GPRS uses several interfaces to connect its core network elements and allow communication with external networks. The key interfaces include Um between the mobile station and GPRS network, Gb between the SGSN and BSS, Gn between SGSNs in the same network, Gp between SGSNs in different networks, and Gi between the GGSN and external data networks like the Internet. GPRS interfaces allow packet-switched connectivity and use protocols like GTP for tunneling within the core network.
Bangladesh All Mobile operators query short code.PRAN-RFL Group
This document lists the short codes used by different mobile operators in Bangladesh to check account balances, SIM numbers, data packages, minutes, SMS, and MMS usage. It also provides short codes for services like call me back, mobile internet settings requests, call alerts, and customer service numbers.
The document summarizes the signaling flow between an eNodeB and MME during LTE attach and default EPS bearer setup procedures. It includes: (1) UE attach, authentication and security setup; (2) Establishment of two default EPS bearers for two PDNs; (3) Release of UE context due to inactivity and reestablishment using a service request.
The document provides an overview of the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). It discusses BGP concepts such as autonomous systems, path attributes, and the BGP protocol operation. Key points include that BGP establishes peering sessions to exchange routing information, uses route attributes like AS path, next hop, and communities to determine the best path, and supports techniques like route reflection and confederation to improve scalability in large networks.
This Workshop is a fast track Course to cover the basic architecture and functionalities of the LTE-EPC from the Packet Core Perspective.
The course is a little bit advanced and the target Audience is requested to have a basic PS Foundations and Mobility Knowledge as a prerequisite.
The course will cover the LTE-EPC Architecture, Call flows, Mobility and session management in addition to introductory slides for the EPS Security and LTE-DNS.
This document lists key performance indicators (KPIs) for measuring different aspects of LTE network performance, including accessibility, retainability, mobility, usage, and integrity. It provides the names and descriptions of over 100 individual KPIs organized under these categories, such as RRC setup success rate, call drop rate, handover success rate, resource block usage, and latency.
PAI Unit 2 Protection in 80386 segmentationKanchanPatil34
2015 course SPPU SEIT syllabus of subject Processor Architecture and Interfacing (PAI) This covers protection mechanism in 80386 microprocessor through conforming code segment and call gate
GPRS uses several interfaces to connect its core network elements and allow communication with external networks. The key interfaces include Um between the mobile station and GPRS network, Gb between the SGSN and BSS, Gn between SGSNs in the same network, Gp between SGSNs in different networks, and Gi between the GGSN and external data networks like the Internet. GPRS interfaces allow packet-switched connectivity and use protocols like GTP for tunneling within the core network.
Bangladesh All Mobile operators query short code.PRAN-RFL Group
This document lists the short codes used by different mobile operators in Bangladesh to check account balances, SIM numbers, data packages, minutes, SMS, and MMS usage. It also provides short codes for services like call me back, mobile internet settings requests, call alerts, and customer service numbers.
The document summarizes the signaling flow between an eNodeB and MME during LTE attach and default EPS bearer setup procedures. It includes: (1) UE attach, authentication and security setup; (2) Establishment of two default EPS bearers for two PDNs; (3) Release of UE context due to inactivity and reestablishment using a service request.
The document provides an overview of the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). It discusses BGP concepts such as autonomous systems, path attributes, and the BGP protocol operation. Key points include that BGP establishes peering sessions to exchange routing information, uses route attributes like AS path, next hop, and communities to determine the best path, and supports techniques like route reflection and confederation to improve scalability in large networks.
This Workshop is a fast track Course to cover the basic architecture and functionalities of the LTE-EPC from the Packet Core Perspective.
The course is a little bit advanced and the target Audience is requested to have a basic PS Foundations and Mobility Knowledge as a prerequisite.
The course will cover the LTE-EPC Architecture, Call flows, Mobility and session management in addition to introductory slides for the EPS Security and LTE-DNS.
This document lists key performance indicators (KPIs) for measuring different aspects of LTE network performance, including accessibility, retainability, mobility, usage, and integrity. It provides the names and descriptions of over 100 individual KPIs organized under these categories, such as RRC setup success rate, call drop rate, handover success rate, resource block usage, and latency.
PAI Unit 2 Protection in 80386 segmentationKanchanPatil34
2015 course SPPU SEIT syllabus of subject Processor Architecture and Interfacing (PAI) This covers protection mechanism in 80386 microprocessor through conforming code segment and call gate
Conversion from infix to prefix using stackHaqnawaz Ch
This document is a data structures assignment that contains two tasks:
1) Converting an infix expression to postfix notation using a stack. The example infix expression is converted to postfix as -+-AB*C+DE+FG.
2) Evaluating the postfix expression from the first task by assigning values to variables and using a stack to calculate the result, which is 33.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications protocols used in a bus for connection, communication, and power supply between computers and electronic devices
The document provides an overview of recent trends in networking, including Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN), Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, and concludes with a thank you and bibliography. It discusses LAN as a high-speed network within a building or campus, and WAN as a network covering a broader geographic area. It also provides technical details and comparisons of Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Zigbee wireless technologies.
The document provides an overview of advanced wireless networks and UMTS. It discusses the evolution from 2G to 3G networks, including the limitations of 2G and requirements for 3G. It describes the UMTS architecture, including the UTRAN, core network, and protocols on the Iu interface. It also covers basic UMTS principles such as CDMA techniques, radio resources including frequency, time, and power/code, and radio resource management.
This user manual provides instructions for installing and using Nemo Outdoor, a software tool for conducting radio measurements outdoors during drive testing. It includes sections on installation, configuration, making various types of measurements including voice calls, data transfers, and scanning. It also covers features for analyzing measurement results like graphs, grids, maps and interference detection.
This document outlines the 3GPP specifications process for developing new mobile network systems and features. It follows a three stage process:
Stage 1 defines service requirements. Stage 2 defines the network architecture, elements, and high-level flows. Stage 3 defines protocols, state machines, and messages.
This process was applied to developing LTE, where Stage 1 documents defined requirements like throughput rates and latency. Stage 2 documents described the overall LTE system architecture. Numerous Stage 3 specifications then defined the protocols that enable LTE.
The document provides an introduction to 2G/3G and 4G core mobile networks. It discusses key network elements like BTS, BSC, RNC, SGSN, GGSN, eNodeB, MME, S-GW and P-GW. It provides an overview of the differences between circuit switching and packet switching. It also summarizes simplified call flows for 2G/3G packet data and 4G, highlighting the core network elements involved and interfaces between them.
The document discusses the evolution of 3G networks to LTE networks. It describes key technologies such as OFDMA, SC-FDMA, and MIMO that improve spectral efficiency and throughput. The LTE network architecture is presented, including elements such as the E-UTRAN, MME, serving gateway, PDN gateway, and HSS. The interfaces between these elements are also outlined.
The document describes the Attach Request message sent by the MS to the network to perform a GPRS or combined GPRS attach. It contains 15 information elements that may be included in the message, such as Mobile Identity, Old Routing Area Identification, MS Radio Access Capability. The document also describes the Attach Accept, Attach Complete, and Attach Reject messages exchanged in response.
The document discusses GPRS operations and procedures. It provides an overview of GPRS architecture, protocols used in GPRS, mobility management procedures like GPRS attach and routing area update, and location management in GPRS. Diagrams are included to illustrate logical architecture, data transfer between network elements, and mobility states of a GPRS mobile station.
This document discusses the SIPSIMPLE SDK framework for developing rich SIP applications. It provides an overview of SIPSIMPLE's features such as support for HD audio, MSRP chat, file transfer, desktop sharing and presence. It also gives examples of how to implement VoIP calling, instant messaging, file transfer and desktop sharing. Finally, it lists some sample applications and resources that demonstrate how to use SIPSIMPLE to develop SIP clients and servers.
This document provides an overview of LTE-Advanced radio layer 2 and radio resource control aspects. It discusses LTE-Advanced features such as carrier aggregation, coordinated multi-point transmission and reception, emergency calls, positioning, public warning systems, and home eNB. It describes the E-UTRAN architecture and user and control plane protocol stacks. Key aspects covered include system information, connection control, radio resource control states, mobility, radio link failure handling, random access, and scheduling. Performance metrics on uplink and downlink latency and handover interruptions are also mentioned.
Describes key network elements and interfaces of LTE architecture. The steps of LTE/EPC Attach procedure are also illustrated.
Video at: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgQvzsPaZX_bimBc5Wu4m6-cVD4bZDav9
This presentations contains introductory to Intermediate topics on Ericsson Juniper M120 based GGSNs with great details on HW, SW and platform specific CLI. This can be relevant for Introductory to Advance level of knowledge in GGSN and engineers can further learn from the basic topics shared in this presentation.
Este documento presenta el Reglamento Técnico de Diseño para Sistemas de Alcantarillado Sanitario. Establece los objetivos, el campo de aplicación, y los procedimientos generales que deben seguirse para el diseño de sistemas de recolección y evacuación de aguas residuales. Incluye secciones sobre parámetros de diseño, criterios técnicos, actividades previas al cálculo hidráulico, y anexos sobre redes condominiales y la intervención social. El objetivo principal es uniformar los parámetros y criterios
This document lists experiences that various people have either already done or haven't done yet. It includes things like ironing clothes, dancing to ringtones, surfing, painting nails, sleeping all day, playing with one's belly, falling in heels, living in Spain, crying while watching Titanic, burning hair, breaking glasses, traveling by plane, traveling to Hawaii, sleeping in a wardrobe, riding a horse, driving a motorbike, and bungee jumping. People's names are listed with each experience.
El resumen presenta una presentación de libro con Ramón Castro y Daniel Serrano Collantes el miércoles 16 de noviembre a las 19h en el Centro de Congresos Cortes de la Real Isla de León en San Fernando, Cádiz para discutir 16 ideas para vivir de manera plena según el libro de Daniel Serrano Collantes publicado por Desclée De Brouwer.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Portuguese team from EB São Domingos, Covilhã, Portugaluser1234
This document contains short introductions from 14 students describing their names, ages, interests, and backgrounds. The students provide details about where they live, their physical appearances, hobbies like playing sports and video games or listening to music, and personality traits. They also share what foods and activities they like or dislike.
Skydive Langar Christmas Party and Awards 2016Laura Hampton
This document appears to be a newsletter from Skydive Langar summarizing their 2016 season and presenting awards. It discusses the various competitions, coaches, and achievements over the year, including world championships, national titles, and individual jump milestones. Special awards are given out for the best malfunction, pimped caravan, most princess-like moment, most jumps, quote of the year, outstanding achievement, student of the year, skydiver of the year, and a special mention. It concludes by looking ahead to events planned for 2017 and announcing a £30,000 investment in facilities as Langar celebrates its 40th anniversary.
My target audience for the student magazine is 16-19 year olds attending college. The magazine will focus on stories about making new friends, joining student societies, coping with homework stress and exams, and getting the most out of the college experience. While most of the target audience will be from an AB social class and living with parents or guardians as single individuals, the magazine aims to celebrate diversity and include people of all backgrounds. It will provide advice and tips to help college students balance their studies with an active social life and hobbies like music, TV, video games, and meeting with friends.
Conversion from infix to prefix using stackHaqnawaz Ch
This document is a data structures assignment that contains two tasks:
1) Converting an infix expression to postfix notation using a stack. The example infix expression is converted to postfix as -+-AB*C+DE+FG.
2) Evaluating the postfix expression from the first task by assigning values to variables and using a stack to calculate the result, which is 33.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications protocols used in a bus for connection, communication, and power supply between computers and electronic devices
The document provides an overview of recent trends in networking, including Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN), Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, and concludes with a thank you and bibliography. It discusses LAN as a high-speed network within a building or campus, and WAN as a network covering a broader geographic area. It also provides technical details and comparisons of Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Zigbee wireless technologies.
The document provides an overview of advanced wireless networks and UMTS. It discusses the evolution from 2G to 3G networks, including the limitations of 2G and requirements for 3G. It describes the UMTS architecture, including the UTRAN, core network, and protocols on the Iu interface. It also covers basic UMTS principles such as CDMA techniques, radio resources including frequency, time, and power/code, and radio resource management.
This user manual provides instructions for installing and using Nemo Outdoor, a software tool for conducting radio measurements outdoors during drive testing. It includes sections on installation, configuration, making various types of measurements including voice calls, data transfers, and scanning. It also covers features for analyzing measurement results like graphs, grids, maps and interference detection.
This document outlines the 3GPP specifications process for developing new mobile network systems and features. It follows a three stage process:
Stage 1 defines service requirements. Stage 2 defines the network architecture, elements, and high-level flows. Stage 3 defines protocols, state machines, and messages.
This process was applied to developing LTE, where Stage 1 documents defined requirements like throughput rates and latency. Stage 2 documents described the overall LTE system architecture. Numerous Stage 3 specifications then defined the protocols that enable LTE.
The document provides an introduction to 2G/3G and 4G core mobile networks. It discusses key network elements like BTS, BSC, RNC, SGSN, GGSN, eNodeB, MME, S-GW and P-GW. It provides an overview of the differences between circuit switching and packet switching. It also summarizes simplified call flows for 2G/3G packet data and 4G, highlighting the core network elements involved and interfaces between them.
The document discusses the evolution of 3G networks to LTE networks. It describes key technologies such as OFDMA, SC-FDMA, and MIMO that improve spectral efficiency and throughput. The LTE network architecture is presented, including elements such as the E-UTRAN, MME, serving gateway, PDN gateway, and HSS. The interfaces between these elements are also outlined.
The document describes the Attach Request message sent by the MS to the network to perform a GPRS or combined GPRS attach. It contains 15 information elements that may be included in the message, such as Mobile Identity, Old Routing Area Identification, MS Radio Access Capability. The document also describes the Attach Accept, Attach Complete, and Attach Reject messages exchanged in response.
The document discusses GPRS operations and procedures. It provides an overview of GPRS architecture, protocols used in GPRS, mobility management procedures like GPRS attach and routing area update, and location management in GPRS. Diagrams are included to illustrate logical architecture, data transfer between network elements, and mobility states of a GPRS mobile station.
This document discusses the SIPSIMPLE SDK framework for developing rich SIP applications. It provides an overview of SIPSIMPLE's features such as support for HD audio, MSRP chat, file transfer, desktop sharing and presence. It also gives examples of how to implement VoIP calling, instant messaging, file transfer and desktop sharing. Finally, it lists some sample applications and resources that demonstrate how to use SIPSIMPLE to develop SIP clients and servers.
This document provides an overview of LTE-Advanced radio layer 2 and radio resource control aspects. It discusses LTE-Advanced features such as carrier aggregation, coordinated multi-point transmission and reception, emergency calls, positioning, public warning systems, and home eNB. It describes the E-UTRAN architecture and user and control plane protocol stacks. Key aspects covered include system information, connection control, radio resource control states, mobility, radio link failure handling, random access, and scheduling. Performance metrics on uplink and downlink latency and handover interruptions are also mentioned.
Describes key network elements and interfaces of LTE architecture. The steps of LTE/EPC Attach procedure are also illustrated.
Video at: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgQvzsPaZX_bimBc5Wu4m6-cVD4bZDav9
This presentations contains introductory to Intermediate topics on Ericsson Juniper M120 based GGSNs with great details on HW, SW and platform specific CLI. This can be relevant for Introductory to Advance level of knowledge in GGSN and engineers can further learn from the basic topics shared in this presentation.
Este documento presenta el Reglamento Técnico de Diseño para Sistemas de Alcantarillado Sanitario. Establece los objetivos, el campo de aplicación, y los procedimientos generales que deben seguirse para el diseño de sistemas de recolección y evacuación de aguas residuales. Incluye secciones sobre parámetros de diseño, criterios técnicos, actividades previas al cálculo hidráulico, y anexos sobre redes condominiales y la intervención social. El objetivo principal es uniformar los parámetros y criterios
This document lists experiences that various people have either already done or haven't done yet. It includes things like ironing clothes, dancing to ringtones, surfing, painting nails, sleeping all day, playing with one's belly, falling in heels, living in Spain, crying while watching Titanic, burning hair, breaking glasses, traveling by plane, traveling to Hawaii, sleeping in a wardrobe, riding a horse, driving a motorbike, and bungee jumping. People's names are listed with each experience.
El resumen presenta una presentación de libro con Ramón Castro y Daniel Serrano Collantes el miércoles 16 de noviembre a las 19h en el Centro de Congresos Cortes de la Real Isla de León en San Fernando, Cádiz para discutir 16 ideas para vivir de manera plena según el libro de Daniel Serrano Collantes publicado por Desclée De Brouwer.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Portuguese team from EB São Domingos, Covilhã, Portugaluser1234
This document contains short introductions from 14 students describing their names, ages, interests, and backgrounds. The students provide details about where they live, their physical appearances, hobbies like playing sports and video games or listening to music, and personality traits. They also share what foods and activities they like or dislike.
Skydive Langar Christmas Party and Awards 2016Laura Hampton
This document appears to be a newsletter from Skydive Langar summarizing their 2016 season and presenting awards. It discusses the various competitions, coaches, and achievements over the year, including world championships, national titles, and individual jump milestones. Special awards are given out for the best malfunction, pimped caravan, most princess-like moment, most jumps, quote of the year, outstanding achievement, student of the year, skydiver of the year, and a special mention. It concludes by looking ahead to events planned for 2017 and announcing a £30,000 investment in facilities as Langar celebrates its 40th anniversary.
My target audience for the student magazine is 16-19 year olds attending college. The magazine will focus on stories about making new friends, joining student societies, coping with homework stress and exams, and getting the most out of the college experience. While most of the target audience will be from an AB social class and living with parents or guardians as single individuals, the magazine aims to celebrate diversity and include people of all backgrounds. It will provide advice and tips to help college students balance their studies with an active social life and hobbies like music, TV, video games, and meeting with friends.
Indie music rarely makes it into mainstream charts because many artists are independent with small fan bases. However, some indie rock bands like Arctic Monkeys and the 1975, and indie pop artists like Florence and the Machine and Bastille have been able to climb high in the charts by building large fan bases over time. There are also indie-specific charts that help newer independent artists gain recognition.
La Unión Europea está considerando nuevas regulaciones para las empresas de tecnología. Estas regulaciones incluirían multas más altas por violaciones a la privacidad de datos y nuevas reglas para evitar el uso indebido de datos personales por parte de las grandes compañías. Los defensores dicen que estas medidas ayudarán a proteger mejor la privacidad de los ciudadanos de la UE, mientras que la industria tecnológica advierte sobre posibles consecuencias negativas.
Este documento presenta los componentes clave de un sistema de alcantarillado sanitario, incluyendo la conexión domiciliaria, el sistema de recolección, los emisores, y las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales. Explica el objetivo de recolectar y tratar las aguas residuales antes de disponerlas en los cuerpos receptores de acuerdo a los límites máximos permisibles. También describe los procesos de tratamiento preliminar, primario, secundario y otros aspectos importantes de una planta de tratamiento de agu
El documento resume la historia y características arquitectónicas de la catedral gótica de Cuenca. Explica que fue construida sobre una antigua mezquita después de que Alfonso VIII conquistara la ciudad en 1177 y trasladara allí el obispado. Describe las vidrieras, arbotantes y contrafuertes góticos, y muestra fotos del retablo de San Fabián.
El documento presenta una introducción al proceso de redacción. Explica que la redacción implica dar forma escrita a un tema dado, a diferencia de la composición que implica crear elementos originales. Luego describe el proceso estructural interno y externo de la redacción, incluyendo aspectos como el objetivo, destinatario, asunto, selección de material, ordenamiento y estilo. Finalmente, presenta las fases de la redacción.
El documento contiene planos arquitectónicos, eléctricos, sanitarios y estructurales de un edificio. Incluye planos de planta que muestran la distribución espacial, cortes, detalles de acabados, instalaciones eléctricas y sanitarias, y planos estructurales de cimentación y aligerados. Los planos proporcionan información técnica detallada para la construcción del edificio.
La topografía estudia las características físicas de la superficie terrestre, como la forma y elevación del terreno. La geomorfología analiza la forma y evolución de las características topográficas, y cómo fueron modeladas por procesos como la erosión. Las cuencas hidrográficas son áreas de drenaje de ríos y arroyos, y sus características fisiográficas como la pendiente y elevación afectan el flujo de agua.
1. PAROS proxy tool
Table of Contents
PAROS Features: ............................................................................................................ 2
I n stal l i n g PAROS............................................................................................................ 2
C o n f i g uri n g Paro s Pro x y ................................................................................................. 5
U si n g PAROS ................................................................................................................. 8
Sp i d er w i th Paro s Pro x y ................................................................................................ 1 2
Sc an n i n g w i th Paro s Pro x y ........................................................................................... 1 4
Sc an n i n g Po l i c y ............................................................................................................ 1 6
C o n c l usi o n .................................................................................................................... 1 8
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹
2. PAROS proxy tool
P A R O S is a p r o g r a m fo r p e o p le w h o n e e d t o e v a lu a t e t h e s e c u r it y o f t h e ir w e b
a p p lic a t io n s . I t is fr e e o f c h a r g e a n d c o m p le t e ly w r it t e n in J a v a . T h r o u g h P a r o s 's
p r o x y n a tu r e , a ll H T T P a n d H T T P S d a ta b e t w e e n s e r v e r a n d c lie n t , in c lu d in g c o o k ie s
a n d fo r m f ie ld s , c a n b e in t e r c e p t e d a n d m o d if ie d .
D o w n lo a d P A R O S : h t t p : / / w w w . p a r o s p r o x y . o r g / d o w n lo a d . s h t m l
PAROS Features:
P a r o s ' p r o x y fe a t u r e is in v a lu a b le f o r in s p e c t in g t r a ffic a s it c o m e s t o a n d fr o m y o u r
b r o w s e r . T h is a llo w s y o u t o in v e s t ig a te t h in g s lik e h o w c o o k ie s a r e s e t, r e d ir e c t s
b e in g is s u e d t o a b r o w s e r , a n d q u e r ie s s e n t fr o m th e b r o w s e r to t h e s e r v e r . W h ile
P a r o s in c lu d e s s o m e a u to m a t e d s c a n n in g t o o ls , t h e s e a r e r a th e r w e a k a n d P a r o s
r e a lly s h o w s it s s t r e n g t h in t h e h a n d s o f a s k ille d p e n e t r a t io n te s te r w h o k n o w s w h a t
t o lo o k f o r . W e w ill s e e h o w t o u s e a ll th e f e a t u r e s a v a ila b le in P A R O S in t h is
d o c u m e n t.
I n stal l i n g PAROS
E n s u r e J a v a R u n T im e E n v ir o n m e n t ( J R E ) 1 . 4 ( o r a b o v e ) w a s in s t a lle d . O n c e y o u
h a v e J a v a R u n T im e E n v ir o n m e n t in s t a lle d y o u s t a r t t h e in s t a lla t io n b y e x e c u t in g t h e
in s t a lla t io n f ile y o u d o w n lo a d e d f r o m t h e P a r o s P r o x y w e b s it e .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 2
3. PAROS proxy tool
T h e f ir s t s c r e e n o f t h e in s t a lle r is t h e w e lc o m e s c r e e n w h ic h le t s y o u k n o w th a t y o u
a r e a b o u t t o i n s t a l l P a r o s P r o x y . C l i c k " Ne x t " t o c o n t i n u e .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 3
4. PAROS proxy tool
Y o u h a v e n o w in s t a lle d P a r o s P r o x y . C lic k " F in is h " t o e x it t h e in s t a lle r .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 4
5. PAROS proxy tool
C o n f i g uri n g Paro s Pro x y
S ta r t th e P A R O S p r o x y t o o l.
G o t o T o o ls o p t io n s
T h e lo c a l p r o x y s e t t in g s c o n t r o ls w h a t a d d r e s s a n d p o r t it s h o u ld lis t e n o n f o r
in c o m in g c o n n e c t io n s . R e m e m b e r t o c o n fig u r e y o u r w e b b r o w s e r t o m a tc h t h e s e
s e t t in g s .
S o , n o w t h a t P a r o s is r u n n in g le t 's s e t u p o u r b r o w s e r t o u t iliz e P a r o s a s a p r o x y .
P a r o s , b y d e fa u lt , lis t e n s o n p o r t 8 0 8 0 fo r p r o x y c o n n e c t io n s . I n t h is e x a m p le w e 'r e
g o in g t o c o n f ig u r e F ir e f o x 3 t o u t iliz e P a r o s a s a p r o x y . T o d o t h is w e g o t o t h e 'T o o ls '
m e n u a n d s e le c t 'O p t io n s ' . Ne x t y o u w a n t to c lic k o n t h e 'A d v a n c e d ' ic o n a n d s e le c t
th e ' Ne t w o r k ' t a b :
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 5
6. PAROS proxy tool
No w c l i c k o n t h e ' S e t t i n g s ' b u t t o n i n t h e ' C o n n e c t i o n ' f r a m e . T h i s w i l l b r i n g u p a n e w
w in d o w t it le d 'C o n n e c t io n S e t t in g s '. Y o u w a n t t o s e le c t 'M a n u a l p r o x y c o n f ig u r a t io n '
a n d s e t y o u r p r o x y t o 'lo c a lh o s t ' o n p o r t 8 0 8 0 :
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 6
7. PAROS proxy tool
C l i c k ' O K ' t o c l o s e a l l t h e w i n d o w s . No w y o u ' l l n o t i c e t h a t w h e n e v e r y o u b r o w s P a r o s '
b la n k in t e r f a c e w ill b e g in t o f ill u p w it h in f o r m a t io n .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 7
8. PAROS proxy tool
U si n g PAROS
T h e m a in in t e r fa c e is d iv id e d in t o 3 s e c t io n s
1 . O n th e t o p -l e f t y o u h a v e t h e s i t e s / d i r e c t o r y / p a g e t r e e v i e w . A s y o u b r o w s e
p a g e s y o u w ill n o t ic e t h a t m o r e a n d m o r e it e m s a r e a d d e d t o t h is s e c t io n .
2 . O n th e t o p -r i g h t y o u h a v e t h e s e c t i o n t h a t a l l o w s y o u t o i n s p e c t , in t e r c e p t
a n d m o d ify t h e s e n t a n d r e c e iv e d d a t a .
3 . O n th e b o t t o m y o u h a v e t h e r e q u e s t / r e s p o n s e h is t o r y o f a n y r e q u e s t b e in g
m a d e w h ile u s in g P a r o s . P le a s e n o t e t h a t b y d e f a u lt im a g e r e q u e s t s a r e n o t
b e in g d is p la y e d in t h e h is t o r y v ie w . I t a ls o c o n t a in t h e S p id e r r e s u lt s , a n y
a le r t s f r o m v a r io u s f ilt e r s a n d f in a lly t h e o u t p u t o f t h e a le r t e d p a g e .
No w a c c e s s y o u r w e b s it e ( w h ic h y o u w a n t t o t e s t )
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 8
9. PAROS proxy tool
W h e n y o u w a n t t o in t e r c e p t r e q u e s t s y o u ju s t g o t o t h e " T r a p " t a b a n d c h e c k t h e
" T r a p r e q u e s t " c h e c k b o x ( a n d if y o u w a n t t o in t e r c e p t r e s p o n s e s f r o m t h e s e r v e r
y o u c h e c k th e " T r a p r e s p o n s e " c h e c k b o x ) .
G E T r e q u e s t s a r e d is p la y e d in t h e h e a d e r s e c t io n o f t h e in t e r f a c e , w h ic h is
m o d if ia b le . J u s t m o d if y t h e r e q u e s t p a r a m e t e r s o r o t h e r d a t a a n d c lic k " C o n t in u e " t o
s e n d t h e m o d if ie d r e q u e s t t o t h e s e r v e r .
P O S T r e q u e s t s a r e d is p la y e d in b o t h th e h e a d e r a n d t h e b o d y s e c t io n o f t h e
in t e r fa c e , b o th w h ic h is m o d if ia b le . J u s t m o d if y t h e r e q u e s t p a r a m e t e r s o r o th e r d a ta
a n d c lic k " C o n t in u e " t o s e n d t h e m o d if ie d r e q u e s t t o t h e s e r v e r .
C o o k ie s a r e d is p la y e d in t h e h e a d e r s e c t io n o f t h e in t e r fa c e , w h ic h is m o d if ia b le . J u s t
m o d ify th e c o o k ie d e t a ils a n d c lic k " C o n t in u e " t o s e n d th e m o d ifie d r e q u e s t t o t h e
s e r v e r .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 9
10. PAROS proxy tool
L e t ' s s a y I w a n t t o r e -s u b m i t t h e f o r m b u t t r y s o m e o t h e r v a l u e s . T o d o t h is I d o n 't
e v e n n e e d t o le a v e P a r o s . I c a n s im p ly r ig h t c lic k t h e r o w in t h e b o t t o m fr a m e a n d
s e le c t 'R e s e n d ':
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 0
11. PAROS proxy tool
S e le c t in g t h is o p t io n b r in g s u p a n e w b o x t h a t s u m m a r iz e s a ll t h e d a t a th a t is g o in g
to b e s e n t o n t h e f o r m s u b m is s io n . T h e n ic e th in g a b o u t t h is s u m m a r y d a ta is t h a t it
c a n b e m a n ip u la t e d b e f o r e w e s e n d it . C h a n g e th e p a r a m e t e r s y o u w a n t t o te s t a n d
s e n d t h e r e q u e s t . Y o u 'll n o t ic e th a t t h e p o p u p w in d o w s w it c h e s o v e r to t h e
'R e s p o n s e ' t a b w h ic h in c lu d e s n o t o n ly t h e h e a d e r d a t a fr o m th e fo r m r e q u e s t , b u t
a ls o t h e H T M L t h a t y o u g e t b a c k .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 1
12. PAROS proxy tool
U s in g P a r o s w e c a n e x a m in e c o o k ie s , f o r m f ie ld s a n d o t h e r d a t a , a n d m o d ify t h a t
d a ta o n t h e fly a n d r e s u b m it it . T h is is w o n d e r f u l f o r d o in g t h in g s lik e t e s t in g f o r X S S
o r S Q L in j e c t io n v u ln e r a b ilit ie s in h a r d t o r e a c h a r e a s o f H T T P c o m m u n ic a t io n s lik e
c o o k ie s o r H T T P h e a d e r s .
Sp i d er w i th Paro s Pro x y
S p id e r is u s e d to c r a w l t h e w e b s it e s a n d g a t h e r a s m a n y U R L lin k s a s p o s s ib le . T h is
a llo w s y o u t o h a v e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e w e b s it e h ie r a r c h y t r e e in a s h o r t
t im e b e fo r e m a n u a l n a v ig a t io n . C u r r e n t ly , t h e " S p id e r " f u n c t io n is in b e t a v e r s io n . I t s
fu n c t io n a lit ie s in c lu d e :
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 2
13. PAROS proxy tool
• C r a w l H T T P a n d H T T P S w e b s it e s b a s e d o n g iv e n U R L , e .g .
h t tp : / / w w w .e x a m p le . c o m o r h t t p s : / / w w w . e x a m p le . c o m
• S u p p o r t c o o k ie
• S u p p o r t p r o x y c h a in in g , w h ic h is s e t a t t h e < P r o x y C h a in > f ie ld in O p t io n t a b
( b u t s e t t in g t h e < S k ip > fie ld h a s n o t e ff e c t o n t h e s p id e r )
• A u to m a t ic a lly a d d U R L lin k s t o t h e w e b s it e h ie r a r c h y t r e e f o r la t e r s c a n n in g .
A s it is j u s t a s im p le s p id e r , it h a s t h e f o llo w in g lim it a t io n s :
• S S L w e b s it e s w it h in v a lid c e r t if ic a t e c a n n o t b e c r a w le d
• M u t i− t h r e a d in g n o t s u p p o r t e d
• S o m e ‘m a lf o r m e d ’ U R L s in H T M L p a g e s c a n n o t b e r e c o g n iz e d
A ls o , U R L s g e n e r a t e d b y J a v a s c r ip t c a n n o t b e f o u n d u s in g t h is s p id e r . T h o s e U R L s ,
h o w e v e r , c a n b e f o u n d a n d a d d e d t o t h e h ie r a r c h y t r e e t h r o u g h m a n u a l n a v ig a t io n .
F ir s t s e le c t t h e s it e fr o m th e le f t p a n e l ( s it e s ) [ s it e s h o u ld a lr e a d y b r o w s e d fr o m
b r o w s e r ]
G o t o A n a ly s e s p id e r
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 3
14. PAROS proxy tool
Sc an n i n g w i th Paro s Pro x y
T h e s c a n n e r f u n c t io n is t o s c a n th e s e r v e r b a s e d o n t h e w e b s it e h ie r a r c h y ( t h e tr e e
o n t h e le ft p a n e l) . I t c a n c h e c k if t h e r e is a n y s e r v e r m is c o n fig u r a t io n . A u t o m a t ic
w e b s c a n n e r m a y n o t b e a b le t o f in d o u t th e p a t h s a n d c h e c k if t h e r e e x is t s a n y
b a c k u p f ile s ( . b a k ) w h ic h c o u ld e x p o s e s e r v e r in fo r m a t io n . I n o r d e r to u s e th is
fu n c t io n , y o u n e e d t o n a v ig a te t h e w e b s it e fir s t . A fte r y o u lo g o n a w e b s it e a n d
n a v ig a t e it , a w e b s it e h ie r a r c h y tr e e w ill b e b u ilt b y P a r o s a u to m a t ic a lly . T h e n y o u
c a n d o t h e fo llo w in g t h in g s :
• I f y o u w a n t t o s c a n a ll w e b s it e s o n t h e t r e e , y o u c a n th e n c lic k o n th e m e n u
it e m " T r e e " → " S c a n A ll" t o t r ig g e r t h e s c a n n in g .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 4
15. PAROS proxy tool
• I f y o u j u s t w a n t t o s c a n o n e w e b s it e o n t h e t r e e , y o u c a n c lic k o n t h a t s it e in
t h e t r e e p a n e l a n d c l i c k m e n u i t e m " T r e e " → " S c a n s e l e c t e d No d e " ( Y o u c a n
a ls o r ig h t − c lic k o n t h e t r e e v ie w a n d c h o o s e t h e o p t io n s ) .
C u r r e n t ly , P a r o s h a s t h e f o llo w in g c h e c k s :
• H T T P P U T a llo w e d − c h e c k if t h e P U T o p t io n is e n a b le d a t s e r v e r d ir e c t o r ie s
• D ir e c t o r y in d e x a b le − c h e c k if th e s e r v e r d ir e c t o r ie s c a n b e b r o w s a b le .
• O b s o le t e f ile s e x is t e d − c h e c k if t h e r e e x is t s o b s o le t e f ile s a t
• C r o s s − s it e s c r ip t in g − c h e c k if c r o s s − s it e s c r ip t in g ( X S S ) is a llo w e d o n th e
q u e r y p a r a m e t e r s
• D e fa u lt file s o n w e b s p h e r e s e r v e r – c h e c k if d e f a u lt f ile s e x is t e d o n w e b s p h e r e
s e r v e r
No t e t h a t a l l t h e a b o v e c h e c k s a r e b a s e d o n t h e U R L s i n t h e w e b s i t e h ie r a r c h y . T h a t
m e a n s t h e s c a n n e r w ill c h e c k e a c h U R L f o r e a c h v u ln e r a b ilit y .
P a r o s c a n a ls o s a v e a n d r e lo a d s e s s io n s . T h is is a g r e a t t o o l if y o u n e e d t o d o
e x p lo r a t io n a t o n e p o in t t h e n la t e r d o a n a ly s is , o r if y o u w a n t t o c o m p a r e t w o s c a n
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 5
16. PAROS proxy tool
s e s s io n s . P a r o s a ls o a llo w s y o u t o s a v e a ll t h e r e p o r t s it p r o d u c e s fo r la t e r
e x a m in a t io n o r in c lu s io n in a b r o a d e r a n a ly s is r e p o r t .
Sc an n i n g Po l i c y
I nfor m ati on g ath er i ng
" O b s o le t e f ile " lo o k s fo r b a c k u p c o p ie s o f k n o w n f ile s o f t h e s e r v e r .
" P r iv a t e I P d is c lo s u r e " lo o k s f o r r e f e r e n c e s t o in t e r n a l I P a d d r e s s e s w it h in t h e p a g e s
a s w e ll a s in e r r o r m e s s a g e s .
" S e s s io n I D in U R L r e w r it e "
" O b s o le t e f ile e x t e n d e d c h e c k "
Cli ent br ow ser
" P a s s w o r d A u t o c o m p le t e in b r o w s e r " lo o k s fo r p a s s w o r d f ie ld s w h ic h a llo w s t h e m to
b e s a v e d in t h e b r o w s e r .
" S e c u r e p a g e b r o w s e r c a c h e " lo o k s f o r s e c u r e ( h t t p s ) p a g e s w h ic h a llo w s t h e m s e lv e s
t o b e s t o r e d in t h e b r o w s e r c a c h e .
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 6
17. PAROS proxy tool
S er v er sec u r i ty
" D ir e c t o r y b r o w s in g " lo o k s f o r d ir e c t o r ie s w h ic h d is c lo s e s t h e f ile s in s id e it .
" I I S d e f a u lt f ile " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt I I S ( I n t e r n e t I n f o r m a t io n S e r v ic e ) f ile s .
" C o ld F u s io n d e f a u lt f ile " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt C o ld F u s io n f ile s .
" M a c r o m e d ia J R u n d e f a u lt f ile s " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt M a c r o m e d ia J R u n f ile s .
" T o m c a t s o u r c e f ile d is c lo s u r e "
" B E A W e b L o g ic e x a m p le f ile s " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt B E A W e b L o g ic f ile s .
" I B M W e b S p h e r e d e f a u lt f ile s " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt I B M W e b S p h e r e f ile s .
" L o t u s D o m in o d e f a u lt f ile s " lo o k s f o r d e f a u lt L o t u s D o m in o f ile s .
M i sc ellaneou s
T h e r e a r e n o s e t t in g s u n d e r t h is t a b . . .
I nj ec ti on
" S Q L I n j e c t io n F in g e r p r in t in g " s e n d s c o m m o n S Q L in j e c t io n s t r in g s in t o in p u t f ie ld s
a n d lo o k s f o r r e s p o n s e s t h a t m a t c h S Q L e r r o r m e s s a g e s .
" C R L F in je c t io n "
" S e r v e r s id e in c lu d e "
" C r o s s s it e s c r ip t in g " t r ie s t o in j e c t c r o s s s it e s c r ip t in g s t r in g s in t o in p u t f ie ld s a n d
lo o k f o r t h e ir p r e s e n c e in t h e r e s p o n d in g p a g e .
" C r o s s s it e s c r ip t in g w it h o u t b r a c k e t s " t r ie s t o in j e c t c r o s s s it e s c r ip t in g s t r in g s in t o
in p u t f ie ld s a n d lo o k f o r t h e ir p r e s e n c e in t h e r e s p o n d in g p a g e , e x c e p t it d o e s n 't
in j e c t t h e " < " a n d " > " b r a c k e t s in t h e t e s t s t r in g s .
" P a r a m e t e r t a m p e r in g "
" S Q L I n j e c t io n "
" M S S Q L I n je c t io n E n u m e r a t io n "
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 7
18. PAROS proxy tool
C o n c l usi o n
P a r o s is a w o n d e r f u l t o o l a n d s h o u ld d e f in it e ly b e f a m ilia r t o a n y w e b a p p lic a t io n
s e c u r it y p r o fe s s io n a l. H o w e v e r , P a r o s c a p a b ilit ie s e x t e n d b e y o n d s e c u r it y a n d a r g u e
f o r it 's u s e b y w e b d e v e lo p e r s a s w e ll. P a r o s c a n e a s ily m a n g le r e q u e s t s , b u t it a ls o
d o e s a w o n d e r f u l j o b o f in s p e c t in g H T T P t r a f f ic a n d id e n t if y in g p r o b le m s . P a r o s is a n
e x c e lle n t t o o l fo r t r a c k in g d o w n t h e c a u s e o f a w e b s e r v e r in f in it e r e d ir e c t lo o p , o r a
c o o k ie m is c o n f ig u r a t io n , o r o t h e r e lu s iv e p r o b le m t h a t c a n d r iv e y o u m a d if y o u 'r e
o n ly a r m e d w it h a w e b b r o w s e r . O f c o u r s e , t h e s a m e e a s e w it h w h ic h P a r o s c a n
e x a m in e a n d m a n ip u la t e le g it im a t e t r a f f ic a llo w s p e n e t r a t io n t e s t e r s t o u s e P a r o s t o
m a n ip u la t e tr a f f ic in m a lic io u s w a y s . P a r o s is a g r e a t t o o l f o r b lin d p e n e t r a t io n
t e s t in g o r d e v e lo p in g p r o o f o f c o n c e p t w e b a p p lic a t io n e x p lo it s .
P a r o s ' c r o s s p la t fo r m n a tu r e a ls o a r g u e s f o r it s v a lu e . L e a r n in g t o u s e P a r o s d o e s n 't
t ie y o u to a n y p a r t ic u la r o p e r a t in g s y s te m o r p la t f o r m . P a r o s c a n b e u s e d in
c o n ju n c t io n w it h a n y b r o w s e r , a n d w o r k s g r e a t a lo n g w it h F ir e f o x a n d p lu g in s lik e
T a m p e r D a ta o r w e b d e v e lo p e r .O v e r a ll I fin d P a r o s is o n e o f t h o s e e a s y t o o ls I r e a c h
fo r m o r e o ft e n o v e r t im e a n d I t h in k it w o u ld m a k e a v a lu a b le a d d it io n t o a n y w e b
d e v e lo p e r o r a p p lic a t io n te s t e r s a r s e n a l.
‘™Ž‘ƒ†‡† ˆ”‘ Š – – ’ • ‹ – ‡• ‰ ‘‘‰ Ž‡ … ‘ • ‹ – ‡ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– ‘” Š – – ’ ƒ… – ‹ ˜ ‡š ’ ‡”– „ Ž‘‰ … ‘ ‹ 1 8