NO PLAGERISM, DO NOT TURN IN PAPERS USED ONLINE OR SOLD TO SOMEONE ELSE. OUR instructor thoroughly checks them through a system and through sources cited!!!
Instructor Instructions: FOLLOW DETAILS EXACTLY!!
This writing assignment falls under the category of literature reviews. I have attached an example of how they are written. Yours will not have to be this long, but this is WHAT I HAVE IN MIND. Follow instructions carefully!
Write a paper from five pages in length on the subject of “dealing with the effects of texting on driving”.
You should synthesize (meaning combine elements of several sources—to help you make a point. Synthesizing is a matter of pulling various sources together into harmony. It is the ability to combine clearly and coherently the ideas of more than one source with your own) the findings of at least four psychology journal articles. One source of these articles is ProQuest Psychology journals data base found on the library database area. I have included the link below for this article to use as ONE of the FOUR REQUIRED!! This is part of the instructor’s REQUIREMENTS!!
http://gateway.proquest.com.zeus.tarleton.edu:82/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&res_dat=xri:pqm&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:10027727
You must cite sources inside the paper in CORRECT APA FORMAT!! Also, INCLUDE the sources and URL’s on the cite sources page!
Ps choto icul Bulletin
19%, vå. 73, No. 4, 258-302
ALTRUISM—AN EXAMINATION OF THE CONCEPT AND A
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE I
DENNIS L. KREBS
Harvard University
Literature relating to altruism is reviewed. It is suggested that the study of altruism is important at three levels: as it relates to the main goal of socialization, to a core attribute of personality, and to theories concerned with human nature. The concept of altruism is examined. Independent variables associated with altruism are organized in a 2 X 4 framework on the basis of the source of experimental measurement and level of generality. Characteristics of the benefactor and characteristics of the recipient are categorized as state variables, trait variables, social roles and demographic attributes, and characteristics influenccd by social norms. Research at each level is critically reviewed. Positive and negative affective states, and states induced by the observation of models are found to influence the altruism of benefactors; and dependency and interpersonal attractiveness are found to influence the altruism-eliciting capacity of recipients. Research relevant to personality traits is criticized. Effects are found for sex, age, ordinal position, social class, and nationality in relation to benefactors, and for friendship status, ingroup affiliation, and social class in relation to recipients. The normative level of analysis is criticized.
278 DENNIS L. KREBS
ALTRUISM 259
In 1956 Louis J. Budd reviewed the history of a "forgotten aspect of social thought" in America. He concluded that although con ...
This interpretive essay analyzes James Joyce's short story "Araby" through three paragraphs. It summarizes that the narrator is striving to achieve the goal of bringing a gift for the girl he likes from the Araby carnival. Through his failure to accomplish this goal on time, he comes to an epiphany about unattainable dreams. The setting and descriptions of the girl are used to develop themes of desire, longing, and disappointment. Key details are discussed, such as the narrator obsessively watching the girl's door and her image coming between him and his studies.
Sources of my IdentityIntroduction My personal identity deal.docxrafbolet0
Sources of my Identity
Introduction
My personal identity deals with the philosophical questions that arise about humans by the virtue of being individuals or people. However, this argument contrasts with any questions that entail the virtues of human beings as conscious beings or material objects. Many people will seek to understand their identity by asking the questions of what am I? When did I come to being? What will happen when I die? It is such questions that probe possible other questions that seek to have several answers regarding the indemnity of an individual. The sources of identity will mostly differ differently from one person to another, as they are influenced by a wide range of external factors throughout one’s period of growth(Payne 17).
Human beings have an unchanging need for uniqueness, and quite often, the search for this happens through the use of meaning and symbolism with the help of products and brands such as surroundings, time, and exposure to other variables. The mentioned meanings and symbolisms are at times not necessary as the brands of products, and wares may be inherent making one person to be completely different from the other in terms of behavior, thinking, or reasoning. This augment concedes with that of McCrae and Costa, which suggests that one’s cultural meanings take part in making up for one’s identity, which is the personality (Payne 17). Culture anticipates for use of symbols for identity working outwardly to construct the social world and inwardly to construct self-identity. In this way, personal identity plays a vital role when it comes to dictating one’s inner and outer circumstances. Every human is different from the others as anticipated his or her personality. This can be justified by the way people communicate socially.
The study of the psychology of personal identity has existed as organized entity since 1940s. There have been two major theories of human personality; one was dispositional or trait theory and the other one is person-situational theory. The trait theory did account for the centralist approach and internal constructs with governed behavior in a given or a particular situation derived mainly from internal characteristics of personality. In the west that is the western world, a layman’s understanding of personality is related tothe trait approach, and this laid its basis or roots from the 19th-century liberalism
The trait theory posted broad stable factors, traits, or behavioral dispositions as its fundamental units. Its primary goal was to characterize individuals in terms of a comprehensive nevertheless, preferably and finite small set of stable dispositions that have always remained invariant across situations and that were distinctive for a person determining a wide range of important behavior. In the recent years, the trait theory has been personified in the big five-model of human personality. This model reduced the large numbers of adjectives that described personal ident.
This document provides a study guide for Test #1 in Comm 4331 Essays. It includes definitions of key terms like beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and persuasion. It discusses cultural differences between individualist and collective cultures. It also covers topics like audience analysis, target audiences, gender differences in persuasion, and central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
Assignment Morality and Social ResponsibilityPhilosophical .docxhoward4little59962
Assignment: Morality and Social Responsibility
Philosophical perspectives and theories on morality contribute to an understanding of the deep-rooted human need to question the role human beings play in society. Whether your views align with those of Aristotle, Kant, or Mill, you can explore the reasons behind your inherent motivation to act responsibly. At the outset of your life, you develop habits of thought based on what you are exposed to, where you live, with whom you live, and your experiences. In this Application Assignment, you critically examine these experiences as well as theoretical perspectives on morality and assess how they impact your moral and cultural identity. You also assess how these experiences influence your concept of social responsibility.
To prepare for this Assignment:
Read the articles by Brink (2014), Johnson (2014), and Kraut (2014) in this week’s resources. Summarize the key points of each theory. Does one theory resonate with you more than another? Why or why not?
Make connections to your own culture. Consider whether these three theories are reflected in your own culture.
Review the Cultural Genogram: Dimensions of Culture document in this week’s Resources. Think about the ways different dimensions of culture inform your moral identity (e.g., how your national, ethnic, and/or gender identity informs your moral identity).
Consider how different dimensions of culture inform your concept of social responsibility.
Write a 2-page analysis connecting the three theories of morality to your own cultural identity.
Explain how the theories align or do not align with your cultural identity. Include how cultural identity impacts social responsibility.
Provide at least three references using proper APA format.
.
Khurram Zafar Awan presented on interpretivism theory and its differences from positivism. Interpretivism developed among researchers dissatisfied with positivism's inability to reflect nuances in human interaction. Interpretivists believe research values influence findings and seek meaning in individuals' subjective experiences rather than objective perspectives. Examples provided include Paul Willis's study of working class "lads" using ethnography and Emile Durkheim's positivist study of suicide rates across demographics.
Graham -the moral stereotypes of liberals and conservativesBethany Stachenfeld
This study investigated the moral stereotypes that liberals and conservatives hold about themselves and each other. The researchers found:
1) Across the political spectrum, moral stereotypes about "typical" liberals and conservatives correctly reflected actual differences in how strongly each group endorsed different moral values, but exaggerated the magnitude of these differences.
2) Contrary to theories of stereotyping, the moral stereotypes were not just simple underestimations of the outgroup's morality - both liberals and conservatives exaggerated the ideological extremity of moral concerns for their own group as well as the outgroup.
3) Liberals were the least accurate about the moral values of both liberals and conservatives. Moderates were generally the most accurate in their
This document defines attitudes and prejudice, discusses their history and formation, and examines factors that influence them. It notes that attitudes are made up of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components and can be either positive or negative. Prejudice involves negatively judging others without fully understanding them. Theories on attitude formation include cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and the elaboration likelihood model. Reducing prejudice requires addressing its cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects.
This interpretive essay analyzes James Joyce's short story "Araby" through three paragraphs. It summarizes that the narrator is striving to achieve the goal of bringing a gift for the girl he likes from the Araby carnival. Through his failure to accomplish this goal on time, he comes to an epiphany about unattainable dreams. The setting and descriptions of the girl are used to develop themes of desire, longing, and disappointment. Key details are discussed, such as the narrator obsessively watching the girl's door and her image coming between him and his studies.
Sources of my IdentityIntroduction My personal identity deal.docxrafbolet0
Sources of my Identity
Introduction
My personal identity deals with the philosophical questions that arise about humans by the virtue of being individuals or people. However, this argument contrasts with any questions that entail the virtues of human beings as conscious beings or material objects. Many people will seek to understand their identity by asking the questions of what am I? When did I come to being? What will happen when I die? It is such questions that probe possible other questions that seek to have several answers regarding the indemnity of an individual. The sources of identity will mostly differ differently from one person to another, as they are influenced by a wide range of external factors throughout one’s period of growth(Payne 17).
Human beings have an unchanging need for uniqueness, and quite often, the search for this happens through the use of meaning and symbolism with the help of products and brands such as surroundings, time, and exposure to other variables. The mentioned meanings and symbolisms are at times not necessary as the brands of products, and wares may be inherent making one person to be completely different from the other in terms of behavior, thinking, or reasoning. This augment concedes with that of McCrae and Costa, which suggests that one’s cultural meanings take part in making up for one’s identity, which is the personality (Payne 17). Culture anticipates for use of symbols for identity working outwardly to construct the social world and inwardly to construct self-identity. In this way, personal identity plays a vital role when it comes to dictating one’s inner and outer circumstances. Every human is different from the others as anticipated his or her personality. This can be justified by the way people communicate socially.
The study of the psychology of personal identity has existed as organized entity since 1940s. There have been two major theories of human personality; one was dispositional or trait theory and the other one is person-situational theory. The trait theory did account for the centralist approach and internal constructs with governed behavior in a given or a particular situation derived mainly from internal characteristics of personality. In the west that is the western world, a layman’s understanding of personality is related tothe trait approach, and this laid its basis or roots from the 19th-century liberalism
The trait theory posted broad stable factors, traits, or behavioral dispositions as its fundamental units. Its primary goal was to characterize individuals in terms of a comprehensive nevertheless, preferably and finite small set of stable dispositions that have always remained invariant across situations and that were distinctive for a person determining a wide range of important behavior. In the recent years, the trait theory has been personified in the big five-model of human personality. This model reduced the large numbers of adjectives that described personal ident.
This document provides a study guide for Test #1 in Comm 4331 Essays. It includes definitions of key terms like beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and persuasion. It discusses cultural differences between individualist and collective cultures. It also covers topics like audience analysis, target audiences, gender differences in persuasion, and central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
Assignment Morality and Social ResponsibilityPhilosophical .docxhoward4little59962
Assignment: Morality and Social Responsibility
Philosophical perspectives and theories on morality contribute to an understanding of the deep-rooted human need to question the role human beings play in society. Whether your views align with those of Aristotle, Kant, or Mill, you can explore the reasons behind your inherent motivation to act responsibly. At the outset of your life, you develop habits of thought based on what you are exposed to, where you live, with whom you live, and your experiences. In this Application Assignment, you critically examine these experiences as well as theoretical perspectives on morality and assess how they impact your moral and cultural identity. You also assess how these experiences influence your concept of social responsibility.
To prepare for this Assignment:
Read the articles by Brink (2014), Johnson (2014), and Kraut (2014) in this week’s resources. Summarize the key points of each theory. Does one theory resonate with you more than another? Why or why not?
Make connections to your own culture. Consider whether these three theories are reflected in your own culture.
Review the Cultural Genogram: Dimensions of Culture document in this week’s Resources. Think about the ways different dimensions of culture inform your moral identity (e.g., how your national, ethnic, and/or gender identity informs your moral identity).
Consider how different dimensions of culture inform your concept of social responsibility.
Write a 2-page analysis connecting the three theories of morality to your own cultural identity.
Explain how the theories align or do not align with your cultural identity. Include how cultural identity impacts social responsibility.
Provide at least three references using proper APA format.
.
Khurram Zafar Awan presented on interpretivism theory and its differences from positivism. Interpretivism developed among researchers dissatisfied with positivism's inability to reflect nuances in human interaction. Interpretivists believe research values influence findings and seek meaning in individuals' subjective experiences rather than objective perspectives. Examples provided include Paul Willis's study of working class "lads" using ethnography and Emile Durkheim's positivist study of suicide rates across demographics.
Graham -the moral stereotypes of liberals and conservativesBethany Stachenfeld
This study investigated the moral stereotypes that liberals and conservatives hold about themselves and each other. The researchers found:
1) Across the political spectrum, moral stereotypes about "typical" liberals and conservatives correctly reflected actual differences in how strongly each group endorsed different moral values, but exaggerated the magnitude of these differences.
2) Contrary to theories of stereotyping, the moral stereotypes were not just simple underestimations of the outgroup's morality - both liberals and conservatives exaggerated the ideological extremity of moral concerns for their own group as well as the outgroup.
3) Liberals were the least accurate about the moral values of both liberals and conservatives. Moderates were generally the most accurate in their
This document defines attitudes and prejudice, discusses their history and formation, and examines factors that influence them. It notes that attitudes are made up of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components and can be either positive or negative. Prejudice involves negatively judging others without fully understanding them. Theories on attitude formation include cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and the elaboration likelihood model. Reducing prejudice requires addressing its cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects.
Sujay Identity and identity change FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This document proposes a generalized approach to collective and individual identity formation that could apply across cultures. It discusses the importance of identity modulation, dilution, and neutralization while introducing concepts like the "psychic unity of mankind" and dangers of identity polarization. The approach is linked to theories in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and human development. It advocates for ethnographic fieldwork in diverse contexts and pedagogical reform to shape identity and promote ethnic harmony in a globalized world.
Sujay Identity and identity change FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This document proposes a generalized approach to collective and individual identity formation that could apply across cultures. It discusses the importance of identity modulation, dilution, and neutralization while introducing concepts like the "psychic unity of mankind" and dangers of identity polarization. The approach is linked to theories in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and human development. It advocates for ethnographic fieldwork in diverse contexts and pedagogical reform to shape identity and promote ethnic harmony in a globalized world.
This document discusses how social psychology can be seen in everyday life through an experience the author had during a "spend a day" visit at a high school they were applying to. The author describes being given a tour of the school and attending classes with a current student to get a sense of what it would be like to attend that school. They note that the majority of students at the private school were white. The summary discusses an everyday experience that demonstrates principles of social psychology.
Symbolic Interactionism, Structural-Functional Theory and Conflict Theory Vijayalakshmi Murugesan
This document provides an overview of three major sociological theories: symbolic interactionism, structural-functional theory, and conflict theory. Symbolic interactionism examines how individuals construct meanings through interactions and symbols. Structural-functional theory views society as a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability. Conflict theory sees society as groups competing for limited resources and views social institutions as maintaining inequality between groups.
The document outlines three main approaches to social research: positivist, interpretivist, and critical. It provides comparisons of the key assumptions and methods of each approach. The positivist approach views reality as objective and seeks to discover universal laws through quantitative methods. The interpretivist approach sees reality as subjective and aims to understand how people construct meaning through qualitative research. The critical approach seeks to critique and transform social relations by uncovering hidden truths through analytical methods like discourse analysis.
1) There are two main approaches to sociology - interpretivism and positivism. Interpretivism takes a bottom-up approach starting with individuals and uses qualitative methods like participant observation. Positivism takes a top-down approach and uses quantitative methods to test theories.
2) Max Weber argued for verstehen, or understanding social actions from the actor's point of view by attempting to see the world through their eyes. This established an alternative to prior sociological positivism.
3) In a study of a London housing estate, the researcher found through qualitative methods that residents felt safe, despite statistics showing it as crime-ridden. This highlights how quantitative and qualitative data can show
This document provides an overview of critical theories and power in organizational contexts. It discusses key concepts in critical theory like emancipation of the oppressed. It also summarizes different traditions of social research like positivism, interpretivism, and critical realism. The document then examines several critical theories of power, including Weber's three component theory of stratification and power, Foucault's theory of power/knowledge, and Parsons' variable sum concept of power. Finally, it discusses sources of power in organizations and concludes by reflecting on critical theory's aims and ability to critique and transform society.
Social psychology and personality psychology have the same job: to seek to understand the meaningful, consequential, and for the most part social behaviors of daily life. Cognitive psychology examines component processes such as memory, perception, and cognition. Biological psychology seeks to understand the physical underpinnings of behavior in the anatomy, physiology, functional organization, genetic basis and evolutionary history of the nervous system. Developmental psychology explores the roots of behavior in genetics and early childhood experience, and changes across the life course. All of these fields could be viewed as foundational for the common concern of social and personality psychology, which is to understand what people do every day. In this light, it is unsurprising that courses in social and personality psychology are among the most popular offerings on most college campuses; their subject matter is not only important, it is personally relevant and intrinsically interesting.
Social and personality psychology began to come into their own about the same time – the 1920’s and 1930’s – through the work of many of the same people, such as the Allport brothers, Floyd and Gordon (F. Allport, 1924; G. Allport, 1931, 1937; F. Allport & G. Allport, 1921). What is surprising, in retrospect, is how the two fields diverged over the subsequent decades. Social psychology came to specialize in the study of what people have in common; in particular how aspects of situations can change what people, on average, will do. Personality psychology came to specialize in the study of how people differ from each other psychologically, and on ways to characterize and measure these differences. This division of labor makes a certain amount of sense, but problems arose as the fields gradually became so specialized that many practitioners of each field became unaware of the basic principles, findings and methods of the other, and grew worse when social psychologists began to suspect that personality psychology’s emphasis on individual differences was misguided. In his memoirs, the eminent social psychologist Roger Brown described one memorably awkward encounter between the two traditions:
Alternative Personality Psychology TheoriesLily Yuan
This document summarizes several alternative theories in personality psychology, including positive psychology, alternative five factor models, social-cognitive theories, humanism, self-theory, psychodynamic theory, behavioral theory, behavioral epigenetics, and evolutionary psychology. Positive psychology focuses on character strengths and flourishing. Social-cognitive theory examines how social learning and personal variables influence behavior. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and esteem needs. Evolutionary psychology analyzes adaptive pressures and temperaments.
The document discusses the development of self and personality from a symbolic interactionist perspective. It covers key concepts such as the looking glass self, how social interaction shapes identity, and the three categories of identity - situated, personal, and social. Mead's view of self as something that develops through social interactions and being able to see oneself through the perspective of others is also summarized.
Essay 1 generally good content; but some issues with content as n.docxYASHU40
The document discusses different methods for measuring religiosity in sociological research. It describes direct and indirect methods. Direct methods involve directly asking about religiosity, while indirect methods use research instruments to indirectly measure religiosity. It provides details on several indirect methods, including organizational religiosity, individual religiosity, and their direct and indirect effects. While acknowledging limitations, the document argues indirect methods are better as they utilize explicit studies to fully capture the multi-dimensional nature of religiosity.
BUS310ASSIGNMENTImagine that you work for a company with an ag.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS310ASSIGNMENT
Imagine that you work for a company with an age diverse workforce. You have baby boomers working with millenials. Their backgrounds are different, and how they view work is different. This is causing some friction within the workforce. Before the tension escalates, you need to have a meeting to discuss the issue. Prepare a five to seven (5-7) slide PowerPoint presentation for your staff meeting that addresses this issue and proposes a solution.
Create a five to seven (5-7) slide PowerPoint presentation in which you:
1. Propose a solution that will relieve friction in your company’s age diverse workforce.
2. Format your assignment according to the following formatting requirements:
a. Format the PowerPoint presentation with headings on each slide and at least one (1) relevant graphic (photograph, graph, clip art, etc.). Ensure that the presentation is visually appealing and readable from up to 18 feet away. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
b. Include a title slide containing the title of the assignment, your name, your professor’s name, the course title, and the date.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
· Explain effective approaches to the broad spectrum of employee relations, including career development, fostering ethical behavior, discipline, labor relations, and dismissals.
· Use technology and information resources to research issues in human resource management.
· Write clearly and concisely about human resource management using proper writing mechanics.
Click here to view the grading rubric for this assignment.
Team Project Deliverable and Presentation
You team works for XYZ Company, which has a directional strategy focused on expanding the company through horizontal integration. Your team can determine the official name of the company and industry. The company does a great job keeping close watch on its cash position and consistently maintains a positive cash flow; is very solvent; controls its overhead expenses; has solid marketing and sales, production, and human resources performance metrics, and fosters a culture of strategic thinkers. Historically, your company has expanded through a combination of organic (new startups) and inorganic growth and feels it’s time to consider acquisition opportunities.
The Board is looking to engage in a friendly acquisition of a company that will not only increase its market share, but allow it to penetrate new markets and increase the company’s abilities to meet current and future consumer needs and expectations. Since management’s attitude is to pursue a friendly acquisition as opposed to a hostile takeover, your team may consider looking at conglomerates that have experienced significant growth through inorganic growth (acquisitions) and may now be looking to refocus on their core business and are willing to consider divesting some of its businesses that are within your industry. There could be other companies.
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 2 Describing Data Expected Out.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 2
Describing Data
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. Basic descriptive statistics for data location
2. Basic descriptive statistics for data consistency
3. Basic descriptive statistics for data position
4. Basic approaches for describing likelihood
5. Difference between descriptive and inferential statistics
What this lecture covers
This lecture focuses on describing data and how these descriptions can be used in an
analysis. It also introduces and defines some specific descriptive statistical tools and results.
Even if we never become a data detective or do statistical tests, we will be exposed and
bombarded with statistics and statistical outcomes. We need to understand what they are telling
us and how they help uncover what the data means on the “crime,” AKA research question/issue.
How we obtain these results will be covered in lecture 1-3.
Detecting
In our favorite detective shows, starting out always seems difficult. They have a crime,
but no real clues or suspects, no idea of what happened, no “theory of the crime,” etc. Much as
we are at this point with our question on equal pay for equal work.
The process followed is remarkably similar across the different shows. First, a case or
situation presents itself. The heroes start by understanding the background of the situation and
those involved. They move on to collecting clues and following hints, some of which do not pan
out to be helpful. They then start to build relationships between and among clues and facts,
tossing out ideas that seemed good but lead to dead-ends or non-helpful insights (false leads,
etc.). Finally, a conclusion is reached and the initial question of “who done it” is solved.
Data analysis, and specifically statistical analysis, is done quite the same way as we will
see.
Descriptive Statistics
Week 1 Clues
We are interested in whether or not males and females are paid the same for doing equal
work. So, how do we go about answering this question? The “victim” in this question could be
considered the difference in pay between males and females, specifically when they are doing
equal work. An initial examination (Doc, was it murder or an accident?) involves obtaining
basic information to see if we even have cause to worry.
The first action in any analysis involves collecting the data. This generally involves
conducting a random sample from the population of employees so that we have a manageable
data set to operate from. In this case, our sample, presented in Lecture 1, gave us 25 males and
25 females spread throughout the company. A quick look at the sample by HR provided us with
assurance that the group looked representative of the company workforce we are concerned with
as a whole. Now we can confidently collect clues to see if we should be concerned or not.
As with any detective, the first issue is to understand the.
BUS308 – Week 5 Lecture 1 A Different View Expected Ou.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308 – Week 5 Lecture 1
A Different View
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. What a confidence interval for a statistic is.
2. What a confidence interval for differences is.
3. The difference between statistical and practical significance.
4. The meaning of an Effect Size measure.
Overview
Years ago, a comedy show used to introduce new skits with the phrase “and now for
something completely different.” That seems appropriate for this week’s material.
This week we will look at evaluating our data results in somewhat different ways. One of
the criticisms of the hypothesis testing procedure is that it only shows one value, when it is
reasonably clear that a number of different values would also cause us to reject or not reject a
null hypothesis of no difference. Many managers and researchers would like to see what these
values could be; and, in particular, what are the extreme values as help in making decisions.
Confidence intervals will help us here.
The other criticism of the hypothesis testing procedure is that we can “manage” the
results, or ensure that we will reject the null, by manipulating the sample size. For example, if
we have a difference in a customer preference between two products of only 1%, is this a big
deal? Given the uncertainty contained in sample results, we might tend to think that we can
safely ignore this result. However, if we were to use a sample of, say, 10,000, we would find
that this difference is statistically significant. This, for many, seems to fly in the face of
reasonableness. We will look at a measure of “practical significance,” meaning the likelihood of
the difference being worth paying any attention to, called the effect size to help us here.
Confidence Intervals
A confidence interval is a range of values that, based upon the sample results, most likely
contains the actual population parameter. The “most likely” element is the level of confidence
attached to the interval, 95% confidence interval, 90% confidence interval, 99% confidence
interval, etc. They can be created at any time, with or without performing a statistical test, such
as the t-test.
A confidence interval may be expressed as a range (45 to 51% of the town’s population
support the proposal) or as a mean or proportion with a margin of error (48% of the town
supports the proposal, with a margin of error of 3%). This last format is frequently seen with
opinion poll results, and simply means that you should add and subtract this margin of error from
the reported proportion to obtain the range. With either format, the confidence percent should
also be provided.
Confidence intervals for a single mean (or proportion) are fairly straightforward to
understand, and relate to t-test outcomes simply. Details on how to construct the interval will be
given in this week’s second lecture. We want to understand how to interpret and understa.
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 1
Statistics
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. The basic ideas of data analysis.
2. Key statistical concepts and terms.
3. The basic approach for this class.
4. The case focus for the class.
What we are all about
Data, measurements, counts, etc., is often considered the language of business. However,
it also plays an important role in our personal lives as well. Data, or more accurately, the
analysis of data answers our questions. These may be business related or personal. Some
questions we may have heard that require data to answer include:
1. On average, how long does it take you to get to work? Or, alternately, when do you
have to leave to get to work on time?
2. For budget purposes, what is the average expense for utilities, food, etc.?
3. Has the quality rejection rate on production Line 3 changed?
4. Did the new attendance incentive program reduce the tardiness for the department?
5. Which vendor has the best average price for what we order?
6. Which customers have the most complaints about our products?
7. Has the average production time decreased with the new process?
8. Do different groups respond differently to an employee questionnaire?
9. What are the chances that a customer will complain about or return a product?
Note that all of these very reasonable questions require that we collect data, analyze it,
and reach some conclusion based upon that result.
Making Sense of Data
This class is about ways to turn data sets, lots of raw numbers, into information that we
can use. This may include simple descriptions of the data with measures such as average, range,
high and low values, etc. It also includes ways to examine the information within the data set so
that we can make decisions, identify patterns, and identify existing relationships. This is often
called data analysis; some courses discuss this approach with the term “data-based decision
making.” During this class we will focus on the logic of analyzing data and interpreting these
results.
What this class is not
This class is not a mathematics course. I know, it is called statistics and it deals with
numbers, but we do not focus on creating formulas or even doing calculations. Excel will do all
of the calculations for us; for those of you who have not used Excel before, and even for some
who have, you will be pleasantly surprised at how powerful and relatively easy to use it is.
It is also not a class in collecting the data. Courses in research focus on how to plan on
collecting data so that it is fair and unbiased. Statistics deals with working on the data after it has
been collected.
Class structure
There are two main themes to this class. The first focuses on interpreting statistical
outcomes. When someone says, the result is statistically significant with a p-value of 0.01; we
need, as professionals, to know what it means. .
BUS308 Statistics for ManagersDiscussions To participate in .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308
Statistics for Managers
Discussions
To participate in the following discussions, go to this week's
Discussion
link in the left navigation.
Language
Numbers and measurements are the language of business.. Organizations look at results, expenses, quality levels, efficiencies, time, costs, etc. What measures does your department keep track of ? How are the measures collected, and how are they summarized/described? How are they used in making decisions? (Note: If you do not have a job where measures are available to you, ask someone you know for some examples or conduct outside research on an interest of yours.)
Guided Response: Review several of your classmates’ posts. Respond to at least two of your classmates by providing recommendations for the measures being discussed.
Levels
Managers and professionals often pay more attention to the levels of their measures (means, sums, etc.) than to the variation in the data (the dispersion or the probability patterns/distributions that describe the data). For the measures you identified in Discussion 1, why must dispersion be considered to truly understand what the data is telling us about what we measure/track? How can we make decisions about outcomes and results if we do not understand the consistency (variation) of the data? Does looking at the variation in the data give us a different understanding of results?
Guided Response: Review several of your classmates’ posts. Respond to at least two classmates by commenting on the situations that are being illustrated.
.
BUS308 Week 4 Lecture 1
Examining Relationships
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. Issues around correlation
2. The basics of Correlation analysis
3. The basics of Linear Regression
4. The basics of the Multiple Regression
Overview
Often in our detective shows when the clues are not providing a clear answer – such as
we are seeing with the apparent continuing contradiction between the compa-ratio and salary
related results – we hear the line “maybe we need to look at this from a different viewpoint.”
That is what we will be doing this week.
Our investigation changes focus a bit this week. We started the class by finding ways to
describe and summarize data sets – finding measures of the center and dispersion of the data with
means, medians, standard deviations, ranges, etc. As interesting as these clues were, they did not
tell us all we needed to know to solve our question about equal work for equal pay. In fact, the
evidence was somewhat contradictory depending upon what measure we focused on. In Weeks 2
and 3, we changed our focus to asking questions about differences and how important different
sample outcomes were. We found that all differences were not important, and that for many
relatively small result differences we could safely ignore them for decision making purposes –
they were due to simple sampling (or chance) errors. We found that this idea of sampling error
could extend into work and individual performance outcomes observed over time; and that over-
reacting to such differences did not make much sense.
Now, in our continuing efforts to detect and uncover what the data is hiding from us, we
change focus again as we start to find out why something happened, what caused the data to act
as it did; rather than merely what happened (describing the data as we have been doing). This
week we move from examining differences to looking at relationships; that is, if some measure
changes does another measure change as well? And, if so, can we use this information to make
predictions and/or understand what underlies this common movement?
Our tools in doing this involve correlation, the measurement of how closely two
variables move together; and regression, an equation showing the impact of inputs on a final
output. A regression is similar to a recipe for a cake or other food dish; take a bit of this and
some of that, put them together, and we get our result.
Correlation
We have seen correlations a lot, and probably have even used them (formally or
informally). We know, for example, that all other things being equal; the more we eat. the more
we weigh. Kids, up to the early teens, grow taller the older they get. If we consistently speed,
we will get more speeding tickets than those who obey the speed limit. The more efforts we put
into studying, the better grades we get. All of these are examples of correlations.
Correlatio.
BUS225 Group Assignment1. Service BlueprintCustomer acti.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS225 Group Assignment
1. Service Blueprint
Customer actions include the choice of visiting a Calvin Klein retail store, browsing clothes and asking for recommendations from a sales representative. Visible actions performed by Calvin Klein’s sales representative include greet customers upon arrival, check for inventory, bring clothes to customers and process payment. These actions are visible to customers and one invisible action performed by the sales representative would be finding customer clothes in the back room. The support processes include inventory-tracking system, inventory in the back room and POS systems, which allow the sales representative to deliver service smoothly.
2. Introduction
Calvin Klein is one amongst the leading fashion style and marketing studios within the world. It styles and markets women’s and men’s designer assortment attire and a variety of different products that area unit factory-made and marketed through an intensive network of licensing agreements and different arrangements worldwide.
2.1 Target Market
Calvin Klein targets male and female, and the millenials. The demographics of the people that would be receiving these messages from the “My Calvins” campaign would be men and women between the ages of 15-30, not married and have a median income.
Millenials believe that the next generation of robots are not going to replace people, but instead help to improve the effectiveness and service of industries. In today’s world, to suggest that automation will eliminate the need for human workers is proving to be as ridiculous as suggesting that tablets will replace laptops.
In the industrial world, robot design is pivoting from giant mechanical arms that take up factory floors, to smaller, more collaborative bots, that are designed to work alongside people. While these collaborative bots only make up 3% of the market today, they will make up 34% of the market by 2025.
3. Trend and importance of robotics
3.1. Role of robotics
The service sector is at an inflection point with regard to productivity gains and service industrialization similar to the industrial revolution in manufacturing that started in the eighteenth century. Robotics in combination with rapidly improving technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), mobile, cloud, big data and biometrics will bring opportunities for a wide range of innovations that have the potential to dramatically change service industries. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential role service robots will play in the future and to advance a research agenda for service researchers (Wirtz et al. 2018).
Advancements in technology are radically transforming service, and increasingly providing the underlying basis for service strategy. Technological capabilities inevitably advance, firms will tend to move from standardized to personalized and from transactional to relational over time, implying that firms should be alert to technological opportunities to .
BUS301 Memo Rubric Spring 2020 - Student.docxBUS301 Writing Ru.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS301 Memo Rubric Spring 2020 - Student.docx
BUS301 Writing Rubric
Performance Dimensions
N/A
Not Met
Met
Comments
Organization (OABC)
Opening gets attention, provides context, and introduces topic
0
1
Agenda previews content of the document
0
1
Body
0
2
Sound paragraphing decisions (length and development)
Paragraphs limited to one topic per paragraph
Complete discussion of one topic before moving to next topic
Transitions and flow between paragraphs smooth
The overall flow/logic/structure of document is apparent
Closing summarizes and concludes, recommends, if appropriate
0
1
Content
The content of the document is relevant; information meaningful
0
2
The document is developed with adequate support and examples
0
2
The content is accurate and appropriate, with insightful analysis
0
2
Proofreading
The grammar and spelling are correct (proofread)
0
3
Punctuation—comma usage, capitalization, etc.—used correctly
0
3
The sentence structure and length are appropriate
0
1
Format
Appropriate formatting is used for type of document written
0
1
Good use of font, margins, spacing, headings, and visuals
0
1
[11/2016]
Example - Good - Corrected student example Spring 2020.docx
TO: Professor __________
FROM: Suzy Student
DATE: February 1, 2020
SUBJECT: Out of Class Experience – Cybersecurity Conference
Cybersecurity is a topic everyone should be concerned about, so I attended the 3rd Annual Cybersecurity Event held in the Grawn Atrium. I gained insight and knowledge from listening to the speakers that came from different kinds of industries. In this memo, I will discuss what I learned from the speaker and two takeaways: 1) cybersecurity is everywhere, 2) personal identifiable information, and 3) cybersecurity for the business student.
Cybersecurity is Everywhere
The conference was an opportunity to learn about cybersecurity. The first speaker talked about how companies are attacked in many different ways every day. The “bad guys” are trying to steal company information as well as employee information. Both kinds of information are valuable on the black market. The second speaker talked about the internet of things (IoT). These are things that are attached to the internet. The speaker talked about autonomous cars and medical equipment (heart) that talks to the internet. She talked about how cyber can and should influence designs. “Things” must be created with cybersecurity included in every step of the design. The last speaker talked about how my information has value. The “bad guys” steal my information and people want to buy it. Making money is one reason hackers steal millions of records.
Personal Identifiable Information
Personal Identifiable Information (PII) is any information relating to an identifiable person. There are laws in place to help make sure this information is secure. This topic is a takeaway for me because I had no idea my data had any value t.
BUS1431Introduction and PreferencesBUS143 Judgmen.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS143
1
Introduction and Preferences
BUS143: Judgment and Decision Making
Ye Li
All rights reserved ®
Why you decided to take this class
“Decisions are the essence of
management. They’re what
managers do—sit around all
day making (or avoiding)
decisions. Managers are judged
on the outcomes, and most of
them—most of us—have only
the foggiest idea how we do
what we do.”
Thomas Stewart
Former editor (2002-2008),
Harvard Business Review
BUS143
2
Decision Making: Two Questions
• Why is decision making difficult?
• What constitutes a good decision?
Decision Making: Good Process
• What is a decision?
– A costly commitment to a course of action.
• Outcomes versus Process
Outcomes
Good Bad
Process
Good
Bad
Bad “luck”
Good “luck”
BUS143
3
Components of a Good Decision
• I have considered my ABCs
– Alternatives
– Beliefs
– Consequences
• I am devoting an appropriate amount of
resources
• I have avoided major decision traps
Decision Making Components: The ABCs
• Alternatives
– Identification and articulation
– Construction/refinement
• Beliefs
– Identification and quantification of uncertainties
– Information collection/gathering
• Consequences
– Identification of consequences (and objectives
addressed by consequences)
– When possible, quantification of tradeoffs among
objectives
BUS143
4
Decision Making: Good Process
• Putting it all together (for now)…
Good decision making is choosing the
alternative that best meets your objectives
in the face of uncertainty about what
consequences will ensue.
3 Perspectives on Decision Making
• Normative
– How should people make decisions?
Related concepts: rational; optimizing; forward-looking
• Descriptive
– How do people make decisions?
Related concepts: boundedly rational; limited cognitive capacity;
heuristics or rule-based; myopic
• Prescriptive
– How can we help people make better decisions?
– Prescriptive advice via practical applications, in…
Management
Marketing
Finance
HR
Life!
BUS143
5
Example
• Problem
– Imagine two 1-mile-long (1.61km) pieces of railroad track, put
end to end, and attached to the ground at the extremes.
When it gets hot, each piece of track expands by 1 inch
(2.54cm), forcing the pieces to rise above the ground where
they meet in the middle.
How high will the track be in the middle?
• Normative rule:
– Pythagorean Theorem:
• Descriptive reality:
– Most people underestimate x. (We anchor on 1 inch.)
• Prescription:
– Use normative rule (geometry). Don’t rely on intuition.
More Examples
• Normative rule:
– Lighter objects should
be judged as lighter.
• Descriptive reality:
– Sometimes our vision
tricks us.
• Prescription:
– Use an outside reference
or instrument
– Note: Pilots have specific
strategies for
counteracting visual
illusions
Which box looks lighter?
BUS143
6
Class Philosophy
• Overarching goal:
– Help you to.
BUS210 analysis – open question codesQ7a01 Monthly OK02 Not .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS210 analysis – open question codes
Q7a
01 Monthly OK
02 Not trading hours
03 Every 2 weeks
05 Don’t know
Q8
01 More information wanted
02 More security/Police
03 More involvement from business
04 Inconvenient times
05 Street activation needs improvement
06 Too busy to be involved
08 More outside main areas
Q11
01 Toilets
02 Security/Police
03 Problems with access
04 Better parking needed
05 Has been positive improvement
Q14
01 Pedestrian flows
02 Tourist/visitor information
03 Business statistics – local and general
D2 Business Types
01 Accommodation/hospitality
02 Retail
03 Bank
04 Café/fast food
05 Professional services
06 Travel
07 NGO/Charity
08 Manufacturing
09 Media/art
Questionnaire
Introduce: We have been commissioned by the X Sydney Council to conduct independent research of its BID members. The research will be used to improve Council activities. Your comments will be confidential.
For the following statement, can you tell me whether you agree or disagree? Then ask: is that strongly/mildly agree/disagree?
1 = strongly agree 2 = mildly agree 3 = mildly disagree 4 = strongly disagree
5 = Don’t know (don’t say) 6 = N/A (don’t say) READ OUT AS INDICATED IN QUESTIONS BELOW
Write in rating
START QUESTIONS HERE: Firstly, some questions about Council BID membership and street activation groups
Q1 (read out scale options) I’m active in the Council BID
Q2 (read out scale options again) Local businesses support the BID
Q3 The BID should be doing more for businesses in X Sydney
Q4 I am satisfied with the street activation activities organised by the Council BID
Q5 I participate in the BID street activation groups (yes/no question) if yes go to Q7
Yes/No
Q6 I am interested in participating in a BID street activation group
Q7 Do you think BID member meetings should be more frequent?
If yes, how often (write in) ……………………………………………
YES/NO/Don’t know
Q8 Do you have any comments in relation to the questions I’ve just asked?
(write in)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(read out) Now, Just a few questions about safety and amenities
Q9 (Read out scale again) Being able to access safety, crime prevention tools information and reporting forms all in one place through the BID website is something I value
Q10 The public space and amenity quality is good in the Council area
Q11 Do you have any comments about safety and amenities
(write in)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
And finally a few questions about communications (read out)
Q12 I a.
More Related Content
Similar to NO PLAGERISM, DO NOT TURN IN PAPERS USED ONLINE OR SOLD TO SOMEONE.docx
Sujay Identity and identity change FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This document proposes a generalized approach to collective and individual identity formation that could apply across cultures. It discusses the importance of identity modulation, dilution, and neutralization while introducing concepts like the "psychic unity of mankind" and dangers of identity polarization. The approach is linked to theories in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and human development. It advocates for ethnographic fieldwork in diverse contexts and pedagogical reform to shape identity and promote ethnic harmony in a globalized world.
Sujay Identity and identity change FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This document proposes a generalized approach to collective and individual identity formation that could apply across cultures. It discusses the importance of identity modulation, dilution, and neutralization while introducing concepts like the "psychic unity of mankind" and dangers of identity polarization. The approach is linked to theories in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and human development. It advocates for ethnographic fieldwork in diverse contexts and pedagogical reform to shape identity and promote ethnic harmony in a globalized world.
This document discusses how social psychology can be seen in everyday life through an experience the author had during a "spend a day" visit at a high school they were applying to. The author describes being given a tour of the school and attending classes with a current student to get a sense of what it would be like to attend that school. They note that the majority of students at the private school were white. The summary discusses an everyday experience that demonstrates principles of social psychology.
Symbolic Interactionism, Structural-Functional Theory and Conflict Theory Vijayalakshmi Murugesan
This document provides an overview of three major sociological theories: symbolic interactionism, structural-functional theory, and conflict theory. Symbolic interactionism examines how individuals construct meanings through interactions and symbols. Structural-functional theory views society as a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability. Conflict theory sees society as groups competing for limited resources and views social institutions as maintaining inequality between groups.
The document outlines three main approaches to social research: positivist, interpretivist, and critical. It provides comparisons of the key assumptions and methods of each approach. The positivist approach views reality as objective and seeks to discover universal laws through quantitative methods. The interpretivist approach sees reality as subjective and aims to understand how people construct meaning through qualitative research. The critical approach seeks to critique and transform social relations by uncovering hidden truths through analytical methods like discourse analysis.
1) There are two main approaches to sociology - interpretivism and positivism. Interpretivism takes a bottom-up approach starting with individuals and uses qualitative methods like participant observation. Positivism takes a top-down approach and uses quantitative methods to test theories.
2) Max Weber argued for verstehen, or understanding social actions from the actor's point of view by attempting to see the world through their eyes. This established an alternative to prior sociological positivism.
3) In a study of a London housing estate, the researcher found through qualitative methods that residents felt safe, despite statistics showing it as crime-ridden. This highlights how quantitative and qualitative data can show
This document provides an overview of critical theories and power in organizational contexts. It discusses key concepts in critical theory like emancipation of the oppressed. It also summarizes different traditions of social research like positivism, interpretivism, and critical realism. The document then examines several critical theories of power, including Weber's three component theory of stratification and power, Foucault's theory of power/knowledge, and Parsons' variable sum concept of power. Finally, it discusses sources of power in organizations and concludes by reflecting on critical theory's aims and ability to critique and transform society.
Social psychology and personality psychology have the same job: to seek to understand the meaningful, consequential, and for the most part social behaviors of daily life. Cognitive psychology examines component processes such as memory, perception, and cognition. Biological psychology seeks to understand the physical underpinnings of behavior in the anatomy, physiology, functional organization, genetic basis and evolutionary history of the nervous system. Developmental psychology explores the roots of behavior in genetics and early childhood experience, and changes across the life course. All of these fields could be viewed as foundational for the common concern of social and personality psychology, which is to understand what people do every day. In this light, it is unsurprising that courses in social and personality psychology are among the most popular offerings on most college campuses; their subject matter is not only important, it is personally relevant and intrinsically interesting.
Social and personality psychology began to come into their own about the same time – the 1920’s and 1930’s – through the work of many of the same people, such as the Allport brothers, Floyd and Gordon (F. Allport, 1924; G. Allport, 1931, 1937; F. Allport & G. Allport, 1921). What is surprising, in retrospect, is how the two fields diverged over the subsequent decades. Social psychology came to specialize in the study of what people have in common; in particular how aspects of situations can change what people, on average, will do. Personality psychology came to specialize in the study of how people differ from each other psychologically, and on ways to characterize and measure these differences. This division of labor makes a certain amount of sense, but problems arose as the fields gradually became so specialized that many practitioners of each field became unaware of the basic principles, findings and methods of the other, and grew worse when social psychologists began to suspect that personality psychology’s emphasis on individual differences was misguided. In his memoirs, the eminent social psychologist Roger Brown described one memorably awkward encounter between the two traditions:
Alternative Personality Psychology TheoriesLily Yuan
This document summarizes several alternative theories in personality psychology, including positive psychology, alternative five factor models, social-cognitive theories, humanism, self-theory, psychodynamic theory, behavioral theory, behavioral epigenetics, and evolutionary psychology. Positive psychology focuses on character strengths and flourishing. Social-cognitive theory examines how social learning and personal variables influence behavior. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and esteem needs. Evolutionary psychology analyzes adaptive pressures and temperaments.
The document discusses the development of self and personality from a symbolic interactionist perspective. It covers key concepts such as the looking glass self, how social interaction shapes identity, and the three categories of identity - situated, personal, and social. Mead's view of self as something that develops through social interactions and being able to see oneself through the perspective of others is also summarized.
Essay 1 generally good content; but some issues with content as n.docxYASHU40
The document discusses different methods for measuring religiosity in sociological research. It describes direct and indirect methods. Direct methods involve directly asking about religiosity, while indirect methods use research instruments to indirectly measure religiosity. It provides details on several indirect methods, including organizational religiosity, individual religiosity, and their direct and indirect effects. While acknowledging limitations, the document argues indirect methods are better as they utilize explicit studies to fully capture the multi-dimensional nature of religiosity.
Similar to NO PLAGERISM, DO NOT TURN IN PAPERS USED ONLINE OR SOLD TO SOMEONE.docx (11)
BUS310ASSIGNMENTImagine that you work for a company with an ag.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS310ASSIGNMENT
Imagine that you work for a company with an age diverse workforce. You have baby boomers working with millenials. Their backgrounds are different, and how they view work is different. This is causing some friction within the workforce. Before the tension escalates, you need to have a meeting to discuss the issue. Prepare a five to seven (5-7) slide PowerPoint presentation for your staff meeting that addresses this issue and proposes a solution.
Create a five to seven (5-7) slide PowerPoint presentation in which you:
1. Propose a solution that will relieve friction in your company’s age diverse workforce.
2. Format your assignment according to the following formatting requirements:
a. Format the PowerPoint presentation with headings on each slide and at least one (1) relevant graphic (photograph, graph, clip art, etc.). Ensure that the presentation is visually appealing and readable from up to 18 feet away. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
b. Include a title slide containing the title of the assignment, your name, your professor’s name, the course title, and the date.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
· Explain effective approaches to the broad spectrum of employee relations, including career development, fostering ethical behavior, discipline, labor relations, and dismissals.
· Use technology and information resources to research issues in human resource management.
· Write clearly and concisely about human resource management using proper writing mechanics.
Click here to view the grading rubric for this assignment.
Team Project Deliverable and Presentation
You team works for XYZ Company, which has a directional strategy focused on expanding the company through horizontal integration. Your team can determine the official name of the company and industry. The company does a great job keeping close watch on its cash position and consistently maintains a positive cash flow; is very solvent; controls its overhead expenses; has solid marketing and sales, production, and human resources performance metrics, and fosters a culture of strategic thinkers. Historically, your company has expanded through a combination of organic (new startups) and inorganic growth and feels it’s time to consider acquisition opportunities.
The Board is looking to engage in a friendly acquisition of a company that will not only increase its market share, but allow it to penetrate new markets and increase the company’s abilities to meet current and future consumer needs and expectations. Since management’s attitude is to pursue a friendly acquisition as opposed to a hostile takeover, your team may consider looking at conglomerates that have experienced significant growth through inorganic growth (acquisitions) and may now be looking to refocus on their core business and are willing to consider divesting some of its businesses that are within your industry. There could be other companies.
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 2 Describing Data Expected Out.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 2
Describing Data
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. Basic descriptive statistics for data location
2. Basic descriptive statistics for data consistency
3. Basic descriptive statistics for data position
4. Basic approaches for describing likelihood
5. Difference between descriptive and inferential statistics
What this lecture covers
This lecture focuses on describing data and how these descriptions can be used in an
analysis. It also introduces and defines some specific descriptive statistical tools and results.
Even if we never become a data detective or do statistical tests, we will be exposed and
bombarded with statistics and statistical outcomes. We need to understand what they are telling
us and how they help uncover what the data means on the “crime,” AKA research question/issue.
How we obtain these results will be covered in lecture 1-3.
Detecting
In our favorite detective shows, starting out always seems difficult. They have a crime,
but no real clues or suspects, no idea of what happened, no “theory of the crime,” etc. Much as
we are at this point with our question on equal pay for equal work.
The process followed is remarkably similar across the different shows. First, a case or
situation presents itself. The heroes start by understanding the background of the situation and
those involved. They move on to collecting clues and following hints, some of which do not pan
out to be helpful. They then start to build relationships between and among clues and facts,
tossing out ideas that seemed good but lead to dead-ends or non-helpful insights (false leads,
etc.). Finally, a conclusion is reached and the initial question of “who done it” is solved.
Data analysis, and specifically statistical analysis, is done quite the same way as we will
see.
Descriptive Statistics
Week 1 Clues
We are interested in whether or not males and females are paid the same for doing equal
work. So, how do we go about answering this question? The “victim” in this question could be
considered the difference in pay between males and females, specifically when they are doing
equal work. An initial examination (Doc, was it murder or an accident?) involves obtaining
basic information to see if we even have cause to worry.
The first action in any analysis involves collecting the data. This generally involves
conducting a random sample from the population of employees so that we have a manageable
data set to operate from. In this case, our sample, presented in Lecture 1, gave us 25 males and
25 females spread throughout the company. A quick look at the sample by HR provided us with
assurance that the group looked representative of the company workforce we are concerned with
as a whole. Now we can confidently collect clues to see if we should be concerned or not.
As with any detective, the first issue is to understand the.
BUS308 – Week 5 Lecture 1 A Different View Expected Ou.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308 – Week 5 Lecture 1
A Different View
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. What a confidence interval for a statistic is.
2. What a confidence interval for differences is.
3. The difference between statistical and practical significance.
4. The meaning of an Effect Size measure.
Overview
Years ago, a comedy show used to introduce new skits with the phrase “and now for
something completely different.” That seems appropriate for this week’s material.
This week we will look at evaluating our data results in somewhat different ways. One of
the criticisms of the hypothesis testing procedure is that it only shows one value, when it is
reasonably clear that a number of different values would also cause us to reject or not reject a
null hypothesis of no difference. Many managers and researchers would like to see what these
values could be; and, in particular, what are the extreme values as help in making decisions.
Confidence intervals will help us here.
The other criticism of the hypothesis testing procedure is that we can “manage” the
results, or ensure that we will reject the null, by manipulating the sample size. For example, if
we have a difference in a customer preference between two products of only 1%, is this a big
deal? Given the uncertainty contained in sample results, we might tend to think that we can
safely ignore this result. However, if we were to use a sample of, say, 10,000, we would find
that this difference is statistically significant. This, for many, seems to fly in the face of
reasonableness. We will look at a measure of “practical significance,” meaning the likelihood of
the difference being worth paying any attention to, called the effect size to help us here.
Confidence Intervals
A confidence interval is a range of values that, based upon the sample results, most likely
contains the actual population parameter. The “most likely” element is the level of confidence
attached to the interval, 95% confidence interval, 90% confidence interval, 99% confidence
interval, etc. They can be created at any time, with or without performing a statistical test, such
as the t-test.
A confidence interval may be expressed as a range (45 to 51% of the town’s population
support the proposal) or as a mean or proportion with a margin of error (48% of the town
supports the proposal, with a margin of error of 3%). This last format is frequently seen with
opinion poll results, and simply means that you should add and subtract this margin of error from
the reported proportion to obtain the range. With either format, the confidence percent should
also be provided.
Confidence intervals for a single mean (or proportion) are fairly straightforward to
understand, and relate to t-test outcomes simply. Details on how to construct the interval will be
given in this week’s second lecture. We want to understand how to interpret and understa.
BUS308 – Week 1 Lecture 1
Statistics
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. The basic ideas of data analysis.
2. Key statistical concepts and terms.
3. The basic approach for this class.
4. The case focus for the class.
What we are all about
Data, measurements, counts, etc., is often considered the language of business. However,
it also plays an important role in our personal lives as well. Data, or more accurately, the
analysis of data answers our questions. These may be business related or personal. Some
questions we may have heard that require data to answer include:
1. On average, how long does it take you to get to work? Or, alternately, when do you
have to leave to get to work on time?
2. For budget purposes, what is the average expense for utilities, food, etc.?
3. Has the quality rejection rate on production Line 3 changed?
4. Did the new attendance incentive program reduce the tardiness for the department?
5. Which vendor has the best average price for what we order?
6. Which customers have the most complaints about our products?
7. Has the average production time decreased with the new process?
8. Do different groups respond differently to an employee questionnaire?
9. What are the chances that a customer will complain about or return a product?
Note that all of these very reasonable questions require that we collect data, analyze it,
and reach some conclusion based upon that result.
Making Sense of Data
This class is about ways to turn data sets, lots of raw numbers, into information that we
can use. This may include simple descriptions of the data with measures such as average, range,
high and low values, etc. It also includes ways to examine the information within the data set so
that we can make decisions, identify patterns, and identify existing relationships. This is often
called data analysis; some courses discuss this approach with the term “data-based decision
making.” During this class we will focus on the logic of analyzing data and interpreting these
results.
What this class is not
This class is not a mathematics course. I know, it is called statistics and it deals with
numbers, but we do not focus on creating formulas or even doing calculations. Excel will do all
of the calculations for us; for those of you who have not used Excel before, and even for some
who have, you will be pleasantly surprised at how powerful and relatively easy to use it is.
It is also not a class in collecting the data. Courses in research focus on how to plan on
collecting data so that it is fair and unbiased. Statistics deals with working on the data after it has
been collected.
Class structure
There are two main themes to this class. The first focuses on interpreting statistical
outcomes. When someone says, the result is statistically significant with a p-value of 0.01; we
need, as professionals, to know what it means. .
BUS308 Statistics for ManagersDiscussions To participate in .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS308
Statistics for Managers
Discussions
To participate in the following discussions, go to this week's
Discussion
link in the left navigation.
Language
Numbers and measurements are the language of business.. Organizations look at results, expenses, quality levels, efficiencies, time, costs, etc. What measures does your department keep track of ? How are the measures collected, and how are they summarized/described? How are they used in making decisions? (Note: If you do not have a job where measures are available to you, ask someone you know for some examples or conduct outside research on an interest of yours.)
Guided Response: Review several of your classmates’ posts. Respond to at least two of your classmates by providing recommendations for the measures being discussed.
Levels
Managers and professionals often pay more attention to the levels of their measures (means, sums, etc.) than to the variation in the data (the dispersion or the probability patterns/distributions that describe the data). For the measures you identified in Discussion 1, why must dispersion be considered to truly understand what the data is telling us about what we measure/track? How can we make decisions about outcomes and results if we do not understand the consistency (variation) of the data? Does looking at the variation in the data give us a different understanding of results?
Guided Response: Review several of your classmates’ posts. Respond to at least two classmates by commenting on the situations that are being illustrated.
.
BUS308 Week 4 Lecture 1
Examining Relationships
Expected Outcomes
After reading this lecture, the student should be familiar with:
1. Issues around correlation
2. The basics of Correlation analysis
3. The basics of Linear Regression
4. The basics of the Multiple Regression
Overview
Often in our detective shows when the clues are not providing a clear answer – such as
we are seeing with the apparent continuing contradiction between the compa-ratio and salary
related results – we hear the line “maybe we need to look at this from a different viewpoint.”
That is what we will be doing this week.
Our investigation changes focus a bit this week. We started the class by finding ways to
describe and summarize data sets – finding measures of the center and dispersion of the data with
means, medians, standard deviations, ranges, etc. As interesting as these clues were, they did not
tell us all we needed to know to solve our question about equal work for equal pay. In fact, the
evidence was somewhat contradictory depending upon what measure we focused on. In Weeks 2
and 3, we changed our focus to asking questions about differences and how important different
sample outcomes were. We found that all differences were not important, and that for many
relatively small result differences we could safely ignore them for decision making purposes –
they were due to simple sampling (or chance) errors. We found that this idea of sampling error
could extend into work and individual performance outcomes observed over time; and that over-
reacting to such differences did not make much sense.
Now, in our continuing efforts to detect and uncover what the data is hiding from us, we
change focus again as we start to find out why something happened, what caused the data to act
as it did; rather than merely what happened (describing the data as we have been doing). This
week we move from examining differences to looking at relationships; that is, if some measure
changes does another measure change as well? And, if so, can we use this information to make
predictions and/or understand what underlies this common movement?
Our tools in doing this involve correlation, the measurement of how closely two
variables move together; and regression, an equation showing the impact of inputs on a final
output. A regression is similar to a recipe for a cake or other food dish; take a bit of this and
some of that, put them together, and we get our result.
Correlation
We have seen correlations a lot, and probably have even used them (formally or
informally). We know, for example, that all other things being equal; the more we eat. the more
we weigh. Kids, up to the early teens, grow taller the older they get. If we consistently speed,
we will get more speeding tickets than those who obey the speed limit. The more efforts we put
into studying, the better grades we get. All of these are examples of correlations.
Correlatio.
BUS225 Group Assignment1. Service BlueprintCustomer acti.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS225 Group Assignment
1. Service Blueprint
Customer actions include the choice of visiting a Calvin Klein retail store, browsing clothes and asking for recommendations from a sales representative. Visible actions performed by Calvin Klein’s sales representative include greet customers upon arrival, check for inventory, bring clothes to customers and process payment. These actions are visible to customers and one invisible action performed by the sales representative would be finding customer clothes in the back room. The support processes include inventory-tracking system, inventory in the back room and POS systems, which allow the sales representative to deliver service smoothly.
2. Introduction
Calvin Klein is one amongst the leading fashion style and marketing studios within the world. It styles and markets women’s and men’s designer assortment attire and a variety of different products that area unit factory-made and marketed through an intensive network of licensing agreements and different arrangements worldwide.
2.1 Target Market
Calvin Klein targets male and female, and the millenials. The demographics of the people that would be receiving these messages from the “My Calvins” campaign would be men and women between the ages of 15-30, not married and have a median income.
Millenials believe that the next generation of robots are not going to replace people, but instead help to improve the effectiveness and service of industries. In today’s world, to suggest that automation will eliminate the need for human workers is proving to be as ridiculous as suggesting that tablets will replace laptops.
In the industrial world, robot design is pivoting from giant mechanical arms that take up factory floors, to smaller, more collaborative bots, that are designed to work alongside people. While these collaborative bots only make up 3% of the market today, they will make up 34% of the market by 2025.
3. Trend and importance of robotics
3.1. Role of robotics
The service sector is at an inflection point with regard to productivity gains and service industrialization similar to the industrial revolution in manufacturing that started in the eighteenth century. Robotics in combination with rapidly improving technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), mobile, cloud, big data and biometrics will bring opportunities for a wide range of innovations that have the potential to dramatically change service industries. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential role service robots will play in the future and to advance a research agenda for service researchers (Wirtz et al. 2018).
Advancements in technology are radically transforming service, and increasingly providing the underlying basis for service strategy. Technological capabilities inevitably advance, firms will tend to move from standardized to personalized and from transactional to relational over time, implying that firms should be alert to technological opportunities to .
BUS301 Memo Rubric Spring 2020 - Student.docxBUS301 Writing Ru.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS301 Memo Rubric Spring 2020 - Student.docx
BUS301 Writing Rubric
Performance Dimensions
N/A
Not Met
Met
Comments
Organization (OABC)
Opening gets attention, provides context, and introduces topic
0
1
Agenda previews content of the document
0
1
Body
0
2
Sound paragraphing decisions (length and development)
Paragraphs limited to one topic per paragraph
Complete discussion of one topic before moving to next topic
Transitions and flow between paragraphs smooth
The overall flow/logic/structure of document is apparent
Closing summarizes and concludes, recommends, if appropriate
0
1
Content
The content of the document is relevant; information meaningful
0
2
The document is developed with adequate support and examples
0
2
The content is accurate and appropriate, with insightful analysis
0
2
Proofreading
The grammar and spelling are correct (proofread)
0
3
Punctuation—comma usage, capitalization, etc.—used correctly
0
3
The sentence structure and length are appropriate
0
1
Format
Appropriate formatting is used for type of document written
0
1
Good use of font, margins, spacing, headings, and visuals
0
1
[11/2016]
Example - Good - Corrected student example Spring 2020.docx
TO: Professor __________
FROM: Suzy Student
DATE: February 1, 2020
SUBJECT: Out of Class Experience – Cybersecurity Conference
Cybersecurity is a topic everyone should be concerned about, so I attended the 3rd Annual Cybersecurity Event held in the Grawn Atrium. I gained insight and knowledge from listening to the speakers that came from different kinds of industries. In this memo, I will discuss what I learned from the speaker and two takeaways: 1) cybersecurity is everywhere, 2) personal identifiable information, and 3) cybersecurity for the business student.
Cybersecurity is Everywhere
The conference was an opportunity to learn about cybersecurity. The first speaker talked about how companies are attacked in many different ways every day. The “bad guys” are trying to steal company information as well as employee information. Both kinds of information are valuable on the black market. The second speaker talked about the internet of things (IoT). These are things that are attached to the internet. The speaker talked about autonomous cars and medical equipment (heart) that talks to the internet. She talked about how cyber can and should influence designs. “Things” must be created with cybersecurity included in every step of the design. The last speaker talked about how my information has value. The “bad guys” steal my information and people want to buy it. Making money is one reason hackers steal millions of records.
Personal Identifiable Information
Personal Identifiable Information (PII) is any information relating to an identifiable person. There are laws in place to help make sure this information is secure. This topic is a takeaway for me because I had no idea my data had any value t.
BUS1431Introduction and PreferencesBUS143 Judgmen.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS143
1
Introduction and Preferences
BUS143: Judgment and Decision Making
Ye Li
All rights reserved ®
Why you decided to take this class
“Decisions are the essence of
management. They’re what
managers do—sit around all
day making (or avoiding)
decisions. Managers are judged
on the outcomes, and most of
them—most of us—have only
the foggiest idea how we do
what we do.”
Thomas Stewart
Former editor (2002-2008),
Harvard Business Review
BUS143
2
Decision Making: Two Questions
• Why is decision making difficult?
• What constitutes a good decision?
Decision Making: Good Process
• What is a decision?
– A costly commitment to a course of action.
• Outcomes versus Process
Outcomes
Good Bad
Process
Good
Bad
Bad “luck”
Good “luck”
BUS143
3
Components of a Good Decision
• I have considered my ABCs
– Alternatives
– Beliefs
– Consequences
• I am devoting an appropriate amount of
resources
• I have avoided major decision traps
Decision Making Components: The ABCs
• Alternatives
– Identification and articulation
– Construction/refinement
• Beliefs
– Identification and quantification of uncertainties
– Information collection/gathering
• Consequences
– Identification of consequences (and objectives
addressed by consequences)
– When possible, quantification of tradeoffs among
objectives
BUS143
4
Decision Making: Good Process
• Putting it all together (for now)…
Good decision making is choosing the
alternative that best meets your objectives
in the face of uncertainty about what
consequences will ensue.
3 Perspectives on Decision Making
• Normative
– How should people make decisions?
Related concepts: rational; optimizing; forward-looking
• Descriptive
– How do people make decisions?
Related concepts: boundedly rational; limited cognitive capacity;
heuristics or rule-based; myopic
• Prescriptive
– How can we help people make better decisions?
– Prescriptive advice via practical applications, in…
Management
Marketing
Finance
HR
Life!
BUS143
5
Example
• Problem
– Imagine two 1-mile-long (1.61km) pieces of railroad track, put
end to end, and attached to the ground at the extremes.
When it gets hot, each piece of track expands by 1 inch
(2.54cm), forcing the pieces to rise above the ground where
they meet in the middle.
How high will the track be in the middle?
• Normative rule:
– Pythagorean Theorem:
• Descriptive reality:
– Most people underestimate x. (We anchor on 1 inch.)
• Prescription:
– Use normative rule (geometry). Don’t rely on intuition.
More Examples
• Normative rule:
– Lighter objects should
be judged as lighter.
• Descriptive reality:
– Sometimes our vision
tricks us.
• Prescription:
– Use an outside reference
or instrument
– Note: Pilots have specific
strategies for
counteracting visual
illusions
Which box looks lighter?
BUS143
6
Class Philosophy
• Overarching goal:
– Help you to.
BUS210 analysis – open question codesQ7a01 Monthly OK02 Not .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS210 analysis – open question codes
Q7a
01 Monthly OK
02 Not trading hours
03 Every 2 weeks
05 Don’t know
Q8
01 More information wanted
02 More security/Police
03 More involvement from business
04 Inconvenient times
05 Street activation needs improvement
06 Too busy to be involved
08 More outside main areas
Q11
01 Toilets
02 Security/Police
03 Problems with access
04 Better parking needed
05 Has been positive improvement
Q14
01 Pedestrian flows
02 Tourist/visitor information
03 Business statistics – local and general
D2 Business Types
01 Accommodation/hospitality
02 Retail
03 Bank
04 Café/fast food
05 Professional services
06 Travel
07 NGO/Charity
08 Manufacturing
09 Media/art
Questionnaire
Introduce: We have been commissioned by the X Sydney Council to conduct independent research of its BID members. The research will be used to improve Council activities. Your comments will be confidential.
For the following statement, can you tell me whether you agree or disagree? Then ask: is that strongly/mildly agree/disagree?
1 = strongly agree 2 = mildly agree 3 = mildly disagree 4 = strongly disagree
5 = Don’t know (don’t say) 6 = N/A (don’t say) READ OUT AS INDICATED IN QUESTIONS BELOW
Write in rating
START QUESTIONS HERE: Firstly, some questions about Council BID membership and street activation groups
Q1 (read out scale options) I’m active in the Council BID
Q2 (read out scale options again) Local businesses support the BID
Q3 The BID should be doing more for businesses in X Sydney
Q4 I am satisfied with the street activation activities organised by the Council BID
Q5 I participate in the BID street activation groups (yes/no question) if yes go to Q7
Yes/No
Q6 I am interested in participating in a BID street activation group
Q7 Do you think BID member meetings should be more frequent?
If yes, how often (write in) ……………………………………………
YES/NO/Don’t know
Q8 Do you have any comments in relation to the questions I’ve just asked?
(write in)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(read out) Now, Just a few questions about safety and amenities
Q9 (Read out scale again) Being able to access safety, crime prevention tools information and reporting forms all in one place through the BID website is something I value
Q10 The public space and amenity quality is good in the Council area
Q11 Do you have any comments about safety and amenities
(write in)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
And finally a few questions about communications (read out)
Q12 I a.
Bus101 quiz (Business Organizations)The due time is in 1hrs1 .docxcurwenmichaela
Bus101 quiz (Business Organizations)
The due time is in 1hrs
1/ Both socialism and communism are variations of:
Select one:
a. command economies.
b. competitive economies.
c. free-market economies.
d. plutocratic systems.
2 / To be effective, empowerment will require lower-level workers to :
Select one:
a. have more training.
b. accept less responsibility and lower wages.
c. receive less training.
d. have written policies regulating each aspect of their work.
3)
As a small business owner, Tanika can't afford to provide her employees with the high wages and benefits offered by big corporations. One way to retain her employees and create a high level of motivation would be to:
Select one:
a. threaten to fire her existing employees and hire new workers.
b. adopt a policy of promoting the workers who have been employed the longest.
c. empower her employees to develop their own ideas.
d. hire only family members, since they are more loyal.
4/
Anita is employed as plant manager for Mojo Industries, Incorporated. Though she spends some time performing all management functions, she is particularly concerned with tactical planning and controlling. Anita's position would be classified as part of Mojo's:
Select one:
a. top management.
b. lateral management.
c. supervisory management.
d. middle management.
5/
Which of the following policies would tend to foster entrepreneurship?
Select one:
a. establishing a currency that is tradable on world markets.
b. establishing more regulations to protect the environment.
c. developing policies to reduce corruption between individuals.
d. allowing public ownership of businesses.
6)
All else held equal, socially responsible firms:
Select one:
a. are viewed more favorably by consumers.
b. enjoy significantly higher profits.
c. often experience customer loyalty problems.
d. fail to earn sufficient profits for their owners.
7) After personal savings, the next largest source of capital for entrepreneurs is from:
Select one:
a. large multinational banks.
b. the Small Business Administration.
c. state and local governments.
d. friends and family.
8/
Patrick's Products has a manufacturing plant near Chicago. The plant specializes in compact washers and dryers for countries in which consumers have less living space. Patrick's Products participates in the global market through:
Select one:
a. importing.
b. dumping.
c. exporting.
d. balancing trade.
9/
Managers who listen to their subordinates and allow them to participate in decision-making are using the ____________ style of leadership.
Select one:
a. autocratic
b. free-rein
c. participative
d. bureaucratic
10/
Which of the following statements about partnerships is the most accurate?
Select one:
a. A partnership is simply a corporation with fewer than 100 owners.
b. A major advantage of a partnership is that it offers owners limited liability.
c. A major drawback of a partnership is that it is difficult to terminate.
d. Partnerships are taxed at the lowest corporate tax .
BUS 625 Week 4 Response to Discussion 2Guided Response Your.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 625 Week 4 Response to Discussion 2
Guided Response: Your initial response should be a minimum of 300 words in length. Respond to at least two of your classmates by commenting on their posts. Though two replies are the basic expectation for class discussions, for deeper engagement and learning, you are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or questions others have given to you.
Below there are two of my classmate’s discussion that needs I need to response to their names are Umadevi Sayana
and Britney Graves
Umadevi Sayana
TuesdayMar 17 at 7:50am
Manage Discussion Entry
Twitter mining analyzed the Twitter message in predicting, discovering, or investigating the causation. Twitter mining included text mining that designed specifically to leverage Twitter content and context tweets. With the use of text mining, twitter was able to include analysis of additional information that associates to tweets, which include hashtags, names, and other related characteristics. The mining also employs much information as several tweets, likes, retweets, and favorites trying to understand the considerations better. Twitter using text mining was successful in capturing and reflecting different events that relate to other conventional and social media. In 2013, there were over 500 million messages per day for twitter and became impossible for any human to analyze. It became important than to develop computer-based algorithms, including data mining. Twitter implements text mining in analyzing the sentiment that associates with twitter messages. It based on the analysis of the keyword that words are having a negative, positive, or neutral sentiment (Sunmoo, Noémie& Suzanne, (Links to an external site.)n.d). Positive words, for example like great, beautiful, love, and negative words of stupid, evil, and waste, do regularly have lexicons. Using text mining, Twitter was able to capture sentiments by capturing many dictionary symbols. Moreover, the sentiment applied to abbreviations, emoticons, and repeated characters, symbols, and abbreviations.
The sentiments on topics of economics, politics, and security are usually negative, and sentiments related to sports are harmful. Twitter also used text mining to collect and analyze for topic modeling techniques over time. To pull out the data from Twitter, TwitterR used. “Someone well versed in database architecture and data storage is needed to extract the relevant information in different databases and to merge them into a form that is useful for analysis” ( Sharpe, De Veaux & Velleman, 2019, p.753). It provides the interface that connects to Twitter web API; retweetedby/ids also used combined with RCurl package in finding out several tweets that retweeted. Text mining is also used in Twitter to clean the text by taking out hyperlinks, numbers, stop words, punctuations, followed by stem completion. Text mining also implemented for social network analysis.
Web mining focus on data knowledge discovery .
BUS 625 Week 2 Response for Discussion 1 & 2Week 2 Discussion 1 .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 625 Week 2 Response for Discussion 1 & 2
Week 2 Discussion 1 Response
Guided Response: Your initial response should be a minimum of 300 words in length. Respond to at least two of your classmates by commenting on their posts. In your response, provide your own interpretation of their distribution graph. Note any differences between your classmate’s interpretation and your own. Though two replies are the basic expectation for class discussions, for deeper engagement and learning you are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or questions others have given to you. Continuing to engage with peers and the instructor will further the conversation and provide you with opportunities to demonstrate your content expertise, critical thinking, and real-world experiences with the discussion topics.
Below there are two of my classmate’s discussion that needs I need to response to their names are Kristopher Wentworth and Ashley Thiberville
Kristopher Wentworth
This graph is a representation of single people versus married couples from the year 1950 to the year 2019. This information was gathered and presented by the U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S. Census Bureau who have a good record of presenting accurate data and are highly credible. The U.S. Department of Commerce is responsible for promoting economic growth in the united states. The U.S. Census Bureau is an agency of the Federal government that is responsible for producing data about the people of America and the economy.
So, the graph that I chose to talk about is one showing the gap between how many people are married and how many people are single in the united states from 1950 - 2019. I chose this graph because it caught my attention right away because of the contrasting colors but also because of the information displayed. It is crazy to think that since 1950 the American population has more than doubled according to this graph and with the growing population, the numbers of married couples and singles rise too. However, if you look at the percentages of singles they haven't changed all too much. For example, the number of single Americans in 1950 was 37.3M and in 2019 it was 125.7M. Even with such a large population boom the percentage that was never married really hadn't changed going from 69% to 68%.
The presentation of this graph is excellent with the line graph being yellow and on a blue backdrop, it allows it to really stand out. The shape of the graph shows a sharp incline as the population in us explodes. Since this graph is focused on the single population of America it puts the focus on that with stats like "never been married, divorced, widowed" because there are multiple ways to be single and really only one way to be married.
Ashley Thiberville
The above histogram was compiled by the United States Census Bureau to show the rise of one-person households in the US. The Census Bureau is a branch of the Department of Commerce within the United States gov.
Bus 626 Week 6 - Discussion Forum 1Guided Response Respon.docxcurwenmichaela
Bus 626 Week 6 - Discussion Forum 1
Guided Response: Respond to at least two of your fellow students’ and to your instructor’s posts in a substantive manner and provide information or concepts that they may not have considered. Each response should have a minimum of 100 words. Support your position by using information from the week’s readings. You are encouraged to post your required replies earlier in the week to promote more meaningful and interactive discourse in this discussion forum. Continue to monitor the discussion forum until Day 7 and respond with robust dialogue to anyone who replies to your initial post.
Jocelyn Harnett
Egypt has a sizable trade deficit that has continued to grow through the 21st century. The country has imports that make up a third of GDP and exports that make up one tenth of GDP. Egypt has many critical trade partners that include China, the United States, and the Gulf Arab countries. Throughout history Egypt has had an unstable government which has led to an unstable economy. This is related to the fluctuations the country has experienced in tariffs and taxes. The country has stabilized in recent years, but the historic instability still remains a critical factor when considering the expansion of Wal-Mart into Egypt. The trade deficit would not be a concern under normal conditions due to the fact that this means money is flowing into the country and creating new opportunities, but because the government is not stable Wal-Mart would want to ascertain that money was being invested properly in the future. If money is not being utilized correctly than the trade deficit becomes a concern because future generations are inheriting a debt that had no payback associated with it. The exchange rate of the Egyptian pound has gotten stronger to the US Dollar, which is a good indicator the economy is heading in the correct direction. Wal-Mart expansion could benefit from getting into the market in Egypt at the right time to see major profits.
Egypt is a market that will continue to grow as the internal government becomes stabilized and the country continues to focus on improving the economic welfare of the people. Currently the market in Egypt is volatile and companies that select to make an investment here must be aware of the many different cultural aspects that will affect success. The government is working to “find solutions and solve difficulties for people and businesses” (Bawaba, 2019) and has seen success in the first half of 2019. “At the time of May 31, 2019, the whole country had 721,516 businesses doing business, increasing 23,921 enterprises (3.43 %) compared to the end of 2018.” (Bawaba, 2019). This sort of success validates a foreign company wanting to make an investment, but continued analysis of the country’s government stability will be needed before each new storefront is added.
References:
Bawaba, A. (2019). Egypt : "Reviewing tax policies, finding solutions to solve difficulties for people and .
BUS 499, Week 8 Corporate Governance Slide #TopicNarration.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 499, Week 8: Corporate Governance
Slide #
Topic
Narration
1
Introduction
Welcome to Senior Seminar in Business Administration.
In this lesson we will discuss Corporate Governance.
Please go to the next slide.
2
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
Describe how corporate governance affects strategic decisions.
Please go to the next slide.
3
Supporting Topics
In order to achieve these objectives, the following supporting topics will be covered:
Separation of ownership and managerial control;
Ownership concentration;
Board of directors;
Market for corporate control;
International corporate governance; and
Governance mechanisms and ethical behavior.
Please go to the next slide.
4
Separation of Ownership and Managerial Control
To start off the lesson, corporate governance is defined as a set of mechanisms used to manage the relationship among stakeholders and to determine and control the strategic direction and performance of organizations. Corporate governance is concerned with identifying ways to ensure that decisionsare made effectively and that they facilitate strategic competitiveness. Another way to think of governance is to establish and maintain harmony between parties.
Traditionally, U. S. firms were managed by founder- owners and their descendants. As firms became larger the managerial revolution led to a separation of ownership and control in most large corporations. This control of the firm shifted from entrepreneurs to professional managers while ownership became dispersed among unorganized stockholders. Due to these changes modern public corporation was created and was based on the efficient separation of ownership and managerial control.
The separation of ownership and managerial control allows shareholders to purchase stock. This in turn entitles them to income from the firm’s operations after paying expenses. This requires that shareholders take a risk that the firm’s expenses may exceed its revenues.
Shareholders specialize in managing their investment risk. Those managing small firms also own a significant percentage of the firm and there is often less separation between ownership and managerial control. Meanwhile, in a large number of family owned firms, ownership and managerial control are not separated at all. The primary purpose of most large family firms is to increase the family’s wealth.
The separation between owners and managers creates an agencyrelationship. An agency relationship exists when one or more persons hire another person or persons as decision- making specialists to perform a service. As a result an agency relationship exists when one party delegates decision- making responsibility to a second party for compensation. Other examples of agency relationships are consultants and clients and insured and insurer. An agency relationship can also exist between managers and their employees, as well as between top- level managers and the firm’s owners.
The sep.
BUS 499, Week 6 Acquisition and Restructuring StrategiesSlide #.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 499, Week 6: Acquisition and Restructuring Strategies
Slide #
Topic
Narration
1
Introduction
Welcome to Business Administration.
In this lesson we will discuss Acquisition and Restructuring Strategies.
Please go to the next slide.
2
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
Identify various levels and types of strategy in a firm.
Please go to the next slide.
3
Supporting Topics
In order to achieve this objective, the following supporting topics will be covered:
The popularity of merger and acquisition strategies;
Reasons for acquisitions;
Problems in achieving acquisition success;
Effective acquisitions; and
Restructuring.
Please go to the next slide.
4
The Popularity of Merger and Acquisition Strategies
The acquisition strategy has been a popular strategy among U.S. firms for many years. Some believe that this strategy played a central role in an effective restructuring of U.S. business during the 1980s and 1990s and into the twenty-first century.
An acquisition strategy is sometimes used because of the uncertainty in the competitive landscape. A firm may make an acquisition to increase its market power because of a competitive threat, to enter a new market because of the opportunity available in that market, or to spread the risk due to the uncertain environment.
The strategic management process calls for an acquisition strategy to increase a firm’s strategic competitiveness as well as its returns to shareholders. Thus, an acquisition strategy should be used only when the acquiring firm will be able to increase its value through ownership of the acquired firm and the use of its assets.
Please go to the next slide.
5
Mergers, Acquisitions, and Takeovers
A merger is a strategy through which two firms agree to integrate their operations on a relatively coequal basis. Few true mergers actually occur, because one party is usually dominant in regard to market share or firm size.
An acquisition is a strategy through which one firm buys a controlling, or one hundred percent, interest in another firm with the intent of making the acquired firm a subsidiary business within its portfolio. In this case, the management of the acquired firm reports to the management of the acquiring firm. Although most mergers are friendly transactions, acquisitions can be friendly or unfriendly.
A takeover is a special type of an acquisition strategy wherein the target firm does not solicit the acquiring firm’s bid. The number of unsolicited takeover bids increased in the economic downturn of 2001 to 2002, a common occurrence in economic recessions; because the poorly managed firms that are undervalued relative to their assets are more easily identified.
On a comparative basis, acquisitions are more common than mergers and takeovers.
Please go to the next slide.
6
Reasons for Acquisitions
There are a number of reasons firms decide to acquire another company. These are:
Increased market power;
Overcoming entry barriers;
Co.
BUS 499, Week 4 Business-Level Strategy, Competitive Rivalry, and.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 499, Week 4: Business-Level Strategy, Competitive Rivalry, and Competitive Dynamics
Slide #
Topic
Narration
1
Introduction
Welcome to Senior Seminar in Business Administration.
In this lesson, we will discuss Business-Level Strategy, Competitive Rivalry, and Competitive Dynamics.
Next slide.
2
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
Identify various levels and types of strategy in a firm.
Next slide.
3
Supporting Topics
In order to achieve this objective, the following supporting topics will be covered:
Customers: their relationship with business-level strategies;
The purpose of a business-level strategy;
Types of business-level strategies;
A model of competitive rivalry;
Competitor analysis;
Drivers of competitive actions and responses;
Competitive rivalry;
Likelihood of attack;
Likelihood of response; and
Competitive dynamics.
Next slide.
4
Customer Relationships
Strategic competitiveness results only when the firm is able to satisfy a group of customers by using its competitive advantages as the basis for competing in individual product markets. A key reason firms must satisfy customers with their business-level strategy is that returns earned from relationships with customers are the lifeblood of all organizations. The most successful companies try to find new ways to satisfy current customers and/or meet the needs of new customers.
The firm’s relationships with its customers are strengthened when it delivers superior value to them. Strong interactive relationships with customers often provide the foundation for the firm’s efforts to profitably serve customers’ unique needs.
The reach dimension of relationships with customers is concerned with the firm’s access and connection to customers. Richness is concerned with the depth and detail of the two-way flow of information between the firm and the customer. Affiliation is concerned with facilitating useful interactions with customers.
Deciding who the target customer is that the firm intends to serve with its business-level strategy is an important decision. Companies divide customers into groups based on differences in the customers’ needs to make this decision. Dividing customers into groups based on their needs is called market segmentation, which is a process that clusters people with similar needs into individual and identifiable groups.
Next slide.
5
Customer Relationships, continued
After the firm decides who it will serve, it must identify the targeted customer group’s needs that its good or services can satisfy. Successful firms learn how to deliver to customers what they want and when they want it. In a general sense, needs are related to a product’s benefits and features. Having close and frequent interactions with both current and potential customers helps firms identify those individuals’ and groups’ current and future needs.
As explained in previous lessons, core competencies are resources and capabilities that serve as a source of.
BUS 437 Project Procurement Management Discussion QuestionsWe.docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 437 Project Procurement Management Discussion Questions
Week 2 Discussion
“Effective Management.” There are three (3) recommendations for effective management of projects in concurrent multiphase environments: Organizational System Design, System Implementation, and Managing in Concurrent Engineering.· Which of these three (3) recommendations for effective management would you or do you use most often? Why?
Week 3 Discussion
Top of Form
“Managing Configuration and Data for Effective Project Management.” The process protocol model consists of thirteen (13) steps from Inception to Feedback.· What are the steps?· Can any be skipped in this process model? What are the steps?
Week 4 Discussion“Organizational Project Management Maturity Model.” Students will respond to the following:· What is the four-step process of innovation and learning and how can your organization apply these steps to manage a project?· Of the five (5) levels of an organizational project management maturity model, which level is often the most difficult to manage? Why?
INTEGRATED SEMESTER ASSIGNMENT
(FINC 300, INFO 300, MGMT 300, MKTG 300)
DUE: April 12, 2019
INSTRUCTIONS:
The objective of the integrated semester is to help you extend your knowledge of how the finance,
operations, management, and marketing disciplines work and how they integrate their functioning in
the real world of business. This assignment is an assessment of how well you understand this
integration. It is worth 10% of your course grade.
YOUR ASSIGNMENT IS TO ANSWER ALL OF THE QUESTIONS, IN A SINGLE DOCUMENT:
• The assignment should be prepared as a Word document, 12 -14 pages in length (approx. 3
pages for each discipline’s questions).
• The document should be double spaced, using Ariel font #12.
• Label each section (e.g., FINANCE) to indicate which discipline’s questions you are
answering.
• Add any Appendices at the end of the Word document.
• Upload the entire Word file through the link on Canvas to each of your Integrated Semester
courses by the due date.
Note: Your reference sources, in addition to the base case and question sets, should be online sites
and articles, Bloomberg terminals, your Integrated Semester textbooks and PowerPoint slides. Also
note, Turnitin, a software tool that improves writing and prevents plagiarism, will be used to assess
your sourcing of information. Do your own work.
FINANCE ASSIGNMENT
The objective of the integrated semester is to help you extend your knowledge of how the finance,
operations, management, and marketing disciplines work and how they integrate their functioning in
the real world of business. This assignment is an assessment of how well you understand this
integration. It is worth 10% of your course grade.
Use either the Bloomberg terminals located at the Feliciano School of Business or other reputable
sources such as finance.yahoo.com, morningstar.com or Wall Street Jo.
BUS 480.01HY Case Study Assignment Instructions .docxcurwenmichaela
BUS 480.01HY Case Study Assignment
Instructions
Instructions: Each of you have been assigned a company to complete a case study analysis report.
The case distribution can be found on BlackBoard (course content -> case study analysis - > case
study distribution). Complete a thorough research on your company in order to complete the
analysis. It is required for you to use scholarly journals and peer-reviewed articles, which can be
found on the University’s website in the library section. I have provided you with very detailed
information on how to complete a thorough case analysis report. I am available during my office
hours to discuss. I will also schedule a case analysis session during lunch time this week. If you are
able to make it, please attend for one-on-one assistance.
Your “draft is due this Thursday, October 11th. I am not looking for perfection here, but please do
your best in writing and researching. Your final product will be due on Thursday, October 18th.
BUS 480.01HY Case Study Assignment
Instructions
1. Format – please review the case study format guidelines placed on BlackBoard
The use of headers and sub-headers is strongly suggested
2. Submission
1. Submit to BlackBoard (course content -> case study analysis - > Case Study Analysis
Report). Failure to submit in proper area will result in a 0.
3. Introduction
In 3-4 paragraphs describe the case facts and background. This should include BRIEF
information about the firm, however do NOT simply duplicate what is in the case itself.
As things change quickly in business, you may wish to check the current status of the
firm and briefly discuss the most current information.
4. Body
This should be about 4-5 pages in length (minimum – this is only a guideline). Review
posted guidelines for more information/detail
a) State the Problem/Key Issues
What are the key marketing or business issues in the case? These might be problems,
opportunities or challenges the firm is facing. For example:
o Sales have declined by 10 percent in the last year.
o The competition has launched a new and innovative product.
o Consumer tastes have changed and the firm’s most successful product is at risk.
o The CEO made a public racial slur and has affected the company internally and
externally.
5. Conclusion (include recommendations in this section)
For the issues you identified above, you must identify potential solutions and analyze
each of them. For example, for the decline in sales noted above we might try any of the
following, among other options:
1. increase advertising
2. develop a new product
3. implement diversity training
4. launch a brand awareness campaign
For each of the alternatives, you should analyze the costs, benefits, resources required
and possible outcomes. Typically, you will have 3-4 of these alternatives. Any given
alternative solution might address multiple issues. If t.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
NO PLAGERISM, DO NOT TURN IN PAPERS USED ONLINE OR SOLD TO SOMEONE.docx
1. NO PLAGERISM, DO NOT TURN IN PAPERS USED ONLINE
OR SOLD TO SOMEONE ELSE. OUR instructor thoroughly
checks them through a system and through sources cited!!!
Instructor Instructions: FOLLOW DETAILS EXACTLY!!
This writing assignment falls under the category of literature
reviews. I have attached an example of how they are
written. Yours will not have to be this long, but this is WHAT I
HAVE IN MIND. Follow instructions carefully!
Write a paper from five pages in length on the subject of
“dealing with the effects of texting on driving”.
You should synthesize (meaning combine elements of several
sources—to help you make a point. Synthesizing is a matter of
pulling various sources together into harmony. It is the ability
to combine clearly and coherently the ideas of more than one
source with your own) the findings of at least four psychology
journal articles. One source of these articles
is ProQuest Psychology journals data base found on the library
database area. I have included the link below for this article to
use as ONE of the FOUR REQUIRED!! This is part of the
instructor’s REQUIREMENTS!!
http://gateway.proquest.com.zeus.tarleton.edu:82/openurl?url_v
er=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&res_dat=x
ri:pqm&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:10027727
You must cite sources inside the paper in CORRECT APA
FORMAT!! Also, INCLUDE the sources and URL’s on the cite
sources page!
Ps choto icul Bulletin
19%, vå. 73, No. 4, 258-302
ALTRUISM—AN EXAMINATION OF THE CONCEPT AND A
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE I
DENNIS L. KREBS
Harvard University
Literature relating to altruism is reviewed. It is suggested that
the study of altruism is important at three levels: as it relates to
the main goal of socialization, to a core attribute of personality,
and to theories concerned with human nature. The concept of
altruism is examined. Independent variables associated with
altruism are organized in a 2 X 4 framework on the basis of the
source of experimental measurement and level of generality.
Characteristics of the benefactor and characteristics of the
recipient are categorized as state variables, trait variables,
social roles and demographic attributes, and characteristics
influenccd by social norms. Research at each level is critically
reviewed. Positive and negative affective states, and states
induced by the observation of models are found to influence the
altruism of benefactors; and dependency and interpersonal
attractiveness are found to influence the altruism-eliciting
capacity of recipients. Research relevant to personality traits is
criticized. Effects are found for sex, age, ordinal position,
social class, and nationality in relation to benefactors, and for
friendship status, ingroup affiliation, and social class in relation
to recipients. The normative level of analysis is criticized.
278 DENNIS L. KREBS
ALTRUISM 259
In 1956 Louis J. Budd reviewed the history of a "forgotten
aspect of social thought" in America. He concluded that
although concern with altruism had "threatened to become a
fad" in the 1890's, it had quickly died away. Of late, though,
there has been a renewed interest in altruism—less, however, as
a social panacea or religious ideal, and more as an aspect of
behavior worthy of scientific investigation.
It is not difficult to see why altruism has captured the interest
of social scientists. In view of its practical and theoretical
3. importance, it may well be wondered why the study of altruism
has only recently gained popularity. As the anthropologist
Bohannan (1963) pointed out, the most basic tenet of all major
religions of the world is that "unselfishness is the primary
virtue and that selfishness lies at the root of the world's ills [p.
336] But altruism is of interest for reasons other than its status
as a virtue or its role in the main-
1 The author appreciatively acknowledges the help and
inspiration supplied by Judith Anne Krebs and Robert
Rosenthal, both of whom worked overtime in his behalf. The
critical comments of Terence D. Creighton at' the University of
British Columbia are also acknowledged.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Dennis L. Krel)S,
Department of Social Relations, William James Hall, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusctts 02138.
tenance of the social system. The study of altruism is important
at at least three distinct (yet interrelated) levels.
At the first level, it supplies information about a set of behavior
that constitutes the central goal of early socialization. As
pointed out by Anna Freud (1963) :
We know that the child acts throughout the period of
development above described [from birth to age five] as if there
was nothing more important than the gratifying of his own
pleasures and fulfilling of his powerful instincts, whereas
education proceeds as if the prevention of these objects was its
most important task [p. 101].
At the second level, altruism is important as a personality
attribute. People who are considered altruistic are reacted to
differently from those who are considered selfish. Because the
way people act is not always a veridical representation of the
way they feel, the attribution of altruism poses a particularly
difficult problem for self-theory and the study of person-
perception.
258
Finally, the study of altruism raises important questions about
the ability of several influential theories to account for the
4. apparently altruistic aspects of general human behavior.
Reinforcement theory, psychoanalytic theory, and the theory of
evolution seem to suggest that human behavior is essentially
egoistic. Yet, behavior that seems quite altruistic is apparent in
everyday life.
The bulk of research on altruism has not attempted to establish
the existence of altruism. The problems associated with the
identification of altruism, however, have not escaped
researchers. An examination of the contribution of the study of
altruism to the understanding of social behavior, personality,
and human nature must orient itself around the ways
investigators have dealt with the specification of the
phenomenon.
Altruism as a Social Behavior
Most behavioral research has skirted the problem associated
with the specification of altruism by employing operational
definitions. It has examined antecedents of behavior that
seemed altruistic, and assumed that motivations were congruent.
Although the antecedents of operations with undefined
motivational bases can be elucidated, it is important to make
sure that the conclusions that are drawn about them do not
relate back to the motivation implied by the category of
behavior in question. Motivational specification is particularly
important in relation to a moral behavior such as altruism. As
Piaget (1932), Kohlberg (1964), and others have demonstrated,
it is more the intention behind an act than its consequences that
determines its moral value.
Fortunately, due to the constraints of experimental situations,
the range of ulterior motives in laboratory studies is usually
limited and the motivation behind the behavior in question quite
apparent. It must be realized, however, that although terms such
as prosocial behavior (Bandura & Walters, 1963), helping
behavior (Berkowitz, 1967), volunteering (Rosenbaum, 1956),
gift-giving (Blake & Rosenbaum, 1955), sharing (Staub &
Sherk, in press), and aiding (Midlarsky, 1968b) all imply self-
sacrificial other-directed behavior, they do not establish it.
5. Altruism as a Personality Attribute
While researchers concerned with the antecedents of altruistic
behavior have generally chosen to define altruism operationally,
investigators concerned with altruism as a personality attribute
have usually sought a definition in the attributional processes of
average people. It could, of course, be argued that the layman's
implicit definition of altruism is of little concern to the social
scientist. It must be realized, though, that whatever errors the
layman may make in his attribution of altruism in specific
situations, the category of altruism is what he thinks it is—it
has no existence outside of the consensual agreements of people
(cf. Bruner, 1958) ; and it is the layman's definition that
determines his reactions.
Although new research may supply a more meaningful and
precise definition of altruism, it is interesting to note that social
scientists have generally employed everyday definitions. Leeds
(1963), for example, defined altruism on the basis of the same
three criteria that Heider (1958) identified as determinants of
the attributions of laymen. According to Leeds (1963), an
altruistic act (a) is an end in itself; it is not directed at gain, (b)
is emitted voluntarily, and (c) does good. Heider's (1958)
treatment of the determinants of gratitude (where gratitude is
the result of the attribution of altruism) mirrors Leeds' (1963)
definitional outline:
We do not feel grateful to a person who helps us [Leeds' point
c] fortuitously [a] or because he was forced to do so [b], or
because he was obliged to do so [b]. Gratitude is determined by
the will, the intention of the benefactor [p. 265].
Several recent studies have supported Heider's (1958)
propositions and Leeds' (1963) assumptions. Tesser, Gatewood,
and Driver (1968), for example, found that undergraduates
thought they would feel more gratitude when the benefit they
received was intentional, when it was valuable, and when it cost
the benefactor a great deal. Goranson and Berkowitz (1966),
Frisch and Greenberg (1968), Lerner and Lichtman (1968), and
Hornstein, Fisch, and Holmes (1968) found that help was most
6. liable to be reciprocated (and, by implication, considered
altruistic) when it was perceived as voluntary and intentional.
Brehm and Cole (1966), Kiesler (1966), and Schopler and
Thompson (1968) demonstrated that inappropriate favors
(favors whose intentions were in doubt) elicited less help than
appropriate favors. When the legitimacy of apparent altruism is
questioned, reciprocity is less likely to prevail.
Although research on attribution of altruism has elucidated
some common principles of judgment, it has not supplied any
information about the validity of common attributions. It has
classically been the problems associated with the validity of
judgments of altruism, and the existence of altruism itself, that
have concerned thinkers—it has seemed less important to know
why judgments are made than whether they are correct.
Altruism as a Part of Human Nature—its Challenge to Grand
Theories
In relation to the theory of reinforcement, psychoanalysis, and
the theory of evolution, the existence of behavior that seems
altruistic has created problems, Critics have asked, for example,
how behavior that sacrifices rewards can be consistent with the
principle of reinforcement. Intrinsic to the challenge that the
existence of altruism presents to antithetical theoretical
positions is the challenge that such positions present to the
existence of altruism itself.
Altruism in the theory of reinforcement. The problem of the
place of reinforcement in altruistic behavior really involves two
often confused questions. The first asks whether self-sacrificial
behavior can continue in the absence of positive reinforcement.
The second asks whether the average person includes behavior
that benefits another yet gains rewards in his category of
altruism. The first question cannot be answered in the form in
which it stands—it requires proof of the null hypothesis. The
second question is a matter of attribution.
Although no research has been reported which is directly
relevant to the attribution of altruism in situations of varying
rewards, some research on moral judgment seems relevant.
7. Kohlberg (in press) outlined three great stages in the
development of moral judgment. At the least mature stage
(Stage 1) judgments are made on the basis of the hedonic
consequences of an act (whether it elicits reward or punishment
from external sources) . At the second stage, morality is seen as
a function of the approval and disapproval of others. And at the
third stage it is judged in relation to internal standards.
Inasmuch as altruistic behavior is moral behavior, the
attribution of altruism should pass through the three
qualitatively different stages of moral development, and mature
judgments of altruism should be based on internal standards of
reciprocity and justice.
Reinforcement theorists have not generally concerned
themselves with the attribution of altruism. They have, rather,
attempted to demonstrate that although specific rewards do not
always follow altruistic responses, altruistic behavior can still
be a function of reinforcement.
In a study with Paskel (reported by Aronfreed, 1968), Aronfreed
found that children who were exposed to expressions of joy
(conditioned stimulus) at the same time as they were hugged
(unconditioned stimulus) and experienced positive affect
(unconditioned response) sacrificed candy in order to elicit
expressions of joy (which in turn evoked reinforcing positive
affect). Once learned, it was expected that internal
representation of expressive signs in the recipient would be
enough to reinforce altruistic responses. Aronfreed's position
implies that altruism involves a Cyrano de Bergerac type of
sacrifice.
Goldiamond (1968) identified three ways by which behavior
that seems to receive no immediate gains can be perpetuated. In
the first place, even though particular responses are not
rewarded, the net gains of the behavioral strategy may
ultimately be maximal. Second, the reinforcer, as in the case of
masochism, may be subtle. And finally, the behavior may
endure in the absence of reinforcement because the original
program of reinforcement rendered it resistant to extinction.
8. Altruism in Psychoanalytic theory. Although the challenge that
altruism has presented to reinforcement theory is more serious
than its challenge to psychoanalysis, Freud's contention that
children are basically selfish, iddriven animals has had
repercussions. As early as 1929, Wodehouse objected to
a certain doctrine which, ostensibly connected with [Freud I,
does seem to be bringing real danger into educational
psychology. It comes often in a broad and vague form which
needs a broad and vague name, and I will call it the doctrine of
Natural Selfishness [p. 39].
Partially as a result of psychoanalytic theory's inability to
explain altruistic behavior and other adaptive undefensive
behavior (Maddi, 1968), new developments tended to stress
adaptations of the ego (e.g., Erikson, 1950; Murray, 1938;
Sullivan, 1953; White, 1963). Deemphasis on id-driven behavior
served to soften the theory's insistence on natural egoism.
Altruism in the theory of evolution—theoretical arguments and
animal research. While the reaction to the egoistic assumptions
of psychoanalysis was largely theoretical, the reaction to the
apparent egoism of the theory of evolution came from both
theoretical and empirical sources. Theoreticians attempted to
show that the theory of evolution did not propose, or even
imply, the existence of innate egoism; and empiricists attempted
to demonstrate that infrahumans are capable of altruism.
Holmes (1945) argued against the popular egoistic
interpretation of Darwinian theory and insisted that altruistic
instincts were as basic as egoistic instincts. Derived from
"instincts subsidiary to the basic function of reproduction [p.
111]," he saw the function of altruism as the preservation of the
species, even at the cost of individual lives.
Campbell (1965) argued against the prevalence of "skin-surface
hedonism" and, on the basis of research demonstrating ingroup
solidarity and sacrifice in the face of outgroup threat, suggested
that altruistic motives are not only a function of sociocultural
evolution (are acquired), but also have a basis in biological
evolution (are innate). Altruism, he suggested, is likely to have
9. genetic determinants because of the survival value of ingroup
identification and outgroup hostility: "The tremendous survival
value of being social makes innate social motives as likely on a
priori grounds as self-centered ones [p. 3011 ." Both Holmes
(1945) and Campbell (1965) suggested that egoism, whose aim
is the survival of the individual, and altruism, whose aim is the
survival of the group, are in conflict, and that the conflict offers
the optimal evolutionary compromise.
While the arguments of theoreticians seem cogent (and, in fact,
are supported by a close reading of Darwin) the arguments of
empiricists have not fared so well. Empiricists have argued that
the demonstration of a phylogenetic increase in altruism would
implicitly support the likelihood of innate altruism in man. With
this in mind, researchers attempted to demonstrate the existence
of altruism in infrahumans.
Starting low on the phylogenetic scale, Rice and Gainer (1962)
found that albino rats were more likely to press a bar when it
lowered a struggling rat than when it lowered a styrofoam
block. Rice (1965) also found that rats (but not guinea pigs)
would press a bar to remove a companion from a tank of water.
The attribution of altruism in these cases, though, can be
questioned. It is posSible that the rat's reaction was a function
of the presence of another rat or the noxiousness of the screams
of the distressed rats. The latter suggestion received support
from a study by Lavery and Foley (1963), who found that rats
which were exposed to white noise made more noise-
terminating bar-presses than rats exposed to the recorded
squeals of other rats. The fact that more bar-presses were
elicited in the white-noise condition suggests that the white
noise was more noxious than recorded squeals, and that the
"altruism" of the Rice and Gainer (1962) and Rice (1965)
studies was simply a reaction to a noxious stimulus.
More doubt was placed on the existence of altruism in the
albino rat by another study by Rice (1964). Rats pressed a bar
less when it served to terminate a companion's shock than when
it did not. Rats which were exposed to a shocked companion
10. crouched in fear at the other side of their cages. A further
finding showed that rats failed to press a bar to terminate the
recorded squeals of other rats, as reported by Lavery and Foley
(1963). All considered then, no real support for the existence of
altruism in rats has been supplied.
More support for the existence of altruism in infrahumans,
though, has appeared in relation to higher forms of animals.
Summarizing research on primates, Hebb and Thompson (1954)
suggested that "there is definite evidence in other animals of a
phylogenetic development of something we call altruism,
defined as intrinsically motivated concern for others [p. 744] ."
Unfortunately, though, evidence for altruism came from mainly
anecdotal sources. In one of the only studies on altruism in
primates, Nissen and Crawford (1936) found that two of six
preadolescent chimpanzees sometimes gave food, and tokens
which could be exchanged for food, to chimps in adjoining
cages. The chimpanzees tended, though, to give only their least
preferred food, and to give only when food was solicited.
Although solicited giving (and prostitution) in wild chimps is
common (Yerkes & Yerkes, 1935), it is possible that the small
amount of unsolicited giving was an experimenter effect —a
result of modeling. Nissen and Crawford (1936) reported, in
fact, that experimenters were able to facilitate unsolicited food
passing.
It is very difficult to draw any conclusions from comparative
research. Infrahuman animals do perform acts which benefit
other animals, but the reasons behind these acts are almost as
ambiguous as those behind the behavior of humans. Although
the existence of genetic or biochemical determinants of altruism
is a fascinating possibility, it must remain only that until further
evidence appears.
In summary, the study of altruism is important at three
conceptually distinct levels, relating to behavior, personality,
and human nature. These levels are interrelated—judgments
about human nature are made on the basis of representative
personalities, and personalities are determined by samples of
11. behavior. The study of altruism is particularly important to the
understanding and implementation of socialization practices. It
is also significant to person-perception and selftheory as a core
personality attribute. And finally, it is important because it has
stimulated examination and change in several important
theoretical positions.
The question of the definition of altruism, and the related
question of whether altruism exists, have posed difficult
problems. Behavioral researchers have generally avoided the
definitional issue, which involves establishing the intention
behind apparently selfsacrificial other-oriented acts, by
employing operational definitions. Investigators concerned with
altruism as a personality characteristic have generally dealt with
the definitional issue by attempting to determine the principles
which underlie the attribution of altruism. They have not,
though, attempted to determine whether the altruism that was
attributed actually met the criteria of attribution. Finally,
research has been conducted and theoretical positions amended
in order to accommodate altruistic behavior. Positions which
seemed to pose challenges to the existence of altruism have
come to accept the fact that altruistic behavior occurs (within
the definitional constraints of the theory in question), and have
set out to explain it.
All in all, though, the definitional problem, which involves the
status of altruism as a dependent variable, has attracted very
little attention from recent researchers. They have generally
been content to assume that behavior that seems altruistic is
altruistic, and to concern themselves with its determinants. It is
to determinants and correlates of apparent altruism, then, that a
review of the literature must turn.
AN ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK FORVARIABLES
ASSOCIATED WITH ALTRUISM
In the past few years researchers on altruism have studied so
many variables that an integrated perspective is already
difficult. It seems possible, however, to attain some integrative
clarity by ordering the variables along two dimensions. To
12. begin with, the prototypical altruistic situation involves
someone who gives (a benefactor), and someone who receives (a
recipient). In some cases, characteristics of the benefactor
affect altruism, and in other cases it is characteristics of the
recipient. Independent variables, then, can be divided into those
which relate to characteristics of the benefactor, and those
which relate to characteristics of the recipient. It is, of course,
true that all variables have an ultimate effect on the benefactor,
but the effect is often achieved by varying characteristics of
recipients. The first dimension of classification, then, separates
variables which relate to the characteristics of benefactors that
cause or correlate with altruism from the altruism-eliciting
characteristics of recipients.
Independent variables can also be classified according to their
level of generality. Research on altruism has manipulated
independent vari-
TABLE 1
A CLASSIFICATION or INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
EMPLOYED IN RESEARCH ON ALTRUISM
Categories of independent variables
Source of experimental variation
Characteristics of the benefactor
Characteristics of the recipient
Situational state variables
Trait variables
Social roles and demographic variables
Social norms
Positive affective states
Negative affective states
States induced by the observation of models
Increased salience of social norms and behavior alternatives
Information about appropriateness
Information about consequences
Internalization of altruistic dispositions
Experimenter effects
13. Variables that relate to rating-scale measures of altruism
Variables that relate to pencil-and-paper measures of altruism
Variables that relate to behavioral measures of altruism Sex
Sex differences in children
Sex differences in adults
Age
Ordinal position
Social class and group affliation
Nationality
Norm of social responsibility
Norm of giving
Dependency
Interpersonal attractiveness
As an independent variable
As a mediating variable
Locus of dependency
Other trait characteristics
Friendship status
Ingroup affliation
Social class
Norm of reciprocity
Reciprocity
Generalized reciprocity
ables at four more or less distinct levels of generality. The first
level involves temporary psychological states, such as those that
accompany experiences of success, failure, dependency,
interpersonal attraction, and the observation of models. Most of
the research on altruism relates to state variables, probably
because they are the easiest to manipulate in laboratory
experiments. Independent variables of the state type are largely
situational. They have an immediate, temporary, and relatively
limited effect, and they usually say little about the nature of the
people whom they affect.
The second level of generality involves personality traits.
Although states and traits may well interrelate, trait variables
14. such as cyclothymia, need for approval, and conservatism refer
to more general and lasting attributes of people. In some cases,
traits seem to correspond to the characteristic states of people.
Studies which examine trait variables are usually less
manipulatively experimental than studies which examine state
variables. They generally correlate rating-scale or
questionnaire-derived measures of personality traits with an
index of altruism.
At the third level—that which involves social roles and
demographic variables such as social class, age, and sex—the
level of generality is even greater. Social roles and demographic
variables differ from trait variables because they are more
general, permanent, and basically characteristic. Social roles, of
course, often relate to personality traits and psychological
states. Women and children, for example, are expected to react
differently from men and adults.
The final level, which deals with social norms, is the most
general of the four. Norms such as the norm of social
responsibility and the norm of reciprocity, if not universal
(Gouldner, 1960), affect most people in most cultures. In fact, it
could be argued that internalized social norms are so general
that they supply no information about the variance in incidences
of altruism. Their effect may only be of interest as it relates to
temporary states, personality traits, and general social roles.
Several researchers, however, have attributed variations in
altruism to the effect of social norms. The problems presented
by the normative approach will be examined more closely when
related research is reviewed.
A classificatory framework that involves the interaction
between two sets of criteria has been outlined. Table 1 presents
the resulting eight categories and an outline of the variables
within the categories that have been examined.
ALTRUISM AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPORARYSTATES OF
THE BENEFACTOR
The preponderance of research on altruism has manipulated
situational variables which induce states in benefactors that
15. mediate altruistic responses. The state may be a simple affective
state, or a cognitive state which relates to particular response
dispositions.
Research which has manipulated situational variables and their
corresponding psychological states can be divided into three
categories. The first two relate to affective states, and the third
relates to cognitive states induced by the observation of models.
Positive states have been created by supplying experiences
which involve success and the perception of competence.
Negative states have been created by supplying experiences
which involve failure, unintentional harm to another, and acts of
transgression. Finally, states have been induced by the
presentation of altruistic models. Table 2 contains an outline of
research which has manipulated positive and negative affective
states.
Positive States of the Benefactor
Four studies have tested the effect of experiences of success and
competence on altruism. Berkowitz and Conner (1966) tested
the hypothesis that success increases the salience of the social
responsibility norm, which leads to altruism toward dependent
others. They found that success on a simple task resulted in
greater effort on behalf of a highly dependent peer than did
failure or no experience at all. Success did not result in more
helping for others of low dependency.
The Berkowitz and Conner (1966) study used undergraduates. A
later study by Staub ( 1968) suggested that there may be
developmental differences in reactions to success and failure.
Although fifth-grade children tended to leave more candy for a
hypothetical other after they succeeded (versus failed or did
average) on a bowling game task, fourth-grade children left
more after they failed. The author suggested that a "norm of
deserving" motivated the fourth graders, but that the fifth
graders were motivated by "norms or standards or values
directly related to sharing." No reason was given, though, why
the two norms should differentially affect the two particular age
groups in question. The additional finding that children who
16. saw themselves as having internal control over their
environment shared more after success than those who felt
externally controlled suggests that perceived competence is
related to sharing.
A relationship between competence and altruism was found by
Midlarsky (1968a) . Subjects who were told that they adapted
well to electric shock (high competence) took more shocks for
another than those who were told they adapted poorly.
Unfortunately, the shocks were not of equal intensity across
conditions. A later study by Kazdin and
Bryan,[footnoteRef:1]though, which controlled for the cost of
helping, found essentially the same thing. Subjects who were
told they were highly competent on tasks which were both
relevant and irrelevant to the dependent variable offered to
donate more blood than those who were told they were
incompetent. The notion that a temporary state mediated the
altruism was supported by the fact that very few volunteers
followed through with their commitment to give blood. Once
they had a chance to recover from the positive experience, it
would appear, their altruistic inclinations decreased. (It is, of
course, possible that some subjects generalized their perceived
competence to getting rid of the solicitor, with no intention of
ever giving blood.) [1: Kazdin, A. E., & Bryan, J. H.
Competence and volunteering. Unpublished manuscript,
Northwestern University, 1968.]
Some naturalistic reports relating to reactions to disasters (e.g.,
Form & Nosow, 1958; Torrance & Ziller, 1957) suggest that
observers who perceive themselves as competent in emergency
situations help more than
TABLE 2
STUDIES WHICH EXAMINED THE EFFECT or AFFECTIVE
STATES OE THE BENEFACTOR ON ALTRUISM
Author and date
17. Subjects
Sex Age
N
Main independent variables
Main dependent variables
Positive states of the benefactor
Berkowitz & Conner (1966)
Staub (1968)
Midlarsky (1968a)
Kazdin & Bryan
M
M
cs
9, 10
cs
cs
108
196
80
96
Success, failure, or no experience on jigsaw task ; high,
intermediate, low dependency of recipient.
Success, failure, moderate performance on bowling game task,
locus of control.
Ability to adapt well (high competence) or poorly (low
competence) to
shocks; high vs. low dependency of recipient ; visibility.
Success vs. average performance on task; task relevant or
irrelevant to dependent variable.
Number of envelopes made for recipient
Weight of candy left for recipient.
Number of shock contingent problems completed for recipient.
Frequency of volunteering to give blood.
18. Negative states of the benefactor
Darlington & Macker (1966)
Rawlings (1968)
Krebs & Baer
Lerner & Matthews (1967)
Lerner
Freedman et al. (1967)
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Berscheid & Walter (1967)
Epstein & Hornstein (1969)
Wallace & Sadalla (1966)
Silverman (1967)
F
F
M
M
cs
cs
cs
CS
cs
HS
cs
cs
adult cs
cs
11
39
40
40
66
61
19. 16
67
74
240
60
55
199
Failure which harms (vs.
does not harm) another.
Failure which harms another vs. observation of harm to another
Success or failure on intelligence test ; harm or help to another.
Fate of recipient dependent vs. independent of draw of
benefactor.
Fate of recipient dependent on draw of benefactor vs. draw of
experimenter.
Telling a lie vs. not telling a lie.
Responsibility for upsetting index cards.
Responsibility for upsetting index cards.
Opportunity to compensate harm done adequately.
Punishment (vs. no punishment) for selfish choice ; liked,
disliked, neutral recipien t.
Public, private, or no transgression.
Private high cheating, private low cheating, no cheating.
Frequency of volunteering to give blood (after three requests).
Duration of reciprocal shocks.
Amount of help volunteered for charitable cause.
Frequency of choices to comfort partner.
Frequency of choices to take partner's place; frequency of
choices to comfort partner
Frequency of volunteering for pleasant or unpleasant
experiment.
Frequency of volunteering
for victim's vs. nonvictim's experiment.
Frequency of volunteering to help victim in person vs, not in
person.
Frequency of compensating victim and nonvictim.
20. Frequency of selfish choices (choices which earned 104 but
shocked another) .
Frequency of volunteering for stress experiment.
Amount of free-play time volunteered for experiment.
Note.—Abbreviations are : HS = high school student; CS —
college student. 8 Age of first-grade children estimated at 6,
etc. b Sex constituted a variable.
those who do not. Competence in disasters, though, is different
from most experimentally manipulated competence. In
experiments, the experience of success seems to increase
selfesteem, which leads to increased positive affect and
altruism. In disaster situations, however, it would seem that it is
the implicit role requirements associated with competence,
especially when the competence is the result of special training,
that mediate helping behavior.
In summary, although none of the relevant experiments supplied
unequivocal evidence, they all found indications that altruistic
responses on behalf of dependent others are more probable after
success than after failure, or after a neutral experience.
Negative States of the Benefactor
Of the studies that compared the effects of success and failure
on altruism, only one (Staub, 1968) found a positive
relationship between failure and altruism, for fourth-grade
children, and that relationship reversed itself in the fifth grade.
Other studies, though, have found that failure which has a
particular consequence—harm to another—leads to altruistic
responses. Darlington and Macker (1966), for example, found
that failure to complete a pencil-and-paper task correctly
resulted in more agreement to give blood when the failure hurt a
helpful other than when it did not. The findings were interpreted
as evidence for displacement of guilt-produced altruism.
Because it was only after the third of three appeals for blood
that any difference was found, and because 13 subjects were
discarded, the results of the study must be viewed with caution.
Moreover, a later study (Rawlings, 1968) found that the
21. observation of a person receiving harm is enough in itself to
induce altruism. Although subjects whose errors on a task
caused their partners to receive shocks delivered reciprocal
shocks of short duration to a third person (and, therefore longer
duration to themselves), reciprocal shocks of short duration
were also given when they only observed their partners getting
shocked.
A study by Krebs and Baer [footnoteRef:2] compared [2:
Krebs, D. L., & Baer, R. The effect of perceived competence
and unintentional help and harm to]
the effect that experiences of success, failure, and helping and
harming another had on charitable behavior. Altruism was
greatest after failure which harmed another, and least after
success which benefited another. There was no difference
between the straight success and failure conditions. The
findings were interpreted as support for a self-concept
equilibrium model which suggests that people whose self-
images are unrepresentatively low are likely to seize an
opportunity to behaviorally reassert a more favorable
selfdefinition. Unrepresentatively high self-images, on the other
hand, are not maximized.
In the Krebs and Baer (see Footnote 3) study, the success and
failure of the potential benefactor had a corresponding effect on
his partner, and the altruism was directed to a charitable cause.
Studies by Lerner and his associates demonstrated that partner-
oriented altruism occurs in situations where success for self
results in failure for another. Subjects who drew a slip of paper
that assigned them to a control condition and their partner to a
shock condition (fates interdependent) were more prone to
comfort the other and volunteer to take his place than subjects
who determined only their own fate (fates independent; Lerner
and Matthews, 1967) or subjects whose fates were determined
by the experimenter (Lerner 4 ).
Other studies that did not involve success and failure have
supplied further support for the notion of reparative altruism.
22. Two studies investigated the effect of compliant and
unintentional harm-doing on altruism. Carlsmith and Gross
(1969) found that subjects in a Milgram (1963) type of situation
who delivered shocks to another were more likely to volunteer
to support a humanitarian project than those who did not shock
another. Freedman, Wallington, and Bless (1967, Experiment 2)
found that subjects who knocked over a pile of index cards were
more willing to volunteer for an experiment to help another than
those who did not, providing that the solicitor was not the
owner
another on altruism. Paper submitted for publication.
4 Lerner, M. S. The effect of a negative outcome on cognitions
of responsibility and attraction. Unpublished manuscript,
University of Kentucky, 1968,.
of the index cards. In a similar situation (Experiment 3),
subjects who harmed another were more likely to volunteer to
help him if they did not expect to meet him than if they did.
Although harm-doing elicited altruism, it was not oriented
directly toward its victim.
The Darlington and Macker (1966), Krebs and Baer (see
Footnote 3), Carlsmith and Gross (1969), and Freedman et al.
(1967) studies suggest that reparative altruistic behavior
relieves an unpleasant negative state associated with lowered
self-esteem by supplying a situation in which a wrong can be
righted and self-esteem elevated. The Rawlings (1968) and
Lerner and Matthews (1967) studies, though, lend themselves to
a slightly different interpretation. It may be that harming
another creates a feeling of guilt, which results in expiative
self-punitive responses. In cases where altruism was directed
toward the expiation of guilt it would be expected that (a)
private transgressions would lead to expiative responses, and
(b) self-punitive expiation would be preferred to nonpunitive
reparation. These predictions do not follow from a reparative
self-esteem model because the function of altruism is to reassert
a new self-definition, with no necessity for pain.
23. Although it is possible that transgression elicits reparative
responses in some situations by some people, and expiative
responses in other situations by other people, it seems that the
altruistic responses in most of the relevant studies were of the
reparative nature. Freedman et al. (1967, Experiment 1), for
example, failed to find, as expected, that subjects who lied
about their knowledge of an experiment chose the more
unpleasant of two other experiments. And Berscheid and
Walster (1967) found that harm-doers were most likely to
compensate their victims when they could make exact
reparation. Female members of church auxiliaries who caused
their partners to lose needed books of green stamps
subsequently awarded bonuses to them if the bonuses were
neither insufficient nor excessive relative to the original loss.
The behavior of the church ladies, in the experiment at least,
hardly seemed self-punitively expiative.
There is one study, though, that lends itself to an expiation
interpretation. If guilt is relieved by punishment, then it can be
predicted that punished responses are less likely to extinguish
than responses that are not punished. This prediction was
partially supported by Epstein and Hornstein (1969). They
found that selfish behavior toward a disliked other (pressing a
lever which maximized chances of gaining ten cents, while
delivering an electric shock to another) increased, and altruistic
behavior decreased, when selfish behavior was punished by a
third person. Due to the fact that selfish behavior toward a liked
other decreased after punishment, the generality of the findings
is limited.
Two final studies suggest that private transgressions are not as
likely to lead to altruistic reparation as public transgressions.
Wallace and Sadalla (1966) found that subjects who broke an
expensive machine were more likely to volunteer for a painful
experiment than those who did not, but only if their
transgression was discovered. Silverman (1967) failed to find a
higher incidence of volunteering from children who cheated on
a task but did not consider themselves caught than from those
24. who did not cheat.
In summary, many studies have supported the notion that public
transgression, whether intentional or unintentional, whether
immoral or only situationally unfortunate, leads to reparative
altruism. Reparative altruism would seem to alleviate a negative
state associated with lowered self-esteem. When amends cannot
be made to the victim, reparative responses are generalized to
others; in fact, in some situations reparative responses are made
only if they can be directed toward a third party.
States Induced by the Observation of Altruistic Models
The observation of models, according to Bandura and Walters
(1963), affects behavior in two distinct ways: by inducing the
acquisition of long-term behavioral dispositions, and by
inducing the performance of imitative behavior. The acquisition
of response dispositions, which, in relation to moral behavior, is
referred to as internalization, forms the basis of behavioral
analogues in which models correspond to parents, and modeling
effects are thought to lead to long-range changes in personality.
Performance, on the other hand, refers to situation-specific
behavior that occurs as the result of the induction of temporary
states. Although most of the research on modeling relates to the
performance of altruistic behavior, much of it is interpreted as
evidence for the internalization of altruistic dispositions. It is,
of course, difficult to sort out acquisition and performance
effects in one-shot laboratory experiments, but to draw
conclusions about the development of personality traits on the
basis of situational conformity is clearly unwarranted. Before
conclusions can be drawn about the acquisition of behavioral
dispositions, two criteria should be met: (a) The behavior in
question should be general to situations other than that in which
it was elicited, and (b) it should be relatively enduring. Because
the preponderance of studies on modeling have failed to meet
the two criteria of internalization, they seem best interpreted in
relation to parameters of performance, as a function of
temporary states. This is not to say that they should be
considered irrelevant to socialization, but only to suggest that
25. they have not established that modeling produces longterm
personality changes; or even that it would, on a prolonged basis.
Although the modeling approach has encouraged research
efforts, it has generally failed to supply explanations for
modeling effects. The label modeling has been used to explain
modeling effects, but modeling, like imitation, merely describes
a sequence of congruent actions—it does not explain it. Before
any real explanatory power is achieved, the reasons why models
induce imitative behavior must be elucidated; and these reasons
may well vary across situations.
A survey of the studies on modeling suggests that the
performance of altruistic behavior may be based on one of
several conceptually distinct aspects of modeling. An attempt
will be made to sort out the aspects of modeling situations that
elicit modeling effects by organizing the relevant studies in
terms of what seems to be their most appropriate explanatory
base.
At the most elementary level, models make behavioral
alternatives salient: They draw attention to particular courses of
action, and increase the salience of social norms. Second, they
supply information about what is appropriate in various
situations by setting an example, by helping to create a
normative standard, and by helping to supply a definition of the
situation. Third, models supply information about the
consequences of courses of action. Although the three aspects
of the modeling situation are conceptually distinct, they are not,
in most cases, unrelated. A rough hierarchical relationship, in
fact, seems to exist between them, with the third subsuming the
second, and the second subsuming the first. Although models
who make behavioral alternatives salient need not supply
information about what is appropriate, nor need they supply
information about behavioral consequences, models who supply
information about behavioral consequences usually supply
information about what is appropriate, and they usually make a
course of action salient. Studies which do not unequivocally
supply information about appropriateness seem most properly
26. reviewed in the first category, and studies in which the
perception of consequences is in doubt are reviewed in the
second. Table 3 contains an outline of studies on modeling
which fall in the three categories.
Modeling as a Function of the Increased Salience of Behavioral
Alternatives and Social
Norms
A series of three naturalistic experiments by Bryan and Test
(1967) demonstrated that observation of helpful and charitable
models elicits congruent altruistic behavior. In the first
experiment, motorists were more likely to stop to help a lady fix
a flat tire if they drove past a model helping a confederate fix a
flat than if they did not. Two other experiments found that
shoppers contributed more to a Salvation Army kettle in the 20
seconds or half minute after a model gave than in the 20
seconds or half minute before he gave. Although the most
parsimonious interpretation for these findings would seem to
relate to the increased salinence of the altruistic behavioral
alternative, Bryan and Test (1967) offered two other
interpretations. The first suggested that the effects were due to
the information that was supplied about the pleasant
consequences of helping, and the second suggested that they
were due to a comparison between observer and model, which
resulted in shame. The first interpretation does not seem tenable
in the flat-tire situation, where the consequence of helping was
hard work (unless of course those who stopped had a pick-up in
mind). The second interpretation runs into some difficulty in all
three experiments due to the fact that most of the shoppers and
motorists did not act altruistically. Moreover, the sight of the
Salvation Army solicitor in itself would seem to be enough to
elicit shame in those who were prone to react with shame. The
more conservative interpretation, therefore, seems justified.
In another study, Test and Bryan (in press) compared the effect
of three modeling situations on helping behavior. They found
that potential benefactors helped a stooge more after they
observed a generous model, and after they were helped
27. themselves than after they were exposed to an indifferent model
or to no model at all. There were no differences between the
observation of help and receipt of help conditions, nor between
the indifferent-model and no-model conditions. Although Test
and Bryan (in press) stated that their failure to find a difference
between the indifferent-model and no-model conditions was not
in accord with the results of studies by Rosenbaum and Blake
(1955) and Rosenbaum (1956), this may not be the case. The
studies are not strictly comparable because the Test and Bryan
study employed a model who failed to help, whereas the latter
studies employed models who actively refused to help.
Although the Test and Bryan indifferent-model condition did
involve constraints against helping, they were not as strong as
those in the Rosenbaum studies.
In an effort to obtain an effect for both altruistic and selfish
models, Wheeler and Wagner (1968) exposed enlisted men and
navy recruits to a situation in which they overheard a solicitor
request a twenty-fivedollar donation for one of two causes: to
help fly the family of a dying serviceman to his bedside, or to
build up the monetary reserve of a local serviceman's fund. As
expected, most money was given in the altruistic model
condition, least was given in the selfish model condition, and
the amount given in the control condition fell in between.
Although the responses of the models may have supplied some
hints about the appropriateness of various responses, there was
nothing about the models that legitimized their responses. Their
main function seems to have been to increase the salience of
behavioral alternatives.
The three studies reviewed above used adult subjects. When
children are exposed to adult models, however, the behavior of
adults is likely to serve as a standard of appropriateness. The
performances of authoritative or prestigious adults not only
indicate what can be done, but also what should be done.
Modeling as a Function of Information about the
Appropriateness of Behavioral Alternatives
Appropriateness as a function of prestige. Several studies have
28. exposed children to altruistic adult models. Rosenhan and White
(1967) found that 63% of a sample of elementary school
children donated gift certificates to charity during a game that
they played with a charitable model. Forty-eight percent also
gave when they subsequently played alone. Although the
authors interpreted the second finding as evidence for
internalization, the temporal contiguity between tasks and the
similarity of situations suggests that the children simply
behaved in what seemed to be an appropriate way.
A study by White (1967), which satisfied the endurance (but not
generality) criterion, suggested possible limitations on the
modeling of altruistic responses. Fourth- and fifth-grade
children were exposed to one of four conditions: enforced
rehearsal (ER), in which they practiced charitable behavior;
observation plus voluntary rehearsal (OVR), in which they
practiced charity with a generous model; observation of a
generous model alone (O); and a no-model control condition
(C). After performing the experimental task, half the children
were left alone to win some gift certificates and to donate, and
half were sent back to class without playing the game. All
subjects returned for a second testing after several days. Both
groups of children reacted
TABLE 3
STUDIES WHICH EXAMINED THE EFFECT OF MODELS ON
ALTRUISM
Author and date
Sex
Subjects
Age
N
Sex
29. Models
Age
ent
vs.
senta
Main Independent variables
Main dependent variables
Increased salience of behavioral alternatives and social norms
Bryan & Test (1967)
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
'Test & Bryan
(in press)
Wheeler & Wagner
(1968)
M
adult
adult
cs
adult
4,000
720
80
144
M
M
F
M
adult
adult
CS
adult
Ab
Ab
Ab
30. Model helping lady fix a flat tire vs. not.
Model donating to Salvation Army vs. not.
Helping model, nonhelping model, or no model; dependency ;
reciprocity.
Generous model, selfish model, or no model; cost of helping;
strength of appeal for help.
Frequency with which motorists stopped to help lady fix a tire.
Number of observation periods in which donation occurred.
Number of problems done for recipient.
Amount donated.
Information about appropriateness : prestige of models
Rosenhan & White
(1967)
White (1967)
M. Harris (1968)
Bryan & Walbek (1969)
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Grusec & Skubiski
(in press)
M/Fb
M/Fb
M/Fb
M/Fb
M/Fb
9-10
10, 11
9-10
8-10
8-9
8, 10
130
210
91
168
31. 132
80
M
M
same sex
same sex
same sex same sex
adult
cs
cs adult
peer
peer adult
P/Ab
Ab
Ab
Prior nurturance of model; generous model vs. no model.
Generosity of models ; rehearsal of altruistic behavior ;
durability of altruism.
Object of generous model's donations ; model reinforced vs.
not; selfish model, and no model.
Model who preached charity, greed, or neutral, and practiced
charity or greed.
Prior nurturance of model; model who preached charity or
practiced charity.
Frequency of donation in presence and absence of model.
Number of gift certificates donated to charity.
Number of chips shared with model and charity; frequency of
sharing.
Frequency of donations, amount donated.
Number of marbles shared.
Note.—Models for Blake et al. (1955) were symbolic.
Abbreviations are: CS — college student.
• during measure of altruism. b sex constituted a variable.
Table 3—(Continued)
Author and date
32. Sex
Subjects
Age
N
Sex
Models
Age
Present
vs. absent'
Main independent variables
Main dependent variables
Information about appropriateness : group standards
Blake et al. (1955)
Schachter & Hall
(1952)
Blake et al. (1956)
Rosenbaum & Blake (1955)
Rosenbaum (1956)
M/F
M/F
M/F
M
cs
cs
cs
cs
50
444
362
45
135
33. M/Fa
peers
peers
P/Ab
P/A b
P
P
Mean amount of prior donations; variation among prior
donations.
Conditions of volunteering: high restraint vs. low restraint.
Public vs. private commitment; attractive. ness of alternative.
Agreement vs. refusal of models to volunteer.
Agreement vs. refusal of models; intensity of request.
Amount donated toward gift for retiring secretary.
Frequency of volunteering for an experiment; frequency of
showing up.
Frequency of volunteering for an experiment.
Frequency of volunteering for an experiment.
Frequency of volunteering for an experiment.
Information about appropriateness: groups standard and
diffusion of responsibility and blame
Darley & Latané (1968)
Latané & Darley (1968)
Latané & Rodin
(1969)
Korte (1969)
Kaufmann (1968)
Staub & Feagans
(1969)
M/Fb
M
M
M
M
cs cs
cs
34. cs
cs
5-12b
72
58
120
60
186
153
M/F
M
M/F
cs
peer
Ab
P
P
Ab
P
P
Size of group, status of other ; personality
measures.
Size of group; response of others,
Waiting alone vs. with another; status of other (friend, stranger,
stooge).
Focused vs. diffuse responsibility; other's definition of situation
; personality
measures.
Status of subject ; expectation of future role; culpability of
learner; legitimacy of authority.
Presence vs. absence of another.
Frequency and speed of reporting epileptic fit.
Frequency and speed of reporting smoke.
Frequency and speed of helping an injured woman.
Frequency of helping an asthmatic experimenter.
Frequency of stopping a Milgram-type experiment.
35. Frequency of trying to help an injured other.
Information about consequences
Hornstein et al.
(1968)
Midlarsky & Bryan
(1967)
M
adult
6—10b
105
M
F
adult
cs
Ab
P/Ab
Foreign vs. compatriot model; positive, negative, neutral effect
on model of acting generously.
Reaction of model to self-sacrifice; affectionate responses or
not; expressive cues during test, or not.
Number of returned wallets.
Num ber of self-sacrificial responses; amount donated.
similarly in the delayed session. The effect of time, however,
served to reduce the number of altruistic responses, especially
in the ER condition. A noteworthy finding was that there was
little reduction in giving for the girls in the OVR condition. It
suggests that for girls observation of models may have only
temporary effects on performance, whereas observation plus
rehearsal may result in the acquisition of behavioral
dispositions. Although other research has not supported this
suggestion (e.g., Rosenhan & White, 1967), it serves to
emphasize the importance of differentiating situational
performance effects from internalized behavioral dispositions.
A study by M. Harris (1968) demonstrated that modeling effects
sometimes have little generality. She found that children who
36. were exposed to a model who gave tokens to them returned the
favor, but children who were exposed to a model who donated
to charity also donated to charity. The children imitated the
specific behavior of the models, probably because it seemed
appropriate, but failed to internalize a general altruistic
disposition.
A study by Bryan and Walbek (1969) tested the relative
strengths of behavioral and verbal indications of appropriate
behavior. Groups of elementary school children were exposed to
one of six situations. They observed models who practiced
charity and preached either charity, greed, or gave a neutral
statement; or they observed models who practiced greed and
preached either charity, greed, or gave a neutral statement. A
series of three experiments indicated that although
verbalizations affected the attractiveness of models, it was what
models did that affected the responses of the children. No effect
was found for hypocrisy (discrepancy between word and deed).
Grusec and Skubiski (in press) supported the findings of Bryan
and Walbek (1969). They found that third- and fifth-grade
children were more prone to donate marbles after observing a
model donate than after hearing him verbalize the appropriate
behavior. Only girls who had had a prior interaction with a
nurturant model donated as much in the preach charity as the
practice charity condition. It seems likely that more was
supplied by the model than information about appropriateness.
As suggested earlier, actions which indicate appropriateness
also increase the salience of behavioral alternatives. Showing
children what to do, however subtly, clearly supplies more
information than telling them what to do.
It has been argued that although children see most adults as
authorities, adults generally do not. In some situations, though,
adults do supply standards of appropriateness, especially when
they are in groups. Studies which explored the effect of groups
of models on altruism have used two types of models: those who
are actively altruistic, and those who are passively selfish. A
series of early studies of the first type demonstrates the effect
37. of group standards on gift-giving and volunteering.
Appropriateness as a function of group standards—the modeling
of action. Blake et al. (1955) found that the amount which
graduate students donated toward a gift for a retiring secretary
depended on the amount they thought others had donated.
Although no model was physically present, a list containing
prior donations" supplied information about the behavior of the
reference group.
Schachter and Hall (1952) examined the effect of group
influence on volunteering behavior. Students who observed half
of a class appear to volunteer (low restraint) were more likely to
sign up for an experiment than those in high restraint
conditions. Subjects in low restraint conditions, though, were
not more likely than subjects in high restraint conditions to
fulfill their commitment. Another study (Blake, Berkowitz,
Bellamy, & Mouton, 1956) found that students who were asked
to raise their hands in class (without half the class appearing to
volunteer) were less likely to volunteer than students who were
asked to sign their names in private. The failure of other class
members to volunteer seemed to establish a group standard of
noncompliance.
Field studies have supported the findings of the classroom
studies. Rosenbaum and Blake (1955) found that students were
more liable to volunteer for an experiment if they observed
another student volunteer than if they did not. Interpretation of
the finding, though, is difficult due to the fact that it was only
the subjects who observed another person volunteer (and return
to his studies) who gained information concerning the (short)
duration of the experiment. A later study by Rosenbaum (1956)
controlled for perceived duration of commitment and attained
comparable results. Unfortunately the latter study contained a
further confound: Subjects, who were exposed to a model who
volunteered, anticipated participating in the experiment with the
model, whereas subjects in the other condition expected to take
part in the experiment alone. The added information may well
have influenced the volunteering behavior.
38. It should be apparent that the behavior reviewed above is
interpretable in a Sherif (1947) and Asch (1956) type of
conformity paradigm. People behave altruistically in order to
conform to group standards.
In the same way that students model the noncompliance of their
fellow students, bystanders may model the failure of other
bystanders to respond to pleas for help. In both cases the
reaction (or lack of reaction) of the group serves as a standard
of behavior. A series of studies by Darley and Latané
demonstrated that the presence of others inhibits altruistic
responses in emergency situations.
Appropriateness as a function of group standards—the modeling
of inaction. Puzzled by the shockingly irresponsible behavior of
the 38 witnesses who remained behind their apartment doors
while Kitty Genovese was being murdered (A. Rosenthal, 1964),
Darley and Latané ran a number of experiments on bystander
intervention in emergencies. In the first study, Darley and
Latané (1968) plaed college undergraduates alone in a room
with an intercom and told them that it was posSible for only one
person in their group (of either two, three, or six) to be on the
air at a time. After a short conversation, the subjects heard a
confederate appear to have an epileptic fit. It was the subjects
who thought that they were the only other ones present who
responded most consistently and rapidly; and subjects who
thought they were in threeperson groups responded more
consistently and rapidly than those who thought they were in
six-person groups. The investigators interpreted these results as
support for the hypothesis that people in groups fail to respond
because responsibility and blame are diffused among group
members. The diffusion of responsibility and blame
explanation, though, was cast in doubt by the further finding
that females in three-person groups did not respond any slower
when the other bystander was a male or a premed student—
people who would be expected to take responsibility in
emergencies.
Even though there seems to be more in effect than diffusion of
39. responsibility and blame, studies by Allen (1968) and Korte
(1969) suggest that diffusion does influence helping behavior in
some situations. In a situation similar to that of Darley and
Latané (1968), Korte (1969) found a greater incidence of
helping for subjects who believed that the other members of
their three-person group were strapped down to a table than for
subjects who did not. In the Allen (1968) study, commuters in
New York subways were given a chance to correct a stooge who
gave incorrect directions. The communters were least likely to
correct a stooge when the request for directions was directed to
the stooge. They were most likely to correct the stooge when
they were asked for directions; and moderately likely to correct
him when the request for directions was directed at a group of
bystanders.
In a second series of experiments (Latané & Darley, 1968),
bystanders were placed in emergency situations that contained a
personal threat to their safety. Male col]ege students who found
themselves in a room that began to fill with smoke were more
likely to report the emergency when they were alone in the
room than when they were in the presence of two other subjects
or two passive stooges. These findings do not fit well with the
diffusion of responsibility and blame interpretation, due to the
fact that it was the safety of the subjects themselves that was in
question. It would seem that part of the inhibiting effect of
passive bystanders occurs because they supply, by their lack of
concern, an innocuous definition of the situation. Their
passivity may, as a study by Latané (1967) suggests, even help
to validate defensively distorted perceptions of the situation.
Subjects whose tasks were interrupted by the tape-recorded
sounds of a "bully" assaulting a young child accounted for their
failure to help by saying that they did not believe that the fight
was real. The obvious inference— that the tape-recorded sounds
of the fight were unconvincing—was cast in doubt by the
further finding that subjects who were freed from responsibility
believed the fight was real. Detracting responsibility, though,
may have changed the situation in other ways. The group which
40. was freed from responsibility had no reason to doubt the reality
of the fight— what purpose could it serve? A faked emergency
would make more sense to subjects who were on the spot.
A further study (Latané & Rodin, 1969) extended the generality
of prior findings. Male undergraduates who heard a female
"market research representative" appear to fall from a chair and
hurt her ankle were more likely to help her when they were
alone than when they were in the presence of a stranger or an
unconcerned stooge. Subjects who were paired with a stranger
were more likely to help the "representative" than subjects who
were paired with a passive stooge.
Both Latané and Rodin (1969) and Darley (1967) found that
subjects who were paired with friends were more likely to help
than those who were paired with strangers. However, subjects
who were paired with friends were not as likely to help as
subjects who were exposed to the emergency alone. In view of
the fact that the passivity of subjects to emergency situations is
probably more apparent than real (they are upset but they do not
show it), the greater incidence of helping with friends might be
due to the fact that they are able to anticipate each other's true
reactions. Acting together, they also have consensual support
for their definition of the situation.
Surveying all the studies in the bystander intervention series, it
would appear that both a diffusion of responsibility and blame,
and a group influence explanation are needed (cf. Latané &
Rodin, 1969). In the seizure situation, where subjects were
isolated from one another, no information about group reaction
was supplied. Yet in the smoke-filled room situation, little good
could come from diffusing responsibility and blame when the
welfare of the subject himself was in question.
Although most of the bystander-intervention studies found that
bystanders were prone to help when they were alone, one study
(Latané, 1967) found that virtually all undergraduates failed to
intervene in behalf of an assaulted child, even when they were
alone. Similar results were obtained in a study by Kaufmann
(1968). Only 11%0 of subjects who were asked to observe a
41. "teacher" deliver what seemed to be increasingly severe and
dangerous shocks to a "learner' (cf. Milgram, 1963) responded
to the learner's pleas for help. No differences were found among
conditions in which the bystander was given a position of high
status, was led to believe he would later be the "teacher," or had
reason to doubt the legitimacy of the teacher's authority. People
fail to help in some situations, it would appear, on the slightest
excuse.
A developmental study by Staub and Feagans (1969) found that
children also failed to help in emergency situations. Unlike
their adult counterparts, though, they were less prone to help
when they were alone than when they were with another child.
Nursery school, first- and second-grade children tended to help
another child who appeared to fall and hurt himself more when
they were in pairs than when they were alone. At the fourth and
sixth grade the trend tended to reverse itself and the children
behaved more like their adult counterparts. It is possible that
the presence of a partner reduced the fear associated with doing
something wrong in the younger children, but served as a source
of potential negative evaluation for the older children.
Whatever the precise reasons, it seems likely that the behavior
of bystanders is predicted on their ignorance concerning the
consequences of helping. If they were assured that no harm
would come to them, their apparently heartless inaction would
seem less likely. And if they were assured that they would be
rewarded, helping behavior would seem virtually certain. It is
surprising, therefore, that none of the studies which
manipulated perception of consequences has achieved a clear
effect.
Modeling as a Function of Perception of Consequences
Models who supply information about the consequences of
altruistic behavior almost always supply other information.
Information about the consequences of particular choices of
action usually supplies an indication of its appropriateness. The
observation of the act also, of course, increases the salience of
related behavioral alternatives.
42. Of the experiments which tested for the influence of perception
of consequences, one used adult subjects and two used children.
In the study on adults, Hornstein et al., ( 1968) presented
passersby with a wallet that had apparently been found by a
model and then relost. Passersby who were led to believe they
were similar to the model were more likely to return the wallet
when an attached note indicated that the model felt good or
neutral about returning the wallet than when the note indicated
he felt bad.
In the first of the studies on children, Midlarsky and Bryan
(1967) failed to find any difference between the number of self-
sacrificial and charitable responses of elementary school girls
who observed a model who emitted expressive signs of joy after
making self-sacrificial choices, and models who did not. M.
Harris (1968), using an age group similar to that of Midlarsky
and Bryan (1967), failed to find a difference between the
altruistic behavior of children who were exposed to models who
were praised for their altruism, and those who were not.
Because the praising agent was absent when the children
performed, however, they had reason not to expect similar
consequences.
None of the studies that examined the effect of perception of
consequences found a significant difference between positive
and neutral consequence conditions. The Hornstein et al. (1968)
study, though, found that the perception of negative
consequences had an inhibiting effect on altruism. It is possible
that the lack of similarity between observer and model in the
studies which used children made the consequences of the
model's actions irrelevant.
Although situations in which consequences can be observed
were analyzed according to their effect on the performance of
altruistic behavior, some investigators (e.g., M. Harris, 1968;
Midlarsky & Bryan, 1967) analyzed them in relation to the
internalization of relatively permanent behavioral dispositions.
None of the studies, however, met the two criteria of
internalization—situational generality and longitudinal
43. stability.
Several studies, though, have set out to examine the antecedents
of modeling effects. Instead of explaining imitative behavior
with what is essentially a descriptive rubric, they have
attempted to find out what it is about observing a model that
results in the acquisition of congruent behavioral dispositionse
Three general approaches have been taken. The first examined
modeling effects in terms of identification, the second examined
them in terms of secondary reinforcement, and the third
examined them in terms of empathy.
Modeling and the Internalization of
Altruistic Dispositions
Although several investigators have viewed modeling in terms
of identification (see Bandura & Walters, 1963), there has been
only one study which examined the relationship between
identification and altruism. Rutherford and Mussen (1968)
found that generous nursery school boys saw their fathers as
more warm and nurturant than less generous boys. These
findings were interpreted as support for the hypothesis that
generosity results from identification with warm and nurturant
samesexed parents. Although the findings indicated that the
generous boys saw their fathers as warm and nurturant, no
information was supplied about the generosity of the fathers,
nor was the assumption that the boys were identified with their
fathers substantiated. Moreover, the hypothesis that
identification caused the boy's generosity was supported by only
correlational data.
Mowrer (1960) suggested that rewarding models are imitated
because stimuli that are associated with the performance of
imitative responses, especially proprioceptive feedback, are
secondarily reinforcing. Hartup and Coates (1967) tested
Mowrer's suggestion by exposing nursery children who had
histories of frequent and infrequent peer reinforcement to
rewarding and nonrewarding peer models. Both history of
reinforcement and rewardingness of model were determined by
time-sampled observations of a nursery school class. The
44. altruism of rewarding peer models was imitated more by
children with histories of frequent peer reinforcement, and the
altruism of nonrewarding peer models was imitated more by
children with histories of infrequent peer reinforcement. No
differences in attractiveness of model or social acceptance of
subjects were found among groups. The results suggested that
Mowrer's (1960) theory applies only to subjects with histories
of frequent reinforcement. However, on the basis of the positive
correlation between giving and receiving reinforcement from
peers (Charlesworth & Hartup, 1967) the results can also be
interpreted as support for the notion that subjects modeled the
responses of those who were similar to them. The latter
interpretation is consistent with the Hornstein et al. (1968)
findings. However, several other studies, which did not control
for history of reinforcement (e.g., Grusec & Skubiski, in press;
Rosenhan & White, 1967), failed to support the notion that
rewarding models are imitated more than nonrewarding models.
The results of a study by Aronfreed and Paskel (1968) on first-
to third-grade girls can be interpreted in accord with a
secondary reinforcement position. Aronfreed and Paskel ( 1968)
found that children who were exposed to a female model, who
emitted both expressive signs of joy and hugs (EH) after she
made self-sacrificial responses, evidenced more imitation than
children who were exposed to expressive cues (E) or hugs (H)
alone. If the model who emitted expressive cues and affection
responses is seen as the most rewarding of the three models
(and the fact that she was the only one who displayed pretask
nurturance makes this likely) , then the modeling effect can be
interpreted as a function of the secondary reinforcement effects
of imitation.
Aronfreed and Paskel (1968) interpreted their results
differently—as support for the notion that the self-sacrificial
responses of the girls were reinforced by empathically
experienced positive affect. Because the girls who were exposed
to both affective responses and expressive cues were exposed to
the most warmth, and because they were given the most
45. indication of what was desired of them, interpretation of the
results is difficult.
A later study by Midlarsky and Bryan ( 1967) controlled for
pretask warmth and added a condition in which the model failed
to emit expressive cues in the test situation. It also took a
second measure of altruism in a different situation. Although
the investigators did not interpret the results as support for the
position of Aronfreed and Paskel, their results were very
similar. Both studies found that exposure to the EH condition
resulted in more self-sacrificial responses than exposure to E or
H alone. Moreover, as Aronfreed and Paskel would have
predicted, more self-sacrificial responses were made when the
model emitted expressive cues during testing than when she did
not. The findings, though, that self-sacrificial responses
occurred in conditions other than the HE and EH conditions,
and that most of the girls who sacrificed candy also donated to
charity in the absence of the model, suggest that more was
involved than the empathic transmission of positive affect.
There has been no concrete support for positions that view
modeling as a function of identification, secondary
reinforcement, or empathy. Studies which appear to support
each position have alternative interpretations. Moreover,
although all of the studies were concerned with the
internalization of altruistic dispositions, none established the
situational generality and longitudinal stability of the effects.
Some researchers would argue that the two criteria are beyond
the range of laboratory studies. What is needed, perhaps, is
supplementary evidence from naturalistic studies. If, for
example, correlates of altruism could be found in the behavior
of parents or friends, relevant experimental analogues would
receive support. Such correlates have been reported in three
studies. Rosenhan (1967) found that a group of active civil
rights workers had a close relationship with at least one
altruistic parent; Tomkins (1965) reported that prominent
abolitionists were influenced by altruistic friends; and Rettig
(1956) found that altruism in parents was positively correlated
46. with scores made by college students on an altruism scale. Some
evidence was found in the Rettig (1956) study for the notion
that the effects of direct reinforcement of altruistic behavior by
parents dissipates over time, whereas modeling effects are more
enduring.
Although more precise studies are needed, the results of studies
which have found a relationship between attributes of parents
and altruism in children are encouraging, especially in view of
the failure of most studies to find a relationship between moral
behavior in parents and personality correlates in children (cf.
Kohlberg, in press).
Experimenter Effects
An appropriate way of ending the review of modeling and
altruism is to draw attention to the relationship between
modeling and experimenter effects. R. Rosenthal (1966) and
others have demonstrated that experimenters unintentionally
effect the responses of their subjects, even when they do not
perform the tasks in question. Modeling can be considered a
type of experimenter effect—it causes subjects to act in ways
congruent with the behavior (and, usually, expectations) of
models. The similarity between modeling and experimenter
effects has three implications. The first emphasizes the
suggestion that modeling effects are temporary and
situationspecific. The second emphasizes the subtlety of
modeling effects—a decade of research has been unable to
isolate the means by which expectations are communicated in
experiments. And finally, the necessity for methodological
caution in modeling studies becomes obvious. Most studies
attribute modeling effects to more than experimenter bias. In
spite of this, few studies have controlled for expectations of the
model.
ALTRUISM AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPORARY
STATES OF THE RECIPIENT
When it is the temporary states of recipients of altruistic
responses that are studied, the question that becomes relevant is
what kinds of states, and what situations associated with these
47. states, elicit altruistic responses. The range of recipient state
variables that has been studied is small. Only two variables —
dependency and interpersonal attractiveness—have been studied
in any detail.
A close consideration of the effect of interpersonal
attractiveness on altruism suggests that many altruistic
responses result not from characteristics of benefactors or
recipients alone, but rather from an interaction between the
characteristics of benefactors and recipients. Recipients, for
example, may be attractive to different benefactors for different
reasons, and benefactors may differ in attractability. In the
modeling studies, almost all recipients were dependent, and
their dependency probably interacted with the modeling effects
to elicit altruism. Even though characteristics of both recipients
and benefactors influence altruism, they can be separated for
classification due to the fact that most experiments vary one set
of characteristics and hold the other constant.
Dependency of the Recipient
The essential attribute of a recipient of altruism is his perceived
need for aid. In almost all of the reported studies on altruism,
altruistic behavior was elicited by a dependent other. Most
studies held dependency constant, or allowed it to vary
randomly. Some studies, however, gave specific attention to the
effect of dependency.
A set of ten studies (see Table 4) by Berkowitz and his
colleagues found a consistent effect for dependency. All studies
used the same basic experimental design. In the standard
situation, subjects were recruited for an experiment on
supervisory ability. A "worker" was required to construct paper
boxes or envelopes for a "supervisor." In the high dependency
condition, the worker was told that the supervisor's chance of
winning a prize depended on the worker's productivity. In the
low dependency condition, the worker was told that it was the
quality of the supervisor's instructions that would determine his
reward. The measure of altruism was either the number of boxes
constructed in the experimental session, or the difference
48. between the number constructed in the experimental session and
the number in a practice session. Berkowitz and his colleagues
(see Table 4) consistently found that more boxes were
4
STUDIES WHICH DEMONSTRATED THE EFFECT OF
DEPENDENCY OF THE RECIPIENT ON ALTRUISM
Author and date
Subjects
Age
Relationship between dependency of the recipient and altruism
Berkowitz & Daniels (1963)
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Daniels & Berkowitz (1963)
Berkowitz & Daniels (1964)
Berkowitz et al. (1964)
Berkowitz & Conner (1966)
Berkowitz (1966)
Goranson & Berkowitz (1966)
Berkowitz & Friedman
(1967)
Berkowitz (1967)
Berkowitz (1968)
Schopler & Bateson (1965)
Wheeler & Wagner (1968)
Midlarsky (1968a)
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
49. M
M
cs
cs
cs
cs
cs
cs
cs
13-16 cs
13-16
cs
adult
cs
80
32
80
80
160
108
89
345
192
196
144
80
More produced for high vs. low dependent supervisor; no main
effect for awareness; no main effect for amount of reward.
More produced for high vs. low dependent supervisor; less
produced in Low Awareness X Low Dependency condition.
More produced for high vs. low dependent supervisor; less in
Low Awareness X Low Dependency; more in High Liking X
High Dependency.
More produced for high vs. low dependent supervisor; no
main effect for awareness.
More produced for high vs. low dependent supervisor; no main
50. effect for awareness; no effect for sex of subject or sex of
experimenter.
More produced for high vs. low (but not medium) dependent
supervisor ; more produced in High Dependency X Success than
High Dependency X Failure.
Study later elaborated by Berkowitz & Friedman (1967) and
Berkowitz (1968) ; see below.
(High dependency condition only) More produced after
voluntary vs. compulsory help for same (vs. different) person;
least produced after refused help.
(All in high dependency condition) ; sons of bureaucrats
produced more than working-class boys; sons of entrepreneurs
produced less after receiving low (vs. high) help from another.
(1) : More produced for externally-caused high dependency. (2)
: More produced for highly dependent others. (4) :
Sexdifferences in high and low dependency condition.
(All in high dependency condition) ; working-class boys (vs.
bureaucratic boys) who received high (vs. low) prior help
produced more for the same person.
Males gave more to lowly dependent (vs. highly dependent)
recipients, and females gave more to highly dependent
recipients, when cost of helping was low.
More tended to be given in order to help fly relatives to a dying
sailor than to help build up a serviceman's fund.a More shock-
contingent problems were solved for high (vs. low) dependent
recipients.
278 DENNIS L. KREBS
TABLE
284 DENNIS L. KREBS
TABLE
ALTRUISM 279
Note.—Abbreviations are: CS — college student.
built by workers in the high dependency condition than workers
in the low dependency condition. One study (Berkowitz &
Conner, 1966) created three levels of dependency— the
51. supervisor was dependent on the worker for 20%, 50%, or 80%
of the points that could earn him a cash prize. Workers whose
supervisors were 80% dependent made more paper envelopes
than those whose supervisors were 20% dependent.
It might be argued that the altruism shown by the workers was a
function of expectations of approval or fear of disapproval. To
test these possibilities, Berkowitz and Daniels (1963) and
Daniels and Berkowitz (1963) added an "awareness" condition.
Workers in the high awareness condition were told that their
supervisors would be informed of their productivity during the
experiment, and those in the low awareness condition were told
that their work would not be examined until after a month. In no
case was a main effect found for awareness. However, a
combination of (low) dependency and (low) awareness was
associated with low production. Moreover, production also
failed to increase when the experimenter's awareness was
manipulated (Berkowitz, Klanderman, & Harris, 1964).
Berkowitz interpreted the lack of difference between the
productivity of the high and low awareness groups in the high
dependency condition as support for the assumption that his
workers were not motivated toward the attainment of approval
or avoidance of punishment. It is also possible that the low
awareness manipulation was ineffective. Subjects may have
found it difficult to believe that their output would remain
unexamined for a month.
The notion that dependency elicits helping behavior in the
Berkowitz type of situation has not received full support from
other studies (outlined in Table 4). Schopler and Bateson (1965,
Experiment 2 and 3) and Schopler (1967) found that females
yielded more money to a partner when he was in a state of high
(versus low) dependency, but only if the cost of yielding was
low. Males in the low cost of yielding condition, on the other
hand, yielded more money when their partner was in a state of
low dependency. In a different situation, Schopler and Bateson
(1965, Experiment 1) found that although females were more
inclined to volunteer to help a student finish his thesis when he
52. was "desperate," males were more inclined to help when he had
a year to work on it (p < .10). The measure of altruism in the
Schopler studies seems more powerful than that in the
Berkowitz studies because of the material sacrifice involved.
The more the benefactor yielded, the less he kept for himself.
Other studies which involved a variety of situations, though,
have supplied support for the notion that dependency in the
recipient elicits altruism. Wheeler and Wagner (1968), for
example, found that Navy men were more likely to donate
money when they were exposed to a personal appeal which
involved a highly dependent family than one which involved a
condition of low dependency (p < .10). A study by Test and
Bryan (in press) failed to find an effect for dependency. A
posttest questionnaire, however, revealed that the dependency
manipulation had failed. In a situation similar to that of Test
and Bryan, Midlarsky (1968a) found that more help was given
to a partner with broken eyeglasses than to a less dependent
recipient, even though helping involved the receipt of electric
shocks.
It should be pointed out that the dependency manipulations in
the Schopler and Bateson (1965), Wheeler and Wagner (1968),
Test and Bryan (in press), and Midlarsky (1968a) studies
differed from those in the Berkowitz studies. In the Berkowitz
studies the supervisor was specifically dependent on the
worker—if the worker did not work hard, the supervisor did not
get rewarded. In the Schopler and Bateson (1965, Experiment 1)
and Wheeler and Wagner (1968) studies, on the other hand, the
dependency of the other was general—each subject could have
told himself that if he did not help, someone else would. The
Midlarsky (1968a) and Test and Bryan (in press) studies fall in
between. Subjects were not asked to help the dependent other,
but they were the only ones who could help him.
Before turning to studies which manipulated interpersonal
attractiveness of the recipient, it should be mentioned that
dependency need not be viewed as a unitary variable. Studies by
Schopler and Matthews (1965) and Horowitz (1968)
53. demonstrated that internally caused dependency (dependency
caused by the subject) tended to elicit less altruism than
externally caused dependency. Locus of dependency, though,
seems best examined as a trait variable.
Interpersonal Attractiveness of the Recipient Common sense
would predict that more is given to liked others than disliked
others. Because the prediction seems so obvious, perhaps, only
three studies on altruism (Daniels & Berkowitz, 1963; Epstein
& Hornstein, 1969; Staub & Sherk, in press) have manipulated
interpersonal attractiveness as a main independent variable. The
apparent paucity of research, however, may be misleading. It is
possible that interpersonal attractiveness has exerted an
unrecognized in-
5
STUDIES WHICH MEASURED THE EFFECT OF
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE
RECIPIENT ON ALTRUISM
Author and date
Subj ects
Sex Age N
Relationship between attractiveness and altruism
Daniels & Berkowitz (1963)
Staub & Sherk (in press)
Epstein & Hornstein (1969)
Berkowitz & Friedman (1967)
Schopler & Matthews (1965)
Brehm & cole (1966)
Kiesler (1966)
Schopler & Thompson (1968)
Walster & Prestholdt (1966)
Lerner & Lichtman (1968)
Lerner & Matthews (1967)
Lerner
Berkowitz & Daniels (1963)
M
55. likable and received more help, from entrepreneurial but not
bureaucratic boys.
Externally dependent subjects rated in more attractive terms and
helped more.
Subjects who did appropriate favor (vs. no favor) rated as more
friendly (but not as generally more attractive) and received
more help.
Partners who did not share after a cooperative (vs. competitive)
game rated as unattractive.
"Salesman" who gave flower in appropriate (vs. inappropriate)
circumstances rated as more generous (but not as more
attractive).
Person who was rated too harshly in low commitment (vs. high
commitment) condition was subsequently rated as more
attractive; he also tended to elicit more help.
Partners who performed illicitly (vs. legitimately) gracious act
were rated as less attractive and helped less. Attractiveness and
helping did not go together in other conditions.
When subjects draw placed him in a control and his partner in a
shock condition (vs. fates independent) partner was rated as less
attractive, but was comforted more.
When subjects (vs. experimenter) caused their partners to serve
in shock condition, partners were rated as less attractive, yet
subjects were more prone to take their place.
High dependent (vs. low dependent) supervisors were helped
more, but liked less.
fluence in other studies. Studies that manipulate characteristics
of the recipient usually affect the attractiveness of the recipient.
Table 5 contains an outline of studies which investigated the
effect of interpersonal attractiveness on altruism.
Interpersonal attractiveness as an independent variable. Only
three studies have focused on the altruism-eliciting effect of
attractiveness of the recipient. Daniels and Berkowitz (1963)
told "workers" that a questionnaire revealed they would either
like or dislike their "supervisors." As expected, the workers
56. made more boxes for highly dependent supervisors when they
thought they would like them than when they thought they
would not. Staub and Sherk (in press) found that fourthgrade
children shared a crayon longer with liked than with disliked
partners.
In the third study, Epstein and Hornstein (1969) found a more
complex relationship between liking and altruism. Subjects who
liked their partners made fewer selfish responses than subjects
who disliked their partners when they were punished for their
selfishness by a third person. When they were not punished,
however, they made fewer selfish responses for a disliked
partner. Although the results are difficult to interpret, it is
possible that punishment from a liked other served to remind
the subjects of the harm their acts did. Punishment from a
disliked other, on the other hand, may have antagonized them
into more selfish behavior.
Interpersonal attractiveness as a mediating variable. It seems
likely that most studies which manipulated characteristics of the
recipient incidentally varied his interpersonal attractiveness.
Recipients are usually more or less attractive depending on their
association with moral transgression or need for psychological
help (Bryan & Davenport 6 ; Nunnally, 1961), their race and
nationality (Bryan & Test, 1967; Feldman, 1968), the legitimacy
of their need (Frisch & Greenberg, 1968; Horowitz, 1968;
Schopler & Matthews, 1965), and the amount of prior help
attributed to them (Pruitt, 1968). Several of the Berkowitz
studies (e.g., Berkowitz & Friedman, 1967) found incidental
relationships between the amount of help given to supervisors
and their rated attractiveness. Other studies, though (e.g.,
Berkowitz & Daniels , 1963), found a negative relationship
between helping and attractiveness.
Research on the effect of inappropriate favors on altruism
demonstrates that although recipients who are helped tend to be
seen as more attractive than those who are not, the reverse is
sometimes true. Kiesler (1966) found that partners who did
appropriate favors were rated as more attractive than those who
57. did inappropriate favors, but no measure of altruism was taken.
Brehm and Cole (1966), Lerner and Lichtman (1968), and
Schopler and Thompson (1968) found that inappropriate favors
elicited less altruism than appropriate favors. They also found
that recipients who had done appropriate favors tended to be
rated more positively. But in every case, the recipients failed to
be rated as better liked. Lerner and Lichtman ( 1968), however,
found a positive relationship between selfishness and
unattractiveness—recipients who seemed "illicitly gracious"
were rated as unattractive and were helped little.
A final study, which set out to examine a dissonance effect,
supplied some information
5 Bryan, J. H., & Davenport, M. Donations to the needy:
correlates of financial contributions to the destitute. (Research
Bulletin No. 68-1) Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing
Service, 1968.
about attractiveness. Walster and Prestholdt (1966) found that
subjects who increased their attractiveness ratings of targets in
order to compensate for an unfair rating or justify a high rating
tended to be more likely to volunteer to help the target person.
Unfortunately, though, the imminence of summer vacation and
final exams truncated their sample to the point that statistical
analysis of the relationship between attractiveness and
volunteering was not feasible.
Although there are suggestive indications that attractiveness
mediates altruism, the relationship is surprisingly weak. Several
studies, in fact, have found a negative relationship between
helping and attractiveness. Lerner and Matthews (1967) and
Lerner (see Footnote 4), for example, found that subjects who
perceived themselves (versus their partner or an experimenter)
as responsible for the suffering of another tended to devalue the
other in order to preserve their belief in a just world. In spite of
the devaluation, though, they were more willing than those who
did not devalue their partners to take his place in a shock
condition. It is possible that in cases where altruism is
reparative or part of a role requirement, it is not given as much
58. in behalf of the recipient as in spite of him.
PERSONALITY TRAITS OF THE BENEFACTOR
—CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
Research which has dealt with personality traits of benefactors
differs from most of the research reviewed thus far because it is
concerned with natural correlations rather than experimentally
induced relationships. Traitoriented correlational studies (see
Table 6) have used three different criteria of altruism. Some
have defined altruism according to the ratings of others. Some
have used scores on pencil-and-paper tests; and some have used
behavioral measures. Personality variables in each of the three
categories have been drawn from several different sources.
Trait-oriented correlational studies attempt to find out what
personality traits and syndromes are typical of altruists, and, in
general, what kind of people altruists are.
6
STUDIES WHICH EXAMINED 'I'llE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS OF 'I'llE
BENEFACTOR AND ALTRUISM
Author and date
Subjects
Sex Age
N
Source of personality traits
Positive correlations with altruism
Negative correlations with altruism
Studies which used rating-scale measures of altruism
Turner (1948)
Cattell & Horowitz
(1952)
Friedrichs (1960)
MacDonald
59. M
F
M
F
9—16
cs
cs
cs
116
60
280
19
Ratings of paren ts and social workers.
Dormmates' ratings, 16 PFQ, "objective tests."
Dormmates' ratings, self-ratings, questionnaires.
Self-ratings; questionnaires.
Self-adjustment, grasp of social standards, social skills, good
community relations, adjustment, emotional stability, ethical
goodness. Cyclothymia
Attractiveness as a friend, political conservatism,
authoritarianism, theism, sociability, ingroup involvement.
Need for nurturance, need for autonomy, social values, religious
values.
Antisocial tendencies.
Paranoic-schizoid.
Economic involve. ment.
Economic values, political values.
Studies which used pencil-and-paper test measures of altruism
Friedrichs (1960)
Ribal (1963)
Saywer (1966)
M
M
CS
CS
CS
60. 280
194
122
Self-ratings, questionnaires.
Edwards Personal
Preference Scale
Questionnaire, occupational aspiration.
Church attendance, theism.
Need for endurance
(males) ; needs for affliation and interception (females).
YMCA orientation
Ethnocentrism, neuroticism.
Need for achievement and dominance.
Studies which used behavioral measures of altruism
Rutherford & Mussen
(1968)
Staub & Sherk
(in press)
Gore & Rotter (1963)
Midlarsky (1968a)
Staub (1968)
M
9
cs
cs
9-10
31
94
116
80
196
Doll-play ratings ; racing game; teacher's ratings.
Need for approval questionnaire.
Locus of control questionnaire.
Locus of control questionnaire.
Locus of control questionnaire.