The document discusses naturalistic decision making under life threatening conditions. It proposes using a predator-prey model to understand the three stages of orientation, alarm response, and mobilization that occur. Emotions play an important role in decision making in such high stress situations. The document also discusses implications for training, individual differences, system design, and areas for further research.

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Understanding Naturalistic Decision Making
under
Life Threatening Conditions
Moin Rahman
Motorola, Inc.
Plantation, FL 33322
USA
E-mail: moin.rahman@motorola.com

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“Emergency or crisis conditions occur suddenly and
often unexpectedly, operators must make critical
decisions under extreme stress, and the consequences
of poor performance are immediate and catastrophic.”
(Salas, Driskell & Hughes, 1996).
Decision-Maker under Stress

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Haditha Killings

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Shooting in the Bronx
Amadou Diallo

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High Velocity of information processing
Emotionally modulated cognition
Event perception
- volatile
- uncertain
- complex
- ambiguous
Naturalistic decision making
High velocity of events
Non-linear dynamics
Complex & chaotic
- ill structured
- ill defined
- high stakes
- incomplete information
Perceptions & Behaviors
(Human Factors)
Non-Equilibrium
(Event structure)
High Velocity Human Factors (HVHF)
[Rahman, 2007]
Auto Vigilance
Response Competition
Regressive Behavior

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Emotion disrupts cognition
Reason facilitates cognition
Cartesian Dualism

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Classical, “Affect-free,” Human Information
Processing Model (Wickens, 1992)

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OODA Loop

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“Snake in the Grass Effect” (LeDoux, 1996)

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High Road vs. Low Road (LeDoux, 1996)

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Triune Brain (MacLean, 1993)

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Lessons from Ethology:
Predator-Prey (PP) Dyad
Dynamics:
• Sudden, Volatile, Uncertain, High Stakes
• Imminent threat to life and limb
• Aversive emotions, defensive behavior

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1) Orientation (Or)
Behavior under Life Threatening
Conditions (OrAM)
2) Alarm Response (A)
3) Mobilization (M)

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- Fear Bradycardia (brief drop in heart rate)
Orientation
- Attentional Tunneling
Loss of peripheral vision
Auditory exclusion
“non-consciously size up the threat”
(PNS dominates)
- Increased SCR
- Startle inhibition

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1) Orientation (Or)
Behavior under Life Threatening
Conditions (OrAM)
2) Alarm Response (A)
3) Mobilization (M)

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Changes in the brain-body landscape
(SNS dominates)
Alarm Response
- Physiological
Tachycardia (heart rate increases)
Peaked muscle tension
Increased respiration rate
-Psychological: Fear potentiated startle response
- Neural: Primitive brain takes over
-Chemical: Body & brain flooded with hormones and
neurotransmitters

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The Three Stages of Emotion
(Damasio, 1999)
CONSCIOUS
Complex, flexible and customized plans of
response are formulated in conscious
images and maybe executed as behavior
High Reason
simple, stereotyped patterns of response:
metabolic regulation, reflexes -- the
biological machinery behind what will
become pain and pleasure, drives and
motivations
Basic Life
Regulation
complex, stereotyped patterns of response:
secondary emotions, primary emotions,
and background emotions
Sensory patterns signaling pain, pleasure,
and emotions become imagesFeelings
Emotions
NON-CONSCIOUS

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Emotional Arousal: Marine in Combat
Ficks (2005):
I heard my feet tapping involuntarily on the Humvee floor. My knees stitched up
and down like a sewing machine. My mouth felt dry and gummy. Everything
seemed to pass in a blur. I thought of war stories that talked about hyperclarity in
combat, seeing every blade of grass and feeling colors more intensely than ever
before. But for me, whole city blocks faded into gray fuzz. I feared I was
processing information too slowly, seeing only one of every ten things I should. I
felt short changed. I wanted hyperclarity, too.

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Somatic Marker Hypothesis (Damasio, et al., 2005)

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1) Orientation (Or)
Behavior under Life Threatening
Conditions (OrAM)
2) Alarm Response (A)
3) Mobilization (M)

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Mobilization Behaviors

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signature display
challenge display
Mobilization Defensive Behaviors
(Prey)

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Mobilization Defensive Behaviors (Prey)

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PP Dyad Socio-Technical Systems
(STS)
Posture: Exhibit signature and challenge
displays (Rahman, 2007b).
Outnumbered by violent
rioters.
Law enforcement
officers
Freeze: Stays still and blends (camouflage)
with the terrainvegetation to remain unseen.
Unexpectedly comes
across enemy.
Reconnaissance
marine
Fight: Take cover; fire back to neutralize
adversary and call for help.
Adversary opens fire.SWAT team
member
Flee: Pilot performs appropriate air combat
maneuvers to avoid the adversary’s weapon
systems.
Outmaneuvered in aerial
combat by adversary.
Fighter pilot
Flee: Issue mayday call; figure out a way to
exit the building.
Lost bearings inside a
structure fire.
Fire fighter
E.g., Sample BehaviorNature of ThreatType of Human
Agent

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Model: “emotion-primed”
NDM under Life Threatening Conditions

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Constructive & Destructive
Modulation
Constructive Modulation of Emotion:
1) Mann Gulch Wild Land Fire
2) United Flight 232
Destructive Modulation of Emotion:
1) Haditha killings
2) Shooting in the Bronx

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Automatic vs. Deliberate: OrAM vs. OODA
Controlled
Effortful
Deductive
Slow
Self-aware
Uncontrolled
Effortless
Associative
Fast
Unconscious
DeliberateAutomatic

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• Training
Simulate the somatic markers (emotional arousal: degree &
kind) experienced in the field.
• Individual differences
alexithymia, PTSD, psychopathic tendencies
Conclusions (Training & Personnel Issues)

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Triune Brain (MacLean, 1993)

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Conclusions (Design for Reptilian Brain)
S D
Gibsonian approach: Direct perception/affordances

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Semantic vs. Direct Approach (example)
5

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Affordances (action & function)
Action Affordance
Hand Operated Emergency Brake
Function Affordance

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Overthrowing the Tyranny
Embodied Interactions

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• PP Dyad to model NDM under life threatening conditions
• Orientation-Alarm response-Mobilization (OrAM)
supplants OODA
• Empirical research required for a deeper understanding
of OrAM in STS.
Conclusions (Research Findings)

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moin.rahman@motorola.com