2. Enteral Nutrition
Enteral Nutrition is given when oral route is not feasible
eg. intubated & sedated
Examples of enteral access are;
1. Feeding through nose (nasogastric, nasoduodenal &
nasojejunal)
2. Gastrostomy
3. Jejunostomy
Undergoes complex process of digestion along
gastrointestinal tract and metabolism by liver before
being absorbed to blood circulation
3. Parenteral Nutrition
• Nutrients given to patient directly into the systemic
circulation
• Bypass the GI tract and the first circulation through the
liver
5. Enteral vs Parenteral Route?
Whenever possible, oral/enteral route should be the choice
for feeding (If the gut works,use it)
Advantages;
1. Prevention of mucosal atrophy by luminal supply of
substrates; support of the mucosal barrier against pathogens
2. Support of the intestinal immune system and improvement
of immuno-competence, prophylaxis against infection and
sepsis
3. Improvement of intestinal perfusions
7. OUTLINES
Indication of TPN
Assessment of Nutrition Support
Caloric requirement
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
Monitoring Parameter
Peripheral PN vs Central PN
Cyclical PN
TPN Requisition Form
Setting Up TPN
Adjustment of PN Run Rate
10. CONTRA-INDICATIONS
A FUNCTIONING GASTROINESTINAL TRACT
ACUTE METABOLIC DERANGEMENT (Do correction
first!)
TPN should not be used during periods of acute
haemodynamic instability or during surgical operations since
the nutrient solutions may be used inadvertly for fluid
resuscitation
Fluid , electrolyte and acid-base imbalance must be
corrected. Hypoalbuminemia needs correction.
11. WHEN TO START PN?
Within 12-24 hours of injury/ surgery or after stabilization
of vital organ function
Check:
-Impaired oxygenation
-Impaired perfusion or volume depletion
-Electrolytes & metabolic derangement
-Requirement for inotropes
Ensure these issues are settled and stabilized within
the first 24 hours
13. ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITION SUPPORT
-PAEDIATRIC
1. Paediatric
1. Growth curves
• Babson
• Lubchenco
2. Intake/Output, urine output
3. Weight (always use best weight – best dry weight)
4. Initial drop of weight in neonate is expected for neonate
• Post natal weight loss of 5-15% per day is acceptable
14. NORMAL GROWTH
Preterm infants-
Required 110 -120kcal/kg/day
Expected daily weight gain -15g/kg/d
Full term infants:-
Require 90 – 100 kcal/kg/day
Initial weight gain 25 – 30 grams/day by DOL 14: regain
birth weight
3 months: gain 1 pound /month
4 – 6 months: double birth weight
1 year: triple birth weight, length increases by 50%.
2 years (puberty): gain 2-3 kg/year, grow 5 – 8 cm/year
19. CARBOHYDRATE
Provided as glucose
main source of energy in nutrition
Usually contributes to osmolarity in PN solution.
Peripheral vein concentration
Up to 12.5% dextrose is well tolerated – provided no other
osmolarity-increasing agents are added and patient is not fluid
restricted
Adequate carbohydrates are needed to help prevent lipolysis, and
transient protein breakdown.
Generally, glucose started at 10% for newborn at day 1 of PN and
gradually increase up to 15%.
20. Overfeeding with glucose
Excess amount of glucose intake results in
hyperglycemia
Increased lipogenesis thus promoting fat deposition
Eventually, leads to hepatic steatosis with an impairment of
the LF & enhanced production of VLDL TG by the liver
↑ CO2 production and minute ventilation
Impaired protein metabolism
Risk of infection
↑ blood glucose level have been shown in adult ICU patients
to be associated with infectious related mortality.↑
Hyperglycemia in animal model reduces the ability of lung
macrophages to fight infection
21. PROTEIN
Protein prevent catabolism
Therefore, need to be started early to promote positive
nitrogen balance
Protein may ↓ frequency and severity neonatal hyperglycemia by
stimulating endogenous insulin secretion and stimulates growth by
enhancing insulin and insulin-like growth factor release.
22. Protein Requirement in Neonate
Rivera et al. – significant +ve Nitrogen balance when protein
intake of 1.5g/kg/day.
Parenteral intake of 3.2g/kg per day results +ve Nitrogen balance
with no detrimental effects on plasma AA profiles.
Ibrahim et al showed that preterm infants are able to tolerate
3.5g/kg/d from birth onwards
23. RECOMMENDED PARENTERAL
AMINO ACIDS SUPPLY
(g/kgBW/Day)
MINIMUM INTAKE MAXIMUM INTAKE
PRETERM 1.5 4
TERM (1ST
MO) 1.5 3
1ST
MO – 3RD
YR 1 3
3RD
YR– 5TH
YR 1 3
6THYR
– 12TH
YR 1 3
24. TYPE OF PROTEIN USED
Neonates and children
VAMINOLACT 6.53%
AMINOVEN INFANT 10%
Premature neonate and infants required more essential AA
than adults due to immature metabolic pathway for
metabolising AA in NB.
pediatric parenteral AA provide more essential AA and less
non-essential AA with addition of some semi essential AA
such as
Cysteine – maintaining calcium homeostasis
Tyrosine
Taurine – prevent cholestasis and retina dysfunction
25. Glutamine in children
No evidence to support the routine use of glutamine in preterm
babies
Studies show that no effects of glutamine supplementation on
sepsis or mortality, tolerance towards EN, NEC or growth
No available data in supporting glutamine used in older children.
26. SOLUTION A SOLUTION B SOLUTION C
Protein 4g 6g 8g
Glucose 10% 10%, 12.5%,
14%
10%, 12.5%,
14%
Na content 4mmol 4mmol 4mmol
Ca content 1.67mmol 1.67mmol 1.67mmol
Volume 200ml 200ml 200ml
STANDARD SOLUTION
27. FAT
Lipid
prevent essential FA deficiency,
provide high energy needs without CHO overload
improve delivery of fat soluble vitamins.
Maximum fat oxidation occurs when IVFE provide 40% of the
non-protein calories in newborns.
In infants, NB and preterm, IVFE – administered 24h
28. Essential FA deficiency
Ommission of IVFE may lead to EFA deficiency (Cooke RJ et al,
Lee EJ et al)
In newborn infants who cannot receive sufficient enteral feeding,
intravenous lipid emulsions should be started no later than on the
third day of life, but may be started on the first day of life
(ESPGHAN 2005)
In order to prevent EFA-deficiency,
0.25g/kg/d should be given to preterm infants
0.1g/kg/d – term infants and older children
29. Fat Requirement in Neonate
Start lipids at 1g/kg/day, at the same time as amino acids are
started, to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency; gradually
increase dose up to 3 g/kg/day (3.5g/kg/day in ELBW infants)
Exogenous lipid may interfere with respiratory function.
Suggested mechanisms include impaired gas exchange from
pulmonary intravascular accumulation or impaired lymph
drainage resulting in oedema. Lipid may also aggravate pulmonary
hypertension in susceptible individuals.
So, use smaller doses in sepsis, compromised pulmonary function,
hyperbilirubinaemia/ jaundice requiring phototherapy
(≤ 2g/kg/day) (Peads Protocols 2012)
30. LBW infants may have immature mechanisms for fat metabolism.
Some conditions inhibit lipid clearance e.g. infection, stress,
malnutrition
So, lipid clearance monitored by plasma triglyceride (TG) levels
(Max TG concentration ranges from 150 mg/dl to 200 mg/dl)
(Paediatric Protocols 2012)
Fat Requirement in Neonate
31. TYPE OF LIPID USED
Smoflipid 20%
LCT, MCT, olive oil, fish oil
Oxidized rapidly , reduced liver derangement, anti-
inflammatory effects
The syringe and infusion line should be shielded from ambient
light.
33. ELECTROLYTES REQUIREMENT Cont
Only basic requirement of electrolytes should be covered in PN
bag
PN is not meant for fast electrolytes or fluid correction!!
Profound deviations should be corrected independently from
nutrition therapy
35. Electrolytes Correction
FORMULAE
Sodium Correction
(Hosp Likas/ HQE 2)
Increase up to 5-8 mmol/kg/day (max) in PN bag
Sodium Correction
(Hosp Tawau)
Increase 0.5mmol for each maintenance
(3mmol/kg/day) = 3.5 mmol/kg/day.
Run PN half rate (Na 1.5mmol/kg/day from bag)
and give IVD Na 2mmol/kg/day
-Cost saving
Potassium
Correction
Increase 1.5mmol fpr each maintenance
(2.5mmol/kg/day) = 4 mmol/kg/day.
Run PN half rate (K 1.3mmol/kg/day from bag) and
give IVD K 2.7mmol/kg/day
-Cost saving
36. Electrolytes Correction (Na)
Fast Sodium Correction:
May use 1. NaCl 3% (0.513mmol Na/ml)
Run= IVB 30min /IVI 1-2hr, check back Na
level
2. NaCl 0.9% (0.153mmol Na/ml)
Run= IVI 6 hours, check back Na level
1/5NSD5% and 1/5NSD10% not suitable bcos of low Na
contents
37. Calculation example:
BW= 2.6kg, Na= 122 mmol/L
Fast Na correction:
NaCl 3% : 1) TPN half rate (Na 1.5mmol/kg/day)
2) Another 2mmol/kg/day from NaCl 3%
Total to add in= 2 x 2.6 = 5.2mmol (10ml NaCl 3%)
Run 5ml/hr for 2 hrs,check back Na level
NaCl 0.9%: 1)TPN half rate (Na 1.5mmol/kg/day)
2)Another 2mmol/kg/day from NaCl 0.9%
Total to add in= 2 x 2.6 = 5.2 mmol (34ml NaCl 0.9%)
Run 5.6ml/hr for 6 hrs,check back Na level
39. Calculation example:
BW= 2.6kg, K= 2.6 mmol/L
Fast K correction:
KCL 10% : 1) TPN half rate (K 1.3mmol/kg/day)
2) Another 2.7mmol/kg/day from KCL 10%
Total to add in= 2.7 x 2.6 = 7mmol (5.2ml KCL 10%)
Run 5ml/hr for 2 hrs,check back K level
40. FACTORS AFFECTING
CALCIUM/PHOSPHATE COMPATIBILITY
pH: higher pH increases risk of precipitation
Temperature/light: higher temp/direct light increases
risk of precipitation
Concentration of calcium and phosphate should not be
more 30mmol per liter of solution
Amino acid: higher conc promotes solubility decrease→
risk of precipitation
Calcium salt: gluconate preferred over chloride
Presence of IVFE: Increase pH increase risk of→
precipitation
Presence of Heparin and Calcium may destabilized IVFE
41. Recent issues with calcium
gluconate!!
Recent issues with calcium gluconate!!
Aluminium contamination which is leached from the glass
ampoules, prolonged used may cause
Neurotoxicities
Renal impairment
Recent circular from KKM (11/10/2012)
Stop using calcium gluconate injection from glass ampoules in
the production of PN
Alternative choice??? calcium gluconate injection in plastic
ampoules
42. TRACE ELEMENTS
Trace elements are essential micronutrients for support of human
metabolic processes.
Product used in children – Peditrace
Recommended dose 1ml/kg (max 15ml)
43. TRACE ELEMENTS
PEDITRACE (mcg/1 ml) RDA
ZINC CHLORIDE 521 450 – 500
COPPER CHLORIDE 53.7 20
MANGANESE CHOLIRIDE 3.6 1
SODIUM SELENITE 4.38 2.0 – 3.0
SODIUM FLUORIDE 126
POTASSIUM IODIDE 1.31 1
* CHROMIUM - 0.2
**IRON - 50 – 100 (long term PN)
MOLYBDENUM - 0.01 – 0.25
* Cr usually is a contaminant in PN solutions to a degree that satisfies requirement.
** not available commercially as a component in PN mixtures due to the concern of
iron overload
44. MICRONUTRIENTS SPECIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Cholestatic liver disease/impared biliary excretion
Decrease amount of copper and manganese
Renal failure
Decrease amount of chromium and selenium
Patients with significant ostomy drainage of persistent diarrhea
Give additional zinc supplementation
45. VITAMINS
Lipid soluble vitamins children – Vitalipid N Infant
Recommended dose – 4ml/kg/day (max 10ml)
Water soluble vitamins children & adult – Soluvit N
Recommended dose Children – 1ml/kg/day (max 10ml)
Recommended dose Adult – 10ml
Cernevit
Used in adult pt only!!!
Combination of water soluble vitamin and lipid soluble vitamin
(ommision Vit K)
49. MONITORING PARAMETERS
Daily I/O, urine output, weight, DXT, ABG
Serum electrolytes including phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium
Daily for BUSE monitoring until serum is stable then twice a
week
Liver function test
initiation of PN and after 3-4 days of initiation of TPN then
weekly
Serum triglyceride
Initation of TPN then weekly especially patient that is expected
on long-term of PN
51. Peripheral Venous Access Vs
Central Venous Access
VS
Peripheral Venous Access Central Venous Access
52. Peripheral PN
Osmolarity – concentration of solute per liter solution
Osmolarity
Not more than 900 mOsm/L (ESPGHAN 2005)
Not more than 850 mOsm/L (ESPEN 2009)
Not more than 925mOsm/L (Mahshid Roayaee, The Pharmacy Practice, MAC 2002,
www.childrenmercy.org)
Possible to give PN with osmolality around 1100mOsm/kg for
up to 10 days via peripheral veins in most patient. (ESPEN 2009) – trial
on adult patient only!!!
53. Peripheral PN - Cont
Energy
Energy provided is less than energy given via central line
Require higher volume of solution i.e: TF 150ml/kg/day
(neonate)
Maximum dextrose content paed PN– 12.5%, provided
TF - 150ml/kg/d, Protein -2g/kg/d, Fat – 2g/kg/d, Na & K
-1.5mmol/kg/d and normal maintenance for Ca2+,
PO4
2
, Mg2+
For short-term PN only
54. Central PN
Osmolarity – can be given >900mOsm/L
Higher calorie can be provided
Suitable for patient that is fluid restricted
56. Cyclical PN
Refers to the administration of IV fluids intermittently with
regularly discontinuation of infusion.
E.g. IDPN
May be used for 3-6mo of age
Advantages
Alternating feeding and fasting allows changes in
insulin/glucagon balance and reduces lipogenesis
Allow patient mobilization
Lower the risk for the development of liver disease
57. Cyclical PN - cont
Disadvantages
Most available data comes from studies performed in stable
adults pt
May leads to hyperglycemia due to high glucose infusion rates
and risks of hypoglycemia upon discontinuation
59. HTWU does not have TN manufacturing facility
PN ordered from HQE 2, KK – only Monday to Thursday.
Take around 2 days to receive the TPN bags (May also be on weekend)
Incomplete TN form
Central line/ peripheral line?
Fluid maintenance? [Total Fluid (TF)]
PN regimen?
Crucial info for TN administration
Centrally? Peripherally?
Content of PN?
Aseptic Technique?
63. How to fill in TPN form
Hypo Na+
Hyper K+
Hyperglycaemia
B/O xxx
D8 OL
2 kg
100 cm
1/8/2013 12345
PICU/ HTWU
Dr. xyz
124
6.2
2.5
1.3
6.4
55
13.2
12.6
Not tolerating EN
69. Setting up TPN
Sterile procedure ;
1.Handwash
2.PPE
• Syringe pumps, Infusion pump. If area needed, scrub with
alcohol
• TPN Bag – filter with 0.2micron infusion filter
• Lipid (in syringe) – no need filter,bcause filtered twice in
HQE2
• Use two way connector (Y connector) to combine TPN and
Lipid before infused to patient
***Infusion filter 0.2 micron before Y connector
72. TPN Running Rate Adjustment
If inotropes or IV infusion of drug are tapered down/off,
DO NOT automatically increase the TPN run rate to
accommodate the FM
Need to calculate the content to determine the new TPN run
rate
Do not exceed the recommended maximum requirement to
prevent adverse effect
Top up TF with IV drip
73. How?
During PN Request:
BW= 2.6kg, Fluid Restriction=150ml/kg/day (390ml/day)
PN = 15.6ml/hr , Lipid = 0.6ml/hr
When TPN arrive:
Patient is on Dopa 1ml/hr, Morphine 2ml/hr
Adjustment:
Current PN Rate – (Dopa & Morphine) = 16.2-1-2
=12.6ml/hr
So,new rate is..
PN @ 12.6 ml/hr *Protein at least 0.8g/kg/day
Lipid @ 0.6ml/hr
Figure 1:Omphalocele involves the umbilical cord itself, and the organs remain enclosed in visceral peritoneum retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/images/omphalocele-web.jpg
Fig 2: Gastroschisis - defect in the anterior abdominal wall through which the abdominal contents freely protrude Retrieved from http://www.med.umich.edu/fdtc/diagnoses/fetal_diagnoses/abdominal/gastroschisis.shtml