Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry

1. ALKALOIDS

2. RAUWOLFIA
• SYNONYM: Serpagandha, Rauwolfia root, Snake root, Serpentina,
Chhotachand.
• B.S. : Rauwolfia consists of the dried roots of Rauwolfia Serpentina
belonging to family Apocynaceae
• G.S. : Distributed in tropical regions of Asia,America and Africa.
Comercially produced in India, Sri Lanka,Myanmar,Thailand and
America. In India U.P., Bihar, Orissa T.N., W.B., Karnataka, MH,Orissa
• History: Snake like shape hence known as Serpagandha. Used in treatment
of insanity and snake bite since traditional times. Isolation of reserpine
took place in 1952 by Muller and hence the drug came into limelight.
• Cultivation & Collection : 1. Hot Humid condition requires Shade.
2) Clay Loamy soil with lot of humus and good drainage capacity.

3. 3) pH: 4 / Temp: 10 to 38 degree cel. / Rainfall: 250-500 cm
4) Propogation : Seeds, root stumps, cuttings, roots.
5) Seeds are preferred slow rate of germination hence in more amounts sown in
nursery beds in month of May or break of monsoon, transplanted to fields in
month August. Chemical fertilizers and manure provided. Weeding
is done. Plants are uprooted when they are 3-4 years old. Roots are cut,
washed dried and prepared for market.
• Macroscopy:
Color: Root bark is greyish yellow to brown, wood is pale yellow.
Odour: odourless
Taste: Bitter
Size: 10-18 cm long, 1-3 cm diameter
Shape: Subcylindrical, slightly tapering, tortuous. Short and irregular fracture .
Extra feature: Rough root, longitudinal marking, wrinkled surface.
• Microscopy:
Cork is made up of stratified cells followed by phelloderm, phloem is narrow,
parenchymatous with small scattered sieve tubes. Parenchyma contains

4. Starch grains with latex cells. Secondary phloem contains calcium oxalate,
Xylem vessels are elongated upto 350 micron in length are 50 micron
in width. Stone cells and phloem fibers are absent.
• Chemical Constituents:
30 Indole alkaloids are reported uptill. Important alkaloids are;
Reserpine, Ajmaline, Ajmalicine, Rauwolfinin, Rescinnamine, Reserpinine,
Yohimbine, Serpentine, Serpentinine.
• Chemical Tests:
1) freshly fractured surface when treated with conc. nitric acid it shows red
coloration along the medullary rays indicating presence of Reserpine.
2) Reserpine shows violet red coloration when treated with sol. of vanilline in
acetic acid.
3) Powdered drug with sulphuric acid and and Van-Urks reagent givesviolet to
red color.

5. • Uses:
1) Antihypertensive
2) Used in mild anxiety
3) Reserpine is used to treat some neuropsychiatric disorders.
4) Rescinnamine is also used as antihypertensive but in higher doses causes
mental depression.
5) Deserpidine used as tranquillizer.
6) Ajmalicine in less quantities used to treat circulatory diseases.

6. VINCA
• Synonym: Catharanthus, Periwinkle.
• B.S.: It is the whole dried plant of Catharantus Roseus belonging to family
Apocynaceae.
• G.S. : Indigenous to Madagascar. Also cultivated in South Africa,India,USA,
Europe,Australia and Caribbean islands.
• History: 1)Since 50 B.C. used as antidysentric,antihaemorrhagic,diuretic,
wound healing.
2) Used as tea for treatment of diabetes in Jamaica and for tooth ache in
Brazil.
3) Said to have antileukemic principals and other c.c. also possess
anticancer activity.

7. • Cultivation & Collection:
1) Grows well in tropical and sub tropical areas in South Indian and North
Eastern States of India.
2) Soil: Highly alkaline or water logged ,also in light sandy soil rich in humus.
3) Rainfall: 100cm
4) Propogation : Seeds ( nursery beds or direct sowing) Seeds are admixed
with 10 times quantity of sand and sown in monsoon. Thinning is done
when plants are sufficiently grown. Plants do not need much water and are
drought resistant. Mixture of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is used.
Weeding done periodically, leaf stripping done 6-9 months after sowing.
Stems are cut about 7-8 cm above ground level after one year of growth
and leaves,stems and seeds are separated and air dried. For collection of
roots the fields are ploughed then washed , dried in shade and packed for
market.
• Macroscopy:
1) leaves: green/ roots: pale grey/ flowers: violet,pink-white or carmine-red in
color

8. 2) Odour: Characteristic
3) Taste: Bitter
4) Vinca is erect pubescent herb with branched tap root.
5) Leaves are simple, petiolate, ovate or oblong, unicostate,
reticulate,entire,brittle with acute apex and glossy appearance.
6) Flowers are bractate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, 2-3 in cymose
asillary clusters.
7) Fruits are follicles with several black seeds.
• Microscopy: 1) Upper layer : single layer of rectangular celled epidermis
with unicellular covering trichomes.
2) Palisade made of single layer beneath upper epidermis (compact elongated
cells)
3) Spongy parenchyma : 5-8 layered with intercellular spaces.
4) Midrib contains collenchyma below upper epidermis and above lower
epidermis.
5) Xylem & Phloem present in the centre.

9. 6) Cruciferous stomata present.
7) Calcium Oxalate crystals are absent.
• Chemical Constituents:
Vincristine and Vinblastine are most important alkaloids.
Other alkaloids present are ajmalicine, lochnerine, serpentine etc.
500 gm drug yields 1gm Vincristine hence is very costly.
• Uses:
Vincristine sulphate: Antineoplastic, Hodgkin’s desease, reticulum cell
sarcoma, lymphosarcoma and myosarcoma.
Vinblastine sulphate: Antineoplastic, Hodgkin’s desease.
Vinca also exhibits hypotensive and antidiabetic actions.

10. OPIUM
• Synonym: Raw Opium.
• B.S. : It is the dried latex obtained by incisions from the unripe capsules of
Papaver somniferum belonging to family Papaveraceae. It contains NLT
10% morphine and NLT 2.0% of codeine.
• G.S. : India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Russia, China and Iran.
• History: Known since centuries due to its narcotic properties. Earliest
record is found in Historia Plantarum (300 B.C.) and De Materia Medica
(78 A.D.).
Derosne isolated Narcotine in 1803.
Segnin isolated morphine in 1804.
Robiquet isolated Codeine in 1833.
Merck company isolated papaverine in 1848.
• Cultivation Collection and Preparation:
1) Opium Poppy is grown from November to March.

11. 2) Propagation done by sowing seeds. Seeds admixed with 3-4 parts of sand
are sown.
3) Requires highly fertile, well drained loamy soil with fine sand & pH 7.
4) 25 cm distance needs to be maintained between two plants periodic
thinning is necessary. Weeding done with suitable weedicides.
5) Manures, fertilizers, Nitrogen and Phosphorus used.
6) After sowing within 3-4 months plant bears flowers which are converted to
capsules within a few days in 15-20 days. During this maturity period the
capsule exudes max. latex which shows a color change from dark green to
light green. Such capsules are incised vertically in the afternoon with the
help of needle like apparatus called nushtur (penetrates upto 2mm in the
capsule). Due to this the latex exudes out and thickens due to cold weather
in night which is eventually scrapped and collected next morning with an
iron scoop called charpala. The incisions are repeated about 4 times on the
same capsule with 2 days inerval. The latex is collected in plastic
containers. Then capsules are collected and dried in open areas to separate
seeds by beating. ( Opium processed at Govt. Factory in Ghazipur)

12. • Macroscopy:
Odour: Strong Characteristic
Taste : Bitter
1) Indian Opium: Dark brown, cubical weighing 900 gm. Brittle and plastic in
nature, Internally homogenous.
2) Persian Opium: Dark brown,brick shaped masses weighing 400 gm.
Hygroscopic in nature, granular or nearly smooth with brittle fracture.
3) Natural Turkish / European Opium: Brown or dark brown, conical or
rounded, flattened masses weighing 250-1000gm. It becomes hard and
brittle on keeping. It is covered with poppy leaves.
4) Manipulated Turkish Opium: Chocolate brown or dark brown internally and
covered with broken poppy leaves externally. Oval and flattend on upper
and lower surface & weighing 2000 gm. Plastic and brittle.
5) Manipulated European Opium: It is dark brown inernally and covered with
broken leaves. Found as elongated masses with rounded ends weighing
150-500gm. Firm, plastic & with brittle fracture.

13. • Chemical Constituents:
Isolation of Alkaloids
Powdered Opium
(Shaken with calcium chloride solution and filtered)
Filtrate (Concentrated) and add 10% NaOH solution
Filtrate Precipitate
( Morphine, Codeine, Narceine) (Narcotine, Papaverine,Thebaine)
1) dissolve ppt. in alcohol
2) Acidify with acetic acid
Chloroform Aq. Solution 3) Add 3 volumes of boiling water
(morphine, narceine)
acidify and then make alkaline with NH3 Aq. Solution Precipitate
Aq. Sol. c/o Narceine & ppt. c/o Morphine Thebaine Narcotine

14. • Chemical Tests:
1) Opium is detected by testing presence of meconic acid. Opium is dissolved
in water and to the filtrate FeCl3 is added which imparts deep reddish
purple colour which persists on addition of HCl.
2) Morphine when sprinkled on nitric acid gives orange red color. Codeine
does not respond to this test.
3) Morphine solution when treated with potassium ferricyanide and FeCl3
gives bluish green color. Codeine does not respond to this test.
4) Papaverine solution in HCl gives a lemon yellow color with potassium
ferricyanide solution.
• Uses:
1) Opium is used as a sedative,hypnotic and analgesic due to morphine.
2) Morphine also produces respiratory tract depression and constipation.
3) Codeine used as antitussive & mild analgesic.
4) Papaverine has relaxant effect on smooth muscles.
5) Narcotine has specific depressant action on cough reflex.

15. IPECAC
• Synonym: Ipecacuanha, Brazil root
• B.S. : It consists of the dried roots or rhizomes of Cephaelis ipecacuanha
or Cephaelis acuminata belonging to family Rubiaceae. It does not contain
less than 2 % total alkaloids in which at least 50% should be emetine.
• G.S. : C. Ipecacuanha is also known as Rio or Brazilian ipecac found in
Brazil, India, Myanmar and Malaysia. C. Acuminata is known as Panama or
Cartagena ipecac, which is procured from Columbia, Panama & India.
• History: Ipecacuanha means small wayside plant with vomiting effects. It
was first known in Brazil due to its antidysentric activity.
• Cultivation & Collection :
Propagation is done using seeds in mid January to mid Feb. Germination
enhanced using lime water or H2O2. 2 month seedlings transplanted to
fields(10*10cm). Temp.: 23-38 degree cel. Rainfall: 300 cm. Humid
atmosphere helpful. At 3rd year alkaloids are max. then harvested.

16. • Macroscopy:
Brazilian Ipecac:
ROOTS:
a) Color: Dark brick red to dark brown.
b) Odour: Faint
c) Taste: Bitter
d) Size: 150 mm length 6 mm thick
e) Shape: Tortuous pieces
RHIZOMES:
a) Color: Brick red to dark brown
b) Size: 2 mm diameter short attached to roots.
c) Shape: cylindrical
Panama Ipecac:
a) color: greyish-brown to reddish brown
b) odour & taste: same as Brazilian variety
c) Size & shape: large in size with 9 mm thickness & cylindrical.

20. • Microscopy:
Cork cells are thin walled followed by phelloderm.
Cortex contains several secretary channels and phloem fibers.
Medullary rays with radially arranged cells are present.
Idioblast of calcium oxalate is the specific characteristic of cinchona bark.
Starch grains are present in parenchymatus tissue.
Stone cells are rarely present in the structure. Few cork cells are lignified.
• Chemical constituents:
It contains 25 alkaloids belonging to quinoline group.
The important alkaloids are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine & cinchonidine.
Lesser important ones are quinicine,cinchonicine hydroquinine,
hydrocinchonidine and homocinchonidine.
• Chemical Tests:
1) Heat the powdered drug in a dried test tube with little glacial acetic acid,
purple vapours are produced at the upper part of the test tube.
2) Thalleoquin text: The powdered drug gives emerald green color with
bromine water and dil. ammonia solution.

21. 3) Quinidine solution gives white ppt. with AgNO3 which is soluble in nitric acid.
• Standards:
Total Ash: NMT 4%
FOM : NMT 2%
• Uses:
Cinchona bark is anti malarial.
Its extract and tincture are used as antipyretic and stomachic.
Quinine and its salts are used in the treatment of malaria.
Quinidine is primarily a cardia depressant and used to prevent certain
arrhythmias and tachycardia.
• Substitute: Cuprea bark

22. Purine Alkaloids
• Those containing the xanthin derivatives are called purine alkaloids for eg.
Tea,coffee,cola,cocoa,guavana and mate.
They are used as CNS stimulant because of caffeine.
• This group mainly includes caffeine, theobromine and theophylline.
• They do not respond to common alkaloidal tests. They give murexide color
reaction positive.

23. Coffee
• Synonyms: Coffee bean, coffee seed.
• B.S.: It is the dried ripe seed of Coffea arabica or Coffea liberica deprived
of the seed coat belonging to the family Rubiaceae.
• G.S.: Ethiopia, Brazil, India,Vuetnam, Mexico, Guatemala, Indonesia and
Sri lanka.
* Note: In middle east countries it is known as ‘qahuah’. It is a strong a
strong decoction of coffee seed powder. (Arabic and Turkish)
• Habitat:
It is an evergreen shrub which bears drupe type of fruit with ellipsoidal or
spheroidal shape.
Each fruit has 2 locules containing one seed in each chamber.
Each plant gives about 2-3kg seeds. Seeds are dried to separate seeds. The
seeds are separated by wetting them and mechanically separating
followed by drying in heaps which causes fermentation.

24. The separated seeds or beans are green in color. They are roasted due to
which the colour odour is effected.
• Organoleptic characters:
Color: dark brown
Odour: agreeable
Taste: Bitter
• Chemical constituents:
Caffeine: 2-3%
Tannins: 3-5%
Proteins: 13%
Fixed oils: 10-15%
• Uses:
Source of caffiene
Stimulant
Diuretic

25. TEA
• Synonym: Camellia thea
• B.S.: It contains the prepared leaves and leaf buds of Thea sinensis
belonging to family Theaceae
• G.S.: India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia and Japan. Available as black tea in
India and Sri Lanka and green tea from China and Japan.
Black tea is obtained by fermenting the heap of fresh tea leaves and
further drying it with artificial heat. Green tea is obtained by putting tea
leaves in copper pans and then drying by artificial heat.
• Macroscopy:
It is a small evergreen shrub when cultivated and reaches a height of 1-1.5
meters. Plant is much branches and bears grey bark.
Leaves: Dark green, lanceolate, blunt at apex, tapering base, short serrate
margin. Young leaves are hairy while matured leaves are glabrous.
Flowers: Solitary or in group of 2-3 and drooping.
Odor: Characteristic
Taste: Bitter

26. • Preparation of green tea:
Freshly collected leaves are exposed to the air until most of moisture is
removed. Then they are roasted and stirred continuously until leaves
become moist and flaccid. Then they are passed to rolling table and rolled
into balls and subjected to a pressure which removes the moisture. Then
leaves are shaken out in copper pans and roasted again till the leaves
assume dull green color. Then the leaves are winnowed, screened and
graded into various varieties.
• Chemical Constituents:
Caffeine: 1-3%
(theobromine, theophylline)
gallotannic acid (15%)
yellow volatile oil
enzymatic mixture thease is present.
• Use: CNS stimulant and diuretic.

27. PILOCARPUS
• Synonym: Jaborandi
• B.S.: The drug consists of the leaves of Pilocarpus jaborandi and related
species belonging to family Rutaceae.
• G.S.: Indigenous to South America and specially grown in Brazil. It is also
found in Venenzuela, Caribbean islands and Central America.
• Macroscopy:
leaves are grayish green to greenish and have slight aromatic odour with
bitter taste of alkaloids. The leaf causes increase in salivary secretions. It is
an imparpinnate compound leaf with 7 leaflets. Leaflets are asymmetrical,
obovate and sessile in shape and 2-6cm long and 1-3cm wide in size.
• Chemical Constituents:
Pilocarpine ( most imp*)
Isopilocarpine, pilocarpidine, pilosine, pseudopilocarpine and isopilosine.
oil cells contain momoterpenes like limonene, alpha- pinene, sabinene
and sesquiterpenes.

28. • Chemical Test:
To the pilocarpine solution add dil. sulphuric acid, hydrogen peroxide
solution,benzene and potassium chromate solution is added. On shaking
organic layer gives bluish-violet color and yellow color appears in aq. layer.
• Uses:
Drug is used in the form of pilocarpine hydrochloride which is a
physiological antagonist of atropine.
It causes contraction of pupil of the eye and increase sweating and
salivation. Used in treatment of glaucoma.

29. STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS
VERATRUM
Two species of the genus Veratrum are important
1) Veratrum viride
2) Veratrum album
Both contains protoveratrine as active principle.
a) Veratrum viride:
• Synonym: American or green hellebore
• B.S.: It consists of dried rhizome and roots of Veratrum viride belonging
to family Liliaceae.
• G.S.: Obtained from wild growing plants in many parts of U.S. like states
of New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee etc. Also found in few
parts of Canada.

30. • Macroscopy:
Color: Brown
Odour: Unpleasant
Taste : Acrid
Size: Rhizomes are 5-8 cm in length and 2-3.5cm in diameter.
Shape: Subcylindrical with numerous stout yellowish brown roots.
• Uses:
Used to lower elevated B.P. and decreases heart rate.
Used in hypertension associated with pregnancy.
b) Veratrum album
• Synonym: White hellebore, European hellebore
• B.S.: It is the dried rhizome of Veratrum album belonging to family Liliaceae.
• G.S.: It is native to central and southern Europe, China and Japan.

31. • Habitat: It is a decidious hardy perrenial herb, flowers in june – july bears
white flowers. Stem is hairy and 50-125 cm in height.
• Macroscopy:
Color: Brown
Odour: unpleasant characteristic when fresh dried with no odour.
Taste: Burning,acrid and bitterish
Size: 5-15cm length and 2-3 cm diameter.
Shape: Tuberous fleshy with number of long white fibers at the end of the
roots.
• Chemical constituents:
Veratrine, germidine,germitrine,protoveratrine,cevadine,pseudojervijne
etc.
• Uses:
Used in the management of hypertension in pregnancy.