O vertraining remains one the most controversial topics within the field of strength and conditioning, as it accounts for increased fatigue and can result in performance impairment. One of the many topics that persists among strength and conditioning professionals is the topic of overtraining. A common question that is asked is how does overtraining differ from overreaching? Additionally, some may even question the very existence of overtraining. Although the prevalence of overtraining varies considerably among a variety of sports, the overall occurrence of actual overtraining seen in normal day-to-day resistance trained individuals is very low (11,17,22). The purpose of this article is to address the implications of overtraining and overreaching, the recovery process, signs and symptoms of overtraining, how resistance training and supplementation can affect these outcomes, and future directions within the topic of overtraining.

1. FEATURE ARTICLE
PTQ 2.1 | NSCA.COM12
JONATHAN MIKE, PHD(C), CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, USAW
O
vertraining remains one the most controversial topics
within the field of strength and conditioning, as it accounts
for increased fatigue and can result in performance
impairment. One of the many topics that persists among strength
and conditioning professionals is the topic of overtraining. A
common question that is asked is how does overtraining differ
from overreaching? Additionally, some may even question the
very existence of overtraining. Although the prevalence of
overtraining varies considerably among a variety of sports,
the overall occurrence of actual overtraining seen in normal
day-to-day resistance trained individuals is very low (11,17,22).
The purpose of this article is to address the implications of
overtraining and overreaching, the recovery process, signs
and symptoms of overtraining, how resistance training and
supplementation can affect these outcomes, and future directions
within the topic of overtraining.
Understanding the importance of recognizing overtraining is
essential because there are numerous physiological conditions
that can lead to overtraining. For example, research has reported
that individuals participating in endurance training for many hours
at a time have been shown to have an overactive pituitary gland,
which may result in increased levels of cortisol and a disruption
in muscle growth (15). Overtraining is a multifactorial, complex
phenomenon. Overtraining is typically discussed in terms of only
training; however, a very important and sometimes neglected
aspect of training is the recovery process. Another useful way that
strength and conditioning professionals might refer to and think of
overtraining is “under recovery,” (12). Therefore, attention must be
given to the process of recovery.
OVERTRAINING SYNDROME VERSUS
OVERREACHING
What is the definition of overtraining syndrome (OTS)? There
is currently no single agreed-upon definition of overtraining
syndrome; however, a number of alternatives have been
used. Halson and Jeukendrup have provided a definition of
overtraining as:
“An accumulation of training and/or non-training stress
resulting in long-term decrement of performance capacity with
or without related physiological and psychological signs and
symptoms of overtraining in which restoration of performance
capacity may take several weeks or months,” (6).
How does overtraining differ from overreaching? According to
Meeusen et al., overreaching is defined as:
“An accumulation of training and non-training stressors that
result in a short-term decrement in performance capacity with
or without related physiological or psychological signs and
symptoms of maladaptation in which restoration of performance
may take ranging from days to several weeks to recover,” (14).
OVERTRAINING AND RECOVERY
FEATURE ARTICLE

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These definitions of overtraining and overreaching are nearly
identical. One of the only differences is the amount of time to
restore performance, not the type or duration of the training
stress. Another difference is that overreaching may take several
days to several weeks to recover, whereas overtraining likely takes
several weeks to several months (6,14).
RECOVERY AND TRAINING
Recovery is a fundamentally important process to the overall
training program and is vital for maximal performance benefits.
If the rate of recovery is enhanced, greater training volumes and
intensities are achievable without consequential overtraining (2).
Although many strength and conditioning professionals often use
different approaches for this process, recovery may not always
be addressed fully, particularly in the area of fatigue. Strategies
for optimal recovery exhibit individual variability that depends on
the type of fatigue (e.g., central or peripheral), training history,
and ability to cope with other potential stressors (e.g., emotional
or psychological).
Recovery can be defined as the ability to meet or exceed
performance in a particular activity (2). Typically, training
sessions produce a level of fatigue or depletion that is followed
by supercompensation. If the recovery intervals between training
bouts are maximized, the next training session will accompany
supercompensation and performance may be enhanced (23).
There are also other important functions that coincide with
recovery, particularly after exercise, including restoration of
physiological functions and replenishment of energy sources (9).
However, an individual should achieve a balance where adaptation
and recovery takes the athlete to supercompensation and may
lead to a more physically conditioned state.
The onset of recovery develops during and after exercise. This
is exhibited by the removal of metabolic end products such
as lactate. Throughout exercise, recovery is crucial in order to
restore blood flow, not only for the delivery of oxygen which
stimulates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) resynthesis, but also for
the recovery of muscle membrane potential, and to reestablish
intramuscular pH (20). Furthermore, a greater increase in excess
post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) occurs.
Initial recovery, referred to as “immediate recovery,” occurs
throughout exercise. Bishop et al. provides an example of a race
walker with one leg in immediate recovery between each stride
(2). During this immediate recovery period, the lower extremities
regenerate ATP. If each leg recovers more rapidly, the walker will
more quickly be able to accomplish the stride with efficiency. The
second type of recovery is termed “short-term recovery.” This
method of recovery generally takes place between exercise sets
or between interval training bouts (18). The final form of recovery
is referred to as “training recovery,” which is characterized
by the recovery between various training sessions or athletic
competitions (2). If individuals engage in continuous training (e.g.,
multiple training sessions in the same day or multiple events in
a single competition) without an adequate recovery period, then
performance impairments are more likely to occur (2,18). As a
result, the individual is unlikely to be prepared for the subsequent
training bouts. Overtraining is most often related to the form of
training recovery.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING
The onset of overtraining develops due to a specific training
schedule or more particularly, a sequence of training bouts that is
abruptly increased, exists for an extended period of time, and/or
exhibits high volume or high-intensity exercises with inadequate
recovery and regeneration time. The responses to overtraining
are usually characteristic of fatigue, stress, and exhaustion. The
extent to which specific training loads induce overtraining is
uncertain. Additional training loads and insufficient recovery
can be the primary factors for the occurrence of overtraining.
Notwithstanding, it would be incorrect to assume that training
load and inadequate recovery account for every circumstance of
overtraining, as it is important to consider other factors that may
be involved, such as nutrition, sleep, illness, overall health, and
emotional or physical stress.
A decrease in performance is often the hallmark of an overtrained
athlete. However, the level of performance impairment that has
to occur in order to classify one as overtrained is currently
unknown. Other common characteristics of overtraining include
a change in the role of exercise-induced immunosuppression as
well as an increased incidence of illness, particularly in the upper
respiratory tract (e.g., upper respiratory tract infection [URTI],
swollen lymph glands, flu-like symptoms, bruising, and decreased
recovery) (6,13).
Even highly trained individuals may be vulnerable to illness
or injury as a result of a sudden increase in training volume or
intensity. This timeframe of immunosuppression is known as the
“open window,” as an individual is more susceptible to infections
or injury directly after and throughout various stressors (15). The
open window is described as a period of 3 – 24 hr after prolonged
endurance training when host defense is reduced and more
susceptible to URTIs (15). Therefore, any accelerated increase in
training volume or training intensity can compromise the exercise-
induced immune system response.
Early reports have listed more than 90 different signs and
symptoms that have been reported from overtrained athletes
(4). Below are just some of the more common physiological and
psychological factors from recent reports (5):
1. Muscle weakness and soreness
2. Decreased exercise performance
3. Decreased appetite
4. Reduction in quality and/or quantity of sleep
5. Gastrointestinal abnormalities
6. Increased risk of infection
7. Increased resting heart rate
8. Increased time required for recovery
9. Decreased desire to train

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OVERTRAINING AND RECOVERY
RESISTANCE TRAINING AND OTS
The fundamental nature of resistance training programs should
be designed to incorporate a specific and selective combination
of variables including choice of exercise, sequence effect, training
intensity or load, training volume, and rest intervals. As mentioned
previously, the two principle factors that induce overtraining are
training volume and intensity (1,3). It is common for beginning
and intermediate trainees to accumulate large amounts of training
volume and increase the magnitude of training intensity early in
their programs, which also may lead to them extending the period
before adequate recovery can be achieved. Research suggests that
excessive training volumes usually produce a reduction between
the testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, which may lead to performance
declines (1). This ratio is believed to show the balance of action
between anabolic and catabolic activity. However, recent research
suggests that cortisol is not entirely a negative aspect, but
may actually depict a quality training session, and that acute
cortisol is more related to anabolism after weight training (21).
It should be noted that it becomes a challenge to formulate any
conclusions regarding alterations in hormonal levels due to various
performance assessments and modifications in training intensity
and length.
SUPPLEMENTATION
Protein and amino acid supplementation are believed to protect
against many harmful effects of overtraining. Research has
reported that adding protein to a moderate carbohydrate meal
stimulates glycogen synthesis and increases exercise performance
after an initial exercise session, compared to a moderate
carbohydrate-only meal (7,8). In addition, evidence shows
that supplementing with amino acids attenuated performance
reductions in the bench press and squat during periods of
overtraining (16). In addition, creatine supplementation has been
shown to be effective for maintaining muscular performance
during the initial phase of overreaching using high-volume
resistance training (19).
IDENTIFYING AND MEASURING OVERTRAINING
It is imperative that strength and conditioning professionals have
the ability to identify and anticipate the onset of overtraining
so they can reduce its negative effects or potentially avoid it
altogether. One instrument that can assist in identifying the onset
of overtraining is the Profile of Mood States, which serves as an
easy assessment for early markers of overtraining. In addition,
the concept of total quality recovery focuses attention of the
relationship between training and recovery, and can be very
useful to consider (17). Keeping this aspect in mind is essential
in designing effective training programs and promoting strategic
recovery. Lastly, the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes
can be used, which acknowledges the recovery stress conditions
based off several different general and specific recovery scales
(10). Professionals should investigate these tools and learn how to
utilize them properly before implementing them with any potential
clients or athletes.
CONCLUSION
Many questions currently remain about identifying the aspects
of overtraining. However, it is clear that additional research is
warranted to explain the complicated nature of overtraining.
During all training programs, the recovery period should be
tailored to the needs of the individual in order to determine the
period of time needed to elicit optimal recovery.
The following questions provide some awareness and direction for
future research into overtraining:
• Is there a general and/or specific timeframe by which
changes in performance occur to assist in detecting signs of
overtraining?
• Is there a threshold for a specific training volume or
intensity required to induce overtraining?
• What detrimental performance measures occur through
training, which would better identify overtraining (i.e.,
in-season, off-season)?
• To what degree do protein and amino acid supplementation
play a role in reducing the overtraining response?
• Are there similarities and differences that exist between
and within a variety of sports?
• Are there gender differences when it comes to
overtraining?
Although it may be difficult to answer these important questions
regarding overtraining and overreaching currently, acknowledging
and seeking solutions to these questions can serve as a model and
guide in helping to reduce or even prevent overtraining.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Jonathan Mike is in the final stages of completing his PhD
in Exercise Physiology from the University of New Mexico in
Albuquerque, NM. He received his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees
in Exercise Science from Western Kentucky University in Bowling
Green, KY while also serving as a Strength and Conditioning
Assistant. He also worked at the University of Louisville as a
Strength and Conditioning Assistant and has been a frequent
contributor and guest host of several websites and radio shows. He
is a member of the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) Exam Development Committee for the NSCA-Certified
Personal Trainer® (NSCA-CPT®), Job Analysis Committee, and a
member of the Personal Trainers Special Interest Group (SIG).
Mike has authored or coauthored various works related to sports
nutrition and strength and conditioning. Further, he has been
published in the Strength and Conditioning Journal and has
both authored and coauthored multiple book chapters in areas
of sports nutrition and strength training and conditioning. His
research interests include strength and power development,
functional movement, exercise and energy metabolism, and areas
of sports nutrition. In addition, he writes for numerous fitness and
bodybuilding consumer magazines and outlets.