Paul was born a Roman citizen in Tarsus to a wealthy Jewish family. His Roman citizenship afforded him important legal protections and advantages. He was educated in both Jewish scripture and Greek philosophy in Tarsus, which had a prestigious university. Paul was thus influenced by major Greek thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and later philosophical schools of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism. He was highly educated in both Jewish and Greek traditions, with fluency in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. This background prepared Paul to engage with both Jewish and Greco-Roman intellectual traditions in his ministry.
A highly visual summary of the life and very controversial ideas of iconoclast Immanuel Velikovsky, author of the best seller "Worlds in Collision" and other books.
A highly visual summary of the life and very controversial ideas of iconoclast Immanuel Velikovsky, author of the best seller "Worlds in Collision" and other books.
The Semitic fervour, Greek versatility and Roman energy all contributed as great platform for Saint Paul's ministry. An Explanation.
My email address, please contact me for appreciation
afenjulius7@gmail.com
Discussion Board Week 1 What was the greatest contribution of LyndonPelletier761
Discussion Board Week 1
What was the greatest contribution of the Ancient Greek philosophers to the field of psychology? Why did you choose this contribution as the most influential?
How did the thinkers of the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment influence the development scientific thinking?
Articles are attached
Note From Professor
No work (discussion main posts and assignments) will be accepted without references and in-text citations.
If work is submitted without references and in-text citations, it will receive a zero till you resubmit properly. You will have one time in which to resubmit.
Psychology is a social science, based on the scientific method of research. We use APA style. Technically, if you submit an assignment without references and proper citation, it constitutes plagiarism. You must cite in-text and reference correctly to avoid this.
The Ancient Greeks, Part One:
The Presocratics
Dr. C. George Boeree
"Know thyself."
-- inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
In Chinese: 前蘇格拉底時代 (translated by Liu Yu)
Psyche, from the Greek psu-khê, possibly derived from a
word meaning "warm blooded:" Life, soul, ghost, departed spirit,
conscious self, personality, butterfly or moth. Some words with
similar meanings:
Thymos, meaning breath, life, soul, temper, courage, will;
Pneuma, meaning breath, mind, spirit, or angel; Noös,
meaning mind, reason, intellect, or the meaning of a word; Logos, meaning word, speech, idea,
or reason.
Psychology: Reasoning
about the soul. Probably coined by the German philosopher and
reformation theologian Philipp Melanchthon in the mid 16th
century. First used to mean "study of the mind" in Christian
Wolff's Psychologia
Empirica (1732) and Psychologia Rationalis (1734).
The Greeks
Western intellectual history always begins with the ancient
Greeks.
This is not to say that no one had any deep thoughts prior to the
ancient
Greeks, or that the philosophies of ancient India and China (and
elsewhere)
were in any way inferior. In fact, philosophies from all over the
world eventually came to influence western thought, but only much
later.
But it was the Greeks that educated the Romans and, after a long dark
age,
it was the records of these same Greeks, kept and studied by the Moslem
and Jewish scholars as well as Christian monks, that educated Europe
once again.
We might also ask, why the Greeks in the first place? Why not
the Phoenicians, or the Carthaginians, or the Persians, or the
Etruscans?
There are a variety of possible reasons.
One has to do with the ability to read and write, which in turn has
to do with the alphabet. It is when ideas get recorded that they
enter intellectual history. Buddhism, for example, although a very
sophisticated
philosophy, was an oral tradition for hundreds of years until committed
to writing, since the Brahmi alphabet was late in coming. It was
only then that Buddhism spread throughout Asia.
The alphabet was invented by the Semit ...
Numberless other paradoxes appear in the
portrait which the gospels give us of our Lord.
Nor is the apostle Paul wholly outside the ex-
pression of this law of paradox. The two
texts which have been chosen for our medi-
tation this morning are the proof of at least
one of these remarkable contrarieties in his na-
ture. In the one message Paul asserts that he
has learned the secret of universal and abso-
lute contentment. Nothing disturbs the calm
serenity of his soul, centered in the work
which the Master has given him to do. Yet in
the other text, and that at the smallest re-
move from this statement of communion and
quietude, he insists that not for one moment
is he satisfied.
The Renaissance Historical Context This module .docxssusera34210
The Renaissance
Historical Context
This module looks at the English Renaissance period, c.1500 to c. 1688 and focuses on several
short selections from William Shakespeare’s works. Therefore, it makes sense to understand
something of the world in which Shakespeare lived.
Sometimes, this period is called the Early Modern Period and the language of the time takes its
name from that title. Students who are just beginning to read Shakespeare often think of his
language as “Old English,” but it’s really the beginning of our own Modern English with true Old
English being unrecognizable to modern readers.
During this period in England, the University of Massachusetts website explains that there was
a “rebirth among English elite of classical learning, a rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman
authors, and a recovery of the ancient Greek spirit of scientific inquiry” (“Periods” para. 1). The
same website provides additional background information on the major
characteristics of the period at:
http://people.umass.edu/eng2/per/renaissance.html.
From November 17, 1558, to her death on
March 24,1603, Elizabeth I ruled England. She
presided over a golden age. She was an
accomplished poet herself, and it was during
her reign that Shakespeare’s work came to
prominence. Her navy defeated the Spanish
Armada in 1588. This was also the period when
the New World was being explored by the English. It was truly a
period of re-birth. On her death, she was succeeded by James IV of
Scotland, who became James I of England on March 21, 1603. He,
too, was a patron of the arts. Within a few days of the new king’s arrival in London, highly
regarded people in the theatre were granted a license to perform in London at the Globe,
Shakespeare among them expecting the greatness of Elizabeth’s reign to continue during
James’.
Read about Shakespeare’s London at the Public Broadcasting System’s website:
http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/locations/location154.html. You can also read about daily life
Queen Elizabeth I, artist
unknown, circa 1575
James I of England, by Daniel
Mijtens, 1621
http://people.umass.edu/eng2/per/renaissance.html
http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/locations/location154.html
in the city at Shakespeare Online: http://www.shakespeare-
online.com/biography/londonlife.html.
Shakespeare’s original Globe Theatre was built by his playing company in 1599 an destroyed by
fire on June 29, 1613. However, its replica exists today in magnificent form, the brainchild of
American actor and director Sam Wannamaker and opened for performances in 1997. It is a
vibrant part of the London theatre scene today. Visit the Globe Theatre:
http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/.
http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/londonlife.html
http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/londonlife.html
http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/
Works Cited
Mabillard, Amanda. “Life in Shakespeare’s London.” Shak ...
Introduction For Abortion Essay. Abortion Arguement - GCSE Religious Studies ...Melissa Chastain
Abortion Essay Writing Guide with Examples | HandMadeWriting. Abortion Essay - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics) - Marked .... Abortion essay - A-Level Modern Foreign Languages - Marked by Teachers.com. A Discursive Essay on Abortion - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy .... Abortion essays - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Abortion Arguement - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics .... Abortion rate at lowest level since 1973. Discussion of Abortion. - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics .... Argumentative essay on abortion. Questions surface as states pass abortion laws. Group launches site to help women self-induce abortions at home, citing .... What Is Abortion - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Abortion Should Be Legal Essay. Abortion Essay Word Document copy 2 - To what extent are you satisfied .... Why Abortion Should Be Legalized: Argumentative Essay: [Essay Example .... Online Essay Help | amazonia.fiocruz.br. Abortion Argumentative Essay | Essay on Abortion Argumentative for ....
William Barclay wrote, “There is an obvious difference between Paul's Letter to the Romans and any other of his letters. Anyone coming from, say, a reading of the
Letters to the Corinthians, will immediately feel that difference, both of atmosphere and of method. A very great part of it is due to one basic fact--when Paul wrote to
the Church at Rome he was writing to a Church with whose founding he had had nothing whatever to do and with which he had had no personal contact at all. That explains why in Romans there are so few of the details of practical problems which fill the other letters. That is why Romans, at first sight, seems so much more impersonal. As Dibelius put it, "It is of all Paul's letters the least conditioned by the
momentary situation." We may put that in another way. Romans, of all Paul's letters, comes nearest to being a theological treatise. In almost all his other letters he
is dealing with some immediate trouble, some pressing situation, some current error, some threatening danger, which was menacing the Church to which he was
writing. Romans is the nearest approach to a systematic exposition of Paul's own theological position, independent of any immediate set of circumstances.”
In ancient Greece, at the earliest stage, physics, mathematics, and astronomy were included as parts of “philosophy”, which means “the love of wisdom”.
Paul in Athens and Interreligious CommunicationRobert Munson
Looks at Acts 17 and the story of Paul speaking at the Areopagus, The focus is on contetualization of the Gospel message, and effective interreligious communication.
The Real Story of the Wise Men from the East. Who the were; From whence they came; Why they came: How they traveled; The source of their precious gifts; And, of course, "The Star of Bethlehem
The Semitic fervour, Greek versatility and Roman energy all contributed as great platform for Saint Paul's ministry. An Explanation.
My email address, please contact me for appreciation
afenjulius7@gmail.com
Discussion Board Week 1 What was the greatest contribution of LyndonPelletier761
Discussion Board Week 1
What was the greatest contribution of the Ancient Greek philosophers to the field of psychology? Why did you choose this contribution as the most influential?
How did the thinkers of the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment influence the development scientific thinking?
Articles are attached
Note From Professor
No work (discussion main posts and assignments) will be accepted without references and in-text citations.
If work is submitted without references and in-text citations, it will receive a zero till you resubmit properly. You will have one time in which to resubmit.
Psychology is a social science, based on the scientific method of research. We use APA style. Technically, if you submit an assignment without references and proper citation, it constitutes plagiarism. You must cite in-text and reference correctly to avoid this.
The Ancient Greeks, Part One:
The Presocratics
Dr. C. George Boeree
"Know thyself."
-- inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
In Chinese: 前蘇格拉底時代 (translated by Liu Yu)
Psyche, from the Greek psu-khê, possibly derived from a
word meaning "warm blooded:" Life, soul, ghost, departed spirit,
conscious self, personality, butterfly or moth. Some words with
similar meanings:
Thymos, meaning breath, life, soul, temper, courage, will;
Pneuma, meaning breath, mind, spirit, or angel; Noös,
meaning mind, reason, intellect, or the meaning of a word; Logos, meaning word, speech, idea,
or reason.
Psychology: Reasoning
about the soul. Probably coined by the German philosopher and
reformation theologian Philipp Melanchthon in the mid 16th
century. First used to mean "study of the mind" in Christian
Wolff's Psychologia
Empirica (1732) and Psychologia Rationalis (1734).
The Greeks
Western intellectual history always begins with the ancient
Greeks.
This is not to say that no one had any deep thoughts prior to the
ancient
Greeks, or that the philosophies of ancient India and China (and
elsewhere)
were in any way inferior. In fact, philosophies from all over the
world eventually came to influence western thought, but only much
later.
But it was the Greeks that educated the Romans and, after a long dark
age,
it was the records of these same Greeks, kept and studied by the Moslem
and Jewish scholars as well as Christian monks, that educated Europe
once again.
We might also ask, why the Greeks in the first place? Why not
the Phoenicians, or the Carthaginians, or the Persians, or the
Etruscans?
There are a variety of possible reasons.
One has to do with the ability to read and write, which in turn has
to do with the alphabet. It is when ideas get recorded that they
enter intellectual history. Buddhism, for example, although a very
sophisticated
philosophy, was an oral tradition for hundreds of years until committed
to writing, since the Brahmi alphabet was late in coming. It was
only then that Buddhism spread throughout Asia.
The alphabet was invented by the Semit ...
Numberless other paradoxes appear in the
portrait which the gospels give us of our Lord.
Nor is the apostle Paul wholly outside the ex-
pression of this law of paradox. The two
texts which have been chosen for our medi-
tation this morning are the proof of at least
one of these remarkable contrarieties in his na-
ture. In the one message Paul asserts that he
has learned the secret of universal and abso-
lute contentment. Nothing disturbs the calm
serenity of his soul, centered in the work
which the Master has given him to do. Yet in
the other text, and that at the smallest re-
move from this statement of communion and
quietude, he insists that not for one moment
is he satisfied.
The Renaissance Historical Context This module .docxssusera34210
The Renaissance
Historical Context
This module looks at the English Renaissance period, c.1500 to c. 1688 and focuses on several
short selections from William Shakespeare’s works. Therefore, it makes sense to understand
something of the world in which Shakespeare lived.
Sometimes, this period is called the Early Modern Period and the language of the time takes its
name from that title. Students who are just beginning to read Shakespeare often think of his
language as “Old English,” but it’s really the beginning of our own Modern English with true Old
English being unrecognizable to modern readers.
During this period in England, the University of Massachusetts website explains that there was
a “rebirth among English elite of classical learning, a rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman
authors, and a recovery of the ancient Greek spirit of scientific inquiry” (“Periods” para. 1). The
same website provides additional background information on the major
characteristics of the period at:
http://people.umass.edu/eng2/per/renaissance.html.
From November 17, 1558, to her death on
March 24,1603, Elizabeth I ruled England. She
presided over a golden age. She was an
accomplished poet herself, and it was during
her reign that Shakespeare’s work came to
prominence. Her navy defeated the Spanish
Armada in 1588. This was also the period when
the New World was being explored by the English. It was truly a
period of re-birth. On her death, she was succeeded by James IV of
Scotland, who became James I of England on March 21, 1603. He,
too, was a patron of the arts. Within a few days of the new king’s arrival in London, highly
regarded people in the theatre were granted a license to perform in London at the Globe,
Shakespeare among them expecting the greatness of Elizabeth’s reign to continue during
James’.
Read about Shakespeare’s London at the Public Broadcasting System’s website:
http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/locations/location154.html. You can also read about daily life
Queen Elizabeth I, artist
unknown, circa 1575
James I of England, by Daniel
Mijtens, 1621
http://people.umass.edu/eng2/per/renaissance.html
http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/locations/location154.html
in the city at Shakespeare Online: http://www.shakespeare-
online.com/biography/londonlife.html.
Shakespeare’s original Globe Theatre was built by his playing company in 1599 an destroyed by
fire on June 29, 1613. However, its replica exists today in magnificent form, the brainchild of
American actor and director Sam Wannamaker and opened for performances in 1997. It is a
vibrant part of the London theatre scene today. Visit the Globe Theatre:
http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/.
http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/londonlife.html
http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/londonlife.html
http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/
Works Cited
Mabillard, Amanda. “Life in Shakespeare’s London.” Shak ...
Introduction For Abortion Essay. Abortion Arguement - GCSE Religious Studies ...Melissa Chastain
Abortion Essay Writing Guide with Examples | HandMadeWriting. Abortion Essay - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics) - Marked .... Abortion essay - A-Level Modern Foreign Languages - Marked by Teachers.com. A Discursive Essay on Abortion - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy .... Abortion essays - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Abortion Arguement - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics .... Abortion rate at lowest level since 1973. Discussion of Abortion. - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics .... Argumentative essay on abortion. Questions surface as states pass abortion laws. Group launches site to help women self-induce abortions at home, citing .... What Is Abortion - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Abortion Should Be Legal Essay. Abortion Essay Word Document copy 2 - To what extent are you satisfied .... Why Abortion Should Be Legalized: Argumentative Essay: [Essay Example .... Online Essay Help | amazonia.fiocruz.br. Abortion Argumentative Essay | Essay on Abortion Argumentative for ....
William Barclay wrote, “There is an obvious difference between Paul's Letter to the Romans and any other of his letters. Anyone coming from, say, a reading of the
Letters to the Corinthians, will immediately feel that difference, both of atmosphere and of method. A very great part of it is due to one basic fact--when Paul wrote to
the Church at Rome he was writing to a Church with whose founding he had had nothing whatever to do and with which he had had no personal contact at all. That explains why in Romans there are so few of the details of practical problems which fill the other letters. That is why Romans, at first sight, seems so much more impersonal. As Dibelius put it, "It is of all Paul's letters the least conditioned by the
momentary situation." We may put that in another way. Romans, of all Paul's letters, comes nearest to being a theological treatise. In almost all his other letters he
is dealing with some immediate trouble, some pressing situation, some current error, some threatening danger, which was menacing the Church to which he was
writing. Romans is the nearest approach to a systematic exposition of Paul's own theological position, independent of any immediate set of circumstances.”
In ancient Greece, at the earliest stage, physics, mathematics, and astronomy were included as parts of “philosophy”, which means “the love of wisdom”.
Paul in Athens and Interreligious CommunicationRobert Munson
Looks at Acts 17 and the story of Paul speaking at the Areopagus, The focus is on contetualization of the Gospel message, and effective interreligious communication.
The Real Story of the Wise Men from the East. Who the were; From whence they came; Why they came: How they traveled; The source of their precious gifts; And, of course, "The Star of Bethlehem
2 Peter 3: Because some scriptures are hard to understand and some will force them to say things God never intended, Peter warns us to take care.
https://youtu.be/nV4kGHFsEHw
Why is this So? ~ Do Seek to KNOW (English & Chinese).pptxOH TEIK BIN
A PowerPoint Presentation based on the Dhamma teaching of Kamma-Vipaka (Intentional Actions-Ripening Effects).
A Presentation for developing morality, concentration and wisdom and to spur us to practice the Dhamma diligently.
The texts are in English and Chinese.
Discover various methods for clearing negative entities from your space and spirit, including energy clearing techniques, spiritual rituals, and professional assistance. Gain practical knowledge on how to implement these techniques to restore peace and harmony. For more information visit here: https://www.reikihealingdistance.com/negative-entity-removal/
A375 Example Taste the taste of the Lord, the taste of the Lord The taste of...franktsao4
It seems that current missionary work requires spending a lot of money, preparing a lot of materials, and traveling to far away places, so that it feels like missionary work. But what was the result they brought back? It's just a lot of photos of activities, fun eating, drinking and some playing games. And then we have to do the same thing next year, never ending. The church once mentioned that a certain missionary would go to the field where she used to work before the end of his life. It seemed that if she had not gone, no one would be willing to go. The reason why these missionary work is so difficult is that no one obeys God’s words, and the Bible is not the main content during missionary work, because in the eyes of those who do not obey God’s words, the Bible is just words and cannot be connected with life, so Reading out God's words is boring because it doesn't have any life experience, so it cannot be connected with human life. I will give a few examples in the hope that this situation can be changed. A375
In Jude 17-23 Jude shifts from piling up examples of false teachers from the Old Testament to a series of practical exhortations that flow from apostolic instruction. He preserves for us what may well have been part of the apostolic catechism for the first generation of Christ-followers. In these instructions Jude exhorts the believer to deal with 3 different groups of people: scoffers who are "devoid of the Spirit", believers who have come under the influence of scoffers and believers who are so entrenched in false teaching that they need rescue and pose some real spiritual risk for the rescuer. In all of this Jude emphasizes Jesus' call to rescue straying sheep, leaving the 99 safely behind and pursuing the 1.
Exploring the Mindfulness Understanding Its Benefits.pptxMartaLoveguard
Slide 1: Title: Exploring the Mindfulness: Understanding Its Benefits
Slide 2: Introduction to Mindfulness
Mindfulness, defined as the conscious, non-judgmental observation of the present moment, has deep roots in Buddhist meditation practice but has gained significant popularity in the Western world in recent years. In today's society, filled with distractions and constant stimuli, mindfulness offers a valuable tool for regaining inner peace and reconnecting with our true selves. By cultivating mindfulness, we can develop a heightened awareness of our thoughts, feelings, and surroundings, leading to a greater sense of clarity and presence in our daily lives.
Slide 3: Benefits of Mindfulness for Mental Well-being
Practicing mindfulness can help reduce stress and anxiety levels, improving overall quality of life.
Mindfulness increases awareness of our emotions and teaches us to manage them better, leading to improved mood.
Regular mindfulness practice can improve our ability to concentrate and focus our attention on the present moment.
Slide 4: Benefits of Mindfulness for Physical Health
Research has shown that practicing mindfulness can contribute to lowering blood pressure, which is beneficial for heart health.
Regular meditation and mindfulness practice can strengthen the immune system, aiding the body in fighting infections.
Mindfulness may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity by reducing stress and improving overall lifestyle habits.
Slide 5: Impact of Mindfulness on Relationships
Mindfulness can help us better understand others and improve communication, leading to healthier relationships.
By focusing on the present moment and being fully attentive, mindfulness helps build stronger and more authentic connections with others.
Mindfulness teaches us how to be present for others in difficult times, leading to increased compassion and understanding.
Slide 6: Mindfulness Techniques and Practices
Focusing on the breath and mindful breathing can be a simple way to enter a state of mindfulness.
Body scan meditation involves focusing on different parts of the body, paying attention to any sensations and feelings.
Practicing mindful walking and eating involves consciously focusing on each step or bite, with full attention to sensory experiences.
Slide 7: Incorporating Mindfulness into Daily Life
You can practice mindfulness in everyday activities such as washing dishes or taking a walk in the park.
Adding mindfulness practice to daily routines can help increase awareness and presence.
Mindfulness helps us become more aware of our needs and better manage our time, leading to balance and harmony in life.
Slide 8: Summary: Embracing Mindfulness for Full Living
Mindfulness can bring numerous benefits for physical and mental health.
Regular mindfulness practice can help achieve a fuller and more satisfying life.
Mindfulness has the power to change our perspective and way of perceiving the world, leading to deeper se
The Hope of Salvation - Jude 1:24-25 - MessageCole Hartman
Jude gives us hope at the end of a dark letter. In a dark world like today, we need the light of Christ to shine brighter and brighter. Jude shows us where to fix our focus so we can be filled with God's goodness and glory. Join us to explore this incredible passage.
2. The Book of Psalms: Recognition of the kingship and sovereignty of God
Paul.lessons.2.3.Paul the Roman and Greek Text
1. 1 | P a g e
The Good Life and Hard Times of the Apostle Paul1
Lessons 2 and 3
Based Upon
The Early Life of Paul the Apostle
By Quency E. Wallace, Th. D. Regent University School of Divinity2
Paul the Roman Citizen3
Paul was born a Roman citizen . . . Roman citizens commonly
had two names, one which indicated their background or
heritage apart from Rome, and the other, which would be
their Roman heritage. Paul's Roman name Saul Paulus was
such a name. "He bore two names, the Hebrew Saul meaning
"desired" or "asked for," and the Roman Paulus, meaning
"small." [One commentator suggests that Paul was named for
King Saul, the most famous Benjaminite, but because he was, indeed small of stature and
perhaps sickly, he was called “Paul” – “Small.”]
Roman citizenship in Tarsus, even for the wealthy, was not automatic. Rome had made Tarsus a
self-governing city, but did not grant Roman citizenship for every citizen of Tarsus. If a citizen of
Tarsus was from a family of social standing of four generations or more, they were generally
granted citizenship status. Paul's father more than likely inherited citizenship from his father,
and Paul inherited citizenship from his father. Historian G. Earnest Wright [states:]
Paul was born into a devout Jewish family in the city of Tarsus, capital of the small
Roman district of Cilicia in Asia Minor. His father, a member of the ancient tribe of
Benjamin, named him Saul, after Israel's first king. A man of standing in the community,
he held the privileged status of Roman citizen, an honor rarely conferred upon Jews. His
son inherited this legal advantage.
Roman citizenship had many advantages. If a Roman citizen were arrested by local authorities,
they were automatically entitled to a fair trial. If they felt the outcome was not fair, they could
appeal directly to the emperor for judgment. Local Tarsian citizens who did not have Roman
citizenship did not have the same privileges.
1 This study is prepared by John R. Wiblefrom a variety of materials.I refer to myself as the “Editor” and
“Redactor” rather than the author becausevery littlematerial is original work.
2 Edited and Redacted by John R. Wible.No claimto originality of content is made by the Edi tor/Redactor unless
otherwise specified.
3 Prof. Wallacecontinues.
2. 2 | P a g e
Roman citizens could also serve in government posts, vote in Roman affairs, join the Roman
legion, and become members of the senate. Anyone who was a citizen of Rome had a
tremendous advantage as a resident of Tarsus.
To prove his citizenship, Paul would have carried a wooden diptych, which
contained wax images of the certificate of citizenship and the names of the
seven witnesses. It was a capital offense to fraudulently claimRoman
citizenship.
[Paul and Roman Justice. 4
Paul knew well the Roman justice system. At least twice, if not three times Paul was a Roman
prisoner and tried by Roman Courts. Paul his Roman citizenship to great advantage ultimately
allowing him to give a witness by way of personal defense to (maybe) Emperor Nero himself.5
Even before this occurrence, Paul used the Romans to allow him to make his famous speech to
the crowd in Jerusalem. 6 As you will remember, the Roman officer, Lysias, shocked by Paul’s
command of several language allowed his great address to all of Jerusalem. However, as a
result of this event, Paul was taken to a Roman prison at Caesarea Maritima where he was held
for about two years. A great deal happened during this Roman imprisonment including the
testimony before Roman Procurator of Judea Antonius Felix 7 who was succeeded by Governor
Porcius Festus who also heard Paul. 8 It is suggested in The Apostle: A Life of Paul by {The Rev.
Dr.} John Pollock that during this two-year imprisonment, Paul may have composed at least one
of his prison epistles.]
Paul and His Grecian Cultural Environment. 9
Paul had been raised in a Hellenistic (Greek thought, influence and customs)
society in Tarsus. [Acts 21 notes] that Paul spoke fluent Greek [formal, as
opposed to Koine] to the Roman military captain, Lysias, to stop a crowd
from lynching him. . . . Barclay [says:] "The captain was amazed to hear the
accents of cultured Greek coming from this man (Paul) whom the crowd
were out to lynch." Paul was also fluent in Koine Greek, a Greek tongue
commonly spoken in his native city of Tarsus, as well as being fluent in
ClassicalGreek, which indicated that he had been exposed to Greek learning at the university
4 Editor’s insertion.
5 To no avail,unfortunately.However, many of Nero’s personal soldiers appear to have come to Christwhilebeing
chained to Paul – which had to be the worst duty in the Empire – at leastat first.
6 See Acts 22.
7 Acts 24.
8 Acts 25.
9 Prof. Wallacecontinues.
3. 3 | P a g e
level. Montague [states] concerning Paul's use of "Classical" Greek and his possible exposure to
the university or philosophical schools in his training:
His mastery of the Greek literary technique of the diatribe and his occasional citation of
Greek authors (Aratus in Acts 17:18; Meander in 1 Cor. 15:23; Epimenides in Tit 1:1) are
considered by some as evidence that he frequented the Hellenistic schools of rhetoric.
[In considering the contributions of Greek culture into Paul’s thought process, one must take a
snapshot of the greats of Greek thought, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in addition to Zeno and
Stoicism, mentioned supra.] 10
When one thinks of the great Greek philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle come to mind.
They were not the only ones of course. However, with Zeno, they have perhaps the greatest
impact, if not Greek civilization in general, certainly on Paul as representatives of his Greek
influences.
Socrates.
The problem with Socrates (470/469 – 399 BC) is that he never really wrote
anything down. We only know of this thought through the “filter of his great
pupil, Plato.” Plato wrote Dialogues concerning his many conversations
with Socrates. One of Socrates’ principle contributions to Western thought
(and Paul’s) was what has come to be known as the “Socratic method.” This
is a method of teaching that relies on the teacher asking pointed questions
of the pupil with the goal of weeding out implausible answers and thus
leading to the most plausible answer. The modern “Scientific Method” is
based on Socratic thought.
Divine Emissary. Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers. A later
philosopher, Xenophon said, “He was a teleologist who held that god arranges everything for
the best.”11 Please note the lower case “g” in “god.” “Teleology” is a school of thought that
holds that things exist because they have function.
Socrates was famously tried for the crimes “heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth
(young men) of Athens. In his defense, he stated to the jury that “they are [more] concerned
with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about
the ‘welfare of their souls’. He stated that “the gods” had “singled him out as a divine emissary”
to teach virtue as a diving gift rather than something that could be taught and learned.”12 S-
Socrates was also famously “allowed” to drink hemlock at the behest of the unimpressed jury.
10 The followingextended passages arethe Editor’s additions.
11 Long, AA. in Ahbel-Rappe, S. and Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59.
12 Id.
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Perhaps, for our purposes his greatest influence on the young Paul is his strong belief in the
ethical principal of doing that which was right as opposed to that which was expedient. He may
thus be thought to be one of the earliest ethicists. Though he speaks at times of “god,” it is
unclear whether he was a monotheist. My suggestion is that he was not. In fact, Plato refers to
Socrates as a “divine fatalist.”13
Platonism.
Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was Socrates’
greatest pupil. Unlike his mentor, Socrates, he was a
rather prolific writer. Perhaps the most famous quote
concerning Plato as “Alfred North Whitehead once noted:
"the safest general characterization of the European
philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of
footnotes to Plato.”14
Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of
Western religion and spirituality.15 Plato’s influence on Christianity is, like so many things, a
mixture of good and bad. Plato, as did Socrates, had a strong sense of the divine. He believed
very much in two “realities,” that which is seen and that which is unseen. He states of the two,
the real reality is that of the divine. In other words, what is going on in the spiritual real is the
“truly real” world. So far, so good.
However, he makes a clear distinction between the two “realities.” This lead to a philosophy
that has persisted for millennia.” He created the “world of shadows which holds that things that
occur in the physical world are “shadows” of the things that occur in the spiritual world. The
problem with this philosophy is that its natural progression leads to the heresies of asceticism
and its converse, hedonism. The ascetic believes that since the physical world is not important,
he should ignore it and try his best to get away from it. We see modern ascetismin monasteries
both religious and non-religious.
On the other hand, the hedonist draws the opposite conclusion from the same assumption.
Since the physical world doesn’t matter, one should “eat, drink, and be merry” because in the
spiritual world, it will all be sorted out later.
Unfortunately, both heresies lead to an emphasis on the physical, one a negative one and the
other a positive one. When one overly emphasizes the physical, he forgets the spiritual. What I
have just described is post-modern man who really doesn’t see much of a spiritual reality at all.
13 Plato,Dialogues.
14 Whitehead, Alfred North (1978).Process and Reality. New York: The Free Press.
15 Faucault,Michel, The Hermeneutics of the Subject: LECTURES AT THE COLLEGE DE FRANCE, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2.
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Paul confronted Platonism in many of the Grecian-influenced church that he founded or taught.
He found it difficult to “root out” Plato’s ideas because much of them was correct. His job was
to “separate the wheat from the chaff.”
Platonic thought has underlain much church doctrine for centuries. One of the Church’s
greatest thinkers, St. Augustine, was a Platonist.
Aristotle.
Plato’s pupil, Aristotle (384 – 322 BC,) was most notably the tutor
of Alexander the Great. This gave him the resources to crate great
libraries and aid in the production of hundreds of books. Since he
was a pupil of Plato, he was raised, philosophically, on Platonic
dualism. However, later in life, his studies changed from Platonism
to empiricism. He believed that all peoples' concepts and all of
their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's
views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying
many of his works.16
Aristotle is viewed as the father of logical reasoning. Emanuel Kant
stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for
the core of deductive inference. 17 As teacher of Alexander the Great, Aristotle influenced the
thought of all the conquered provinces with his emphasis on gaining knowledge from
observation of the natural world.
While this view gives a wonderful basis for the scientific method, it de-emphasizes, if not totally
denies, the element of the spiritual in the cosmos. This leads us to rationalism that holds nature
as god rather than God as God. We see this rationalistic idea in the basic documents of our
American heritage.
An unfortunate extension of Aristotle’s naturalistic views based in truth from that which can be
observed is his view that people of color were naturally destined to be slaves.
We will see later that Paul indirectly, some say directly, attacks the truth of this view in
Philemon vv. 15- 18, Galatians 3:27 and 28, Galatians 4:6 and 7 and a number of clearly indirect
allusions. 18 19
16 Jonathan Barnes,"Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995),p. 12.
17 Kant, Emanuel, Critique of Pure Reason.
18 “For all of you who were baptized into Christhaveclothed yourselves with Christ. There is neither Jew nor
Greek, there is neither slavenor free man, there is neither malenor female. . .”
19 “Because you are sons,God has sent forth the Spiritof His Son into our hearts, crying,"Abba! Father!" Therefore
you are no longer a slave,but a son;and if a son, then an heir through God.
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In the first sentence of the Declaration of Independence which is frequently omitted from
quotation by political orators, we find this peculiar statement:
When in the Course of human events, it becomes
necessary for one people to dissolve the political
bands which have connected them with another,
and to assume among the powers of the earth, the
separate and equal station to which the Laws of
Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent
respect to the opinions of mankind requires that
they should declare the causes which impel them to
the separation.20 [Emphasis added.]
Epicureanism.
The Greek philosopher Epicurus, founded the school of thought known as Epicureanism around
307 BC. It is a systemof thought based in materialism. The materialism of Epicurus caused him
belittle the gods and not believe in superstition or divine intervention.
The early Christian Lactantius, critically quotes Epicurus as asking the following riddle that has
come down through the ages and won’t go away concerning the existence of, or the power of
“the gods” and by extension – God Himself.
God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot,
or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor
can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and
cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to
god. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful
– which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither
wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so
not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only
thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come
from? Or why does he not eliminate them?21
Many philosophers ventured their opinion on what constituted the greatest “good.” In the 300
BC era, defining “good” was a great philosophic pastime. Epicurus believed that "pleasure" was
the greatest good. This, however should be distinguished from the logical extreme of
Epicureanism, Hedonism which is basically license to act in any way one pleases. To Epicurus,
the way to attain “pleasure” was to live modestly and to gain knowledge of the workings of the
world thus limiting the need for one's desires.
20 Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of Independence, Clause1.
21 Lactantius,De Ira Deorum, 13.19. Epicurus,Frag.374.
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He believed that following this path led one to attain a state of “tranquility” and freedom from
fear. It also counteracted bodily pain. The combination of these two states was thought
supposed to constitute “happiness” in its highest form. 22
Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main
opponent of Stoicism. While some of the later Roman rulers were Stoic in their persona, i.e.,
Marcus Aurelius, most resorted to the abuse of Epicureanism – Hedonism. Julius Caesar is said
to have had “Epicurean leanings.”
Skepticism.
A brief mention should be made of Skepticism because it is among the Grecian philosophies
that competed for the young Paul’s attention and the mature Paul’s attacks. Pyrrho of Elis (365–
275 BC) is usually credited with founding the school of skepticism. He traveled to India and
studied with the "gymnosophists" (naked lovers of wisdom), which could have been any
number of Indian sects. From there, he brought back the idea that nothing can be known for
certain.
They believed that the senses are easily fooled, and reason follows too easily our desires.23
Ancient and modern-day skeptics alike tend not to believe in anything because they believe
that nothing can be known for sure – and they surely know this.24
Alexander the Great.
Leaving philosophy, politics and conquest ensue.
Probably no one single person has had as much
effect on the western world up until his time as
Alexander the Great. (356 – 323 BC.) A bit of a
philosopher,25 Alexander III’s greatest legacy is his
conquering of the known world and inculcation of
all the Greek ideas that had preceded him into the
“warp and woof” of the societies of the conquered
peoples. It is said that:
Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered, such as
Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably
Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread
of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which
22 For a good treatment of this school of thought see: Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing
Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press,2003.
23 Boeree, Dr. C. George. "The Ancient Greeks, Part Three." ShippensburgUniversity Press.
24 I can’t decide whether this is circularlogicor justplain oxymoronic.
25 Despite Brad Pitt’s pathetic portrayal of himin the movie,
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were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century and
the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s . . .
He is often ranked among the world's most influential people of all time, along with his
teacher Aristotle.26
His empire is mapped on the following page. Note that the Empire stretched from Greece to
India and from Libya and Egypt to ancient “Sogdiana,” modern day Iran, Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan.
After the death of Alexander, his Kingdom was divided among his generals. Note below the
division. Note that the area of Paul’s interest was under the control of the several of the
successors to him. Ptolemy ruled Palestine and others split Asia Minor. Note, to that Paul’s
Cilicia was not under direct Greek control by Paul’s time.]
26 Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of
Toronto Press. p. 76.
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Zeno and Stoicism.
Church History scholar John Drane [reasons:] 27
Of the many philosophical schools of the time, Stoicism, [founded by Zeno (334 – c. 262
BC) of Citium in Cyprus who taught in Athens circa 300 BC,] was probably the most
congenial to Paul. One or two of the great Stoics came from Tarsus, and Paul may have
remembered something about their teachings from his youth.
Some scholars have suggested that Paul's acquaintance with Stoic philosophy was closer
than this. In 1910 Rudolf Bultmann pointed out that Paul's reasoning sometimes
resembles the Stoics' arguments. Both use rhetorical questions, short disconnected
statements, an imaginary opponent to raise questions, and frequent illustrations drawn
from athletics, building, and life in general.
It is even possible to find phrases in Paul's teaching which could be taken to support
Stoic doctrine; for example the statement that "all things were created through Him and
for Him. He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together " (Colossians 1:16-
17)... Paul's letters also often reflect Stoic terminology - as when he describes morality
in terms of what is "fitting" or "not fitting" (Colossians 3:18; Ephesians 5:3-4). No doubt
Paul would know [about] and sympathize with many Stoic ideals.
27 Wallacecontinues.
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This highly reasoned argument by Drane is based upon the many parallels of Stoic doctrine and
the Bible. Both are monotheistic, both believe in living according to the will of God, (or nature
in the case of Stoicism). F. W. Walbank [said:] . . . concerning Stoicism:
This school, set up in the Painted Hall [In Athens](Stoa
Poikile) by Zeno of Citium, Cyprus (335-263 BC,) taught
a complete philosophical systemwhich with certain
modifications was to flourish throughout the
Hellenistic period and to become the most popular
philosophy during the first two centuries of the
Roman Empire. It had several main tenets. The only
good is in virtue, which means living in accordance
with the will of god or nature - the two being more or
less identified. One's knowledge of what that is
depends on an understanding of reality, which (contrary to the views of the skeptics) can be
acquired through the senses by a “perception conveying direct apprehension” (kataleptike
phantasia), as the Stoic jargon described accepting the evidence of the senses. Such virtue is
the only good: all else (if not positively evil) is indifferent.
Stoic philosophy, it would appear, was embraced as the "popular philosophy" of the Roman
Empire in Paul's day. It is easy to see how Paul, being taught Stoic fundamentals, used Stoicism
in metaphorical language to get his audiences to understand his point. This approach would
have been the one that would have made the most sense in the impartation of God's word. It is
very easy to picture Paul intertwining Stoic philosophical techniques and ideas with the truths
contained in the gospel, to assist Gentile audiences in their understanding of the word of God.
Paul utilized his Grecian cultural and educational background as leverage in his efforts to
convert and train Gentile hearers in the way of the Lord.
and establish the church solidly in all parts of the Roman Empire.