gives him/her the
ability to explore mentally the different dimensions which his/her mind could create and experience, without
being constrained by the element of time.
If a person should learn to develop fully this mental faculty he/she would cease to be a mere
daydreamer and wishful thinker. Instead, his/her creative abilities and potentials would be strengthened and
could be a powerful tool for creating a better world for the benefit of humankind.
4. Mental Faculty of the Will
The mental faculty of the will is also known as willpower. It is defined by the German philosopher
Friedrich Nietzsche as an internally motivated action. It is the inner drive in a person that enables him/her to
do anything. If mastered, the mental faculty of the will gives one the courage to achieve his/her goals and
aspirations. People who have willpower do not give up easily, and are rarely devastated and broken by failures
and disappointments.

Willpower gives rise to motivation, which in turn, fuels ambition. t is that inner strength in a person
that moves him/ her to act upon his/her desires. It enables him/her to focus on something that he/she wanted
to attain. Hence, a person who has a strong willpower is capable of accomplishing his/ her dreams in life, not
because of sheer luck and favourable circumstances surrounding him/her but because he/she can conquer all
the obstacles that try to hinder him/her from realizing those dreams.
With the mental faculty of the will, a person can perform beyond what he/she expects himself/herself
to do. This is one of the mysteries of this faculty-an ordinary person can do extraordinary activities through
the mental faculty of the will.
5. Mental Faculty of Memory
Memory is one's ability to retain, revive, recall, and recognize information. It is one of the most
amazing wonders of the human being, as there is no limit to the amount of information it can store. It is said
to be a two-way process retaining and recalling information-which means that memory stores information
inside the mind, and pulls them back as the need arises.
There are three types of memory in the human mind: one is sensory memory, which enables a person
to recall perceptions. In this case, memory is being used by another mental faculty (imagination) in forming
images of things that one sees in reality.
The second type is the short-term memory which gives a person the ability to remember information
without practice for a short period of time.
The third type is the long-term memory. Somehow, the third type is the most useful of all types of
memory as this is the one that undergoes training, practice, and mastery. Success or a person is always
attributed to long-term memory.
Read and analyze this poem about being human.
On Being Human
by C.S. Lewis
Angelic minds, they say, by simple intelligence
Behold the Forms of nature.
They discern
Unerringly the Archtypes, all the verities.
Which mortals lack or indirectly learn.
Transparent in primordial truth, unvarying,
Pure Earthness and right Stonehood from their clear,
High eminence are seen; unveiled, the seminal.
Huge Principles appear
The Tree-ness of the tree they know-the meaning of
Arboreal life, how from earth's salty lap
The solar beam uplifts it; all the holiness
Enacted by leaves' fall and rising sap;
But never an angel knows the knife-edged severance
Of sun from shadow where the trees begin,
The blessed cool at every pore caressing us
-An angel has no skin.

They see the Form of Air; but mortals breathing it.
Drink the whole summer down into the breast.
The lavish pinks, the field new-mown, the ravishing
Sea-smells, the wood-fire smoke that whispers Rest.
The tremor on the rippled pool of memory
That from each smell in widening circle goes,
The pleasure and the pang-can angles measure it?
-An angel has no nose.
The nourishing of life, and how it flourishes
On death, and why, they utterly know; but not
The hill-born, earthy spring, the dark cold bilberries.
The ripe peach from the southern wall still hot
Full-bellied tankards foamy-topped, the delicate
Half-lyric lamb, a new loaf's billowy curves,
Nor porridge, nor the tingling taste of oranges.
-An angel has no nerves.
Far richer they! I know the senses witchery
Guards us like air, from heavens too big to see;
Imminent death to man that barb'd sublimity
And dazzling edge of beauty unsheathed would be.
Yet here, within this tiny, charmed interior,
This parlour of the brain, their Maker shares
With living men some secrets in a privacy.
Forever ours, not theirs.
Exercise 5
Answer the following questions about the poem, "On Being Human," by C.S. Lewis.
1. How did the author compare the physical and spiritual realms?
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2. How did the poem describe the significance of memory?
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3. Does the poem contend the metaphysical nature of memory?
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4. What does this stanza mean?
Yet here, this tiny, charmed interior,
This parlour of the brain, their Maker shares
With living men some secrets in a privacy
Forever ours, not theirs.
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
THINK TANK!
A. Write true if the statement is true; and false if otherwise. Write your answer on the space provided.
____________________1. Socrates believed that a person's nature is determined by his/her soul.
____________________2. Both Pythagoras and Heraclitus do not adhere to the belief that a human being is
a composite of body and soul.
____________________3. Thomas Aquinas believed that the soul needs the body to manifest its powers.
____________________4. Plato's sense of dualism is anchored on the relationship between reincarnation and
the means of obtaining knowledge through recognition of forms.
____________________5. Aristotle claims that the soul is not a substance, but a form that actualizes matter
into composite being.
B. Enumeration
1. Name the four arguments of Plato concerning dualism.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Name the three types of soul, according to St. Thomas Aquinas.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Identify the different mental faculties.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________________________________________
e. _____________________________________________________________________________________

S.Y. 2020 – 2021
 Notice things that are not in their proper place and organize them in an aesthetic way
 Show that care for the environment contributes to health, wellbeing and sustainable development
 Demonstrate the virtues of prudence and frugality towards environments
LESSON 4: THE HUMAN PERSON and the environment
The belief that a person is a steward of God’s creation seems to be just a myth today. Because of human
activities, the environment is facing destruction, which, in run, puts the whole of humankind to its greatest
challenge to date – survival.
Human and their environment are expected to coexist – the environment gives a person his/her basic
necessities in life such as food, shelter, and other things needed in order for him/her to survive; while the
person, in return, must take care of the environment and ensure the future generations of the same benefits.
However, humans went beyond their power to perform, and brought upon environment problems such as
global warming, acidification, ecological imbalance, and pollution.
At this point, the challenge for people is to prevent their own kind from from facing extinction. Every day,
there are environment warriors pressing their advocacy to save the environment. Every day, they give
humanity a glimmer of hope that the world would soon rise back to its former glory and beauty. It is hoped
that people will realize that if they are the cause of the problem, they too can provide the solution.
What is Environmental Ethics?
Environmental ethics, also known as environmental philosophy, deals with the ethical relationship
between a person and his/her environment. This discipline also takes into consideration the ethical
responsibilities of a person in as far as his/her natural environment is concerned.
This philosophical discipline was developed out of the growing awareness of the effects on the
environment of the factors such as technology, industry, population, and even economic expansion.
The primary task of environmental ethics is the outlining or defining of one’s moral obligations in the face
of the worsening environmental concerns. In addressing such issues, environmental philosophy must take into
consideration these two fundamental questions: What duties and responsibilities does a person have the
environment? Why must he/she fulfil such duties and obligations?
To answer these fundamental questions, one must first realize the evolutionist perspective that every
person is a creation of the environment and not the other way around. One owes everything to the environme nt
and he/she is duty-bound to take care of it.
Today, environmentalist are doing their best to address the issue on environmental degradation. They even
make use of social media as a platform for their campaigns and advocacies in saving the environment. The
common people, on the other hand, help to propagate environmental awareness through cooperative and
individual efforts.

Exercise 1
Observe your community. What are some environmental problems that the residents should be concerned
about? List at least three issues and discuss what a student like you can do to help address the said issues.
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Read the following essay.
Seasoned Vulnerability
An essay on advocating the preservation and protection of environment
By Justin Keith Baquisal
The greater of picture of tragedies today is that most of them could have been averted if and only if, we
had had been better prepared. Even the continuous neglect of our environment has transformed mere hazards
into calamities, and their impacts have increased several fold. The greater society is currently facing a
protracted war on two fronts: safeguarding the environment and gearing for the next titanic disaster.
Both situation still remain valid today. However, most of us think that disaster preparedness and protecting
the environment are entirely two different things. The former is combating the wrath of nature and the other
is about preserving the goodness that Nature gives. On the surface of the issue, we simple see disasters as
nature’s retribution for human activity.
If we analyse, disasters and the destruction of our environment are intertwined matters, seemingly
inseparable from each other. Around the globe, human activities such as illegal logging, excessive mining,
and rapid urbanization contribute to the continuous erosion of our environment. The root cause of calamities
and disasters lies in the destruction of our environment. Tragedies could have been prevented. The impact of
disasters could have been lessened during the 2004 Indonesian Tsunami if only there were enough coral reefs
to act as buffs, according to studies. In this scenario, 150,000 people perished because there were no tsunami
warning systems.
Recent rears saw 478,000 people killed in natural disasters, 2.5 billion people were affected. 690 billion
dollars were gone in economic losses. A study by Japan’s Ministry of Environment showed that air pollution
contributed to an increase in acid rains during hurricanes and typhoons. And we need to look further. In the
Philippines, a report released by the government in 2009 illustrated a grim picture that 2.7 million people in
shanties in flood prone zones in the National Capital Region would be greatly affected during perennial rains.

Since 2009, the Philippines saw an increase in people living near flood-prone areas. All of these
contributed to environmental neglect and disregard for drainage systems. As a result, in 2011, the Philippines
was rated by the Citizen’s Disaster Response Center (CDRC) as the country that is most struck by disasters.
But then, I ask you, is the Pearl of the Orient’s misfortune truly a product of some random punishment of
God and nature? Or was it a result of our own neglect for the environment?
Remember the cries of our countrymen as their homes were ravaged by the 2012 monsoon rains – a
nameless rain, not even considered a typhoon, and had brought the Capital region under a standstill of flood
and waste. Or how about the stench of death reeking form Ondoy in 2009 as Filipinos climbed on top of their
roofs screaming for help with no aid to come? Remember those who have been severely affected in Marikina
City.
Picture yourself as one of those people, and you would wonder where our government was during all those
chaos. As the level of the rain fall increases, so does your hope of aid shatter to pieces?
That grim portrait was not of God’s but of society. We did that to ourselves. By failing to prepare, we
have prepared ourselves to fail. We have the technical know-how, but we have neither vision nor the will to
avert disasters. The solution is simple: preserve the environment. With all the might government’s arms can
extend, the impact of disasters can be averted.
So advocates for humanity, think of disaster preparedness and environmental protection as one and the
same, not as two protracted wars which society in general must face. By preserving our environment, we not
only save Nature, but we also save ourselves from the onslaught of natural disasters. The best protection we
can give ourselves is through preparation. Disasters may be inevitable but a well-preserved environment will
act as our first line of defense. Let the framework of disaster preparedness be drafted for the sake of
environmental protection.
This time, the struggle for the protection of our environment must truly be our own.
What does the author want to impart to the youth like you?
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Environmental Value Systems
An environmental value system refers to how a person sees and values environmental concerns. It can
be classified into three major categories: ecocentrism, anthropocentrism, and technocentrism.
Ecocentrism
This holistic world view is based on the principle that the natural world has inherent value. Advocates of
this view wish to lessen the impact of human influence to the environment by reducing and lessening the
consumption of natural resources.
This particular value system is divided into two types: the land ethic and deep ecology.

The advocates of land ethics focus on human responsibility towards the natural world. They are said to
be nature-centered and are putting so much premium on the rights of nature as compared to the rights of
humanity.
Deep ecology, on the other hand, is a newer concept in ecocentric philosophy. This value system
intensively inquires about a person’s set of values and lifestyles that cause serious environmental problems.
Anthropocentrism
Anthropocentrism is a philosophical perspective which puts human needs and interests to be o highest
value and importance. This viewpoint is human-centered and believes that the natural world exists for him/her
alone; hence concern for nonhuman entities is limited to those having value to people.
There are anthropocentric philosophers who advocates the cornucopian point of view, which claims that
environmental resources are unlimited and the rapid increase in human population does not lead to scarcity in
natural resources. Cornucopian philosophers argue that the possibility of resources scarcity and population
explosion is a mere exaggeration. They believe that future technology will be invented and developed to
address such issues.
Technocentrism
With values centered on technology, this type of view believes that it can provide solutions to all
environmental problems. Similar to anthropocentrism, it is a world view which conceives that the nature is
present to benefit human beings.
Technocentrism stresses that environmental problems can be solved through science and technology,
holds that technology is a key ingredient in improving the standard of living. Advocates of this view downplay
the effects of environmental problems, such as global warming and illegal logging.
Exercise 2
Give the salient features of the following value systems in as far as the natural environment is concerned.
Ecocentrism Anthropocentrism Technocentrism

Exercise 3
Read the article and answer the questions that follow.
Wear the Vest of Humanity
By Louise Margaret Del Rosario
As mankind continues to imprint his footsteps in this paradigm called Earth, we continuously engage in
countless complex interlocked systems that have slowly developed for the past 4.5 billion years. As this planet
dubbed as the only one capable of sustaining life unfolds in unique patterns which paved the way different
spheres, cycles, continents, and natural platforms, evolutions has embraced not only humanity, but also the
various organisms and the environment that have evolved through time.
After thousands of years of evolutions, we find ourselves amid the hallmarks of the ever-growing
technology and the increasing pollution that continues to envelope our globe. While these industrial lifestyles
may have reigned supreme with regards to the ease, improvement, and development of living, they also carry
a vast amount of detrimental effects on nature. The extinction of species, the melting of glaciers and ice caps,
climate change, resources depletion, and the destruction of landscapes have brought about the forefronts of
heavier human toll. As the rising number in population continues to threaten the world’s natural systems, we
stand at the pedestal where we recognize the domino effect of such consequences. Ur cognition of these costs
and disasters suggests that it is imperative for us to embrace our role as change agents, which is greater than
we perceived it to be.
There are a number of ways by which we can begin our movement for the conservation and protection of
nature. First and foremost, the change must start within us in the aspects of our mind set and action. How we
perceive nature per se and the environment itself should be aligned with our mind-sets and actions that we
should not impose harm on the former in any way possible. We must abolish the ignorance which were once
surrender ourselves to, and instead advocate an ecocentric way of thinking, coupled with nature-friendly
activities that do not harm the environment such as the prevention of littering, deforestation, mining and other
activities that contribute to various kind s of pollution. The conservation of resources such as water, soil, rocks
and forests among others must also be taken into consideration as these provide sustenance of life to our
planet.
Subsequently, we must encourage people everywhere to consider ourselves as part of the large picture,
through an effective environment protection education curriculum. By utilizing platforms such as the wired
world of social media that can reach millions of users within a click and by teaching people regarding the
environment, evolution, and ecology, we can provide them with the tools for change and the mind set to
prevent the perpetration of the unsuitable lifestyles that we currently enjoy.
Although a change in attitudes would require a complete overhaul in our current economic, political, and
social stance, it is something that must truly be done, may it be the easy or the difficult way. Let us always
keeps in mind that working collectively can achieve collective success. Hence, let us wear the vest of humanity
and take our step in protecting our planet that has long been protecting and nurturing us.

Exercise 4
1. Identify the type of environmental value system expressed by the author. Discuss how such value system
goes in conflict with other value systems.
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2. Based from the article, identify the different situations that show the different environmental value systems.
a. ecocentrism
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b. anthropocentrism
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c. technocentrism
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Challenges for Environmental Philosophy
In this age of technological advancement and scientific discoveries, nature is put at the losing end, as it
has always been the one being compromised. As humans advance their desires to raise their standards of living
and improve the quality of their lifestyles, their intervention in the natural courses of environment has become
uncontrollable.
Environmental philosophy reminds people that all natural beings have intrinsic value, regardless of their
practical significance to humans-that they must pay respect to the environment, not because they benefit from
it, but because it is the right thing to do. They must be reminded of the gloomy possibility that the environment
and everything in it shall cease to exist if they do not change the attitude toward the environment.
Environmental ethics is challenged to make people realize that the survival of the environment is also their
survival. The popular belief that one is steward of the environment has given humans to interpret it in such a
way that would benefit the humankind.

Think tank! A. Identify the following words and phrases referred to by the following statements.
____________________1. It deals with the ethical relationship between a person and his/her environment.
____________________2. It is a value system based on the principle that the natural the natural world has an
inherent value.
____________________3. It is a philosophical perspective which puts people’s needs at the highest value.
____________________4. It is a value that intensively inquiries about people’s set of values and lifestyles
that cause serious environmental problems.
____________________5. It is a point of view which claims that environmental resources are unlimited, and
the rapid increase in human population does not lead to scarcity in natural resources.
____________________6. It is the type of view which believes that it can provide solutions to all
environmental problems.
____________________7. This viewpoint is human-centered and believes that the natural world exists for
man alone.
B. Identify the type of environment value system shown by the following situations.
____________________1. Cutting of trees for residential purposes
____________________2. Reclamation of land to put a mall
____________________3. Converting agricultural land into business hub or center
____________________4. Restoration of the water shed
____________________5. Putting an entire forest under the wildlife protection program
____________________6. Converting an idle land into a resort for tourism purposes
C. Answer the following.
1. Name at least five challenges confronting environmental philosophy.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________________________________________
e. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. How important is environmental philosophy in solving environmental problems?
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3. What is the meaning of the statement “all natural beings have intrinsic values”?
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4. How can people reconcile technology with environmental preservation?
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