Myanmar Opium Cultivation Continues To Drop As Regional Drug Market Changes UNODC Report 2018-9

4/20/2019 Myanmar opium cultivation continues to drop as regional drug market changes: UNODC report
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United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime
Myanmar
Document
Myanmar Opium Survey
2018
See also:
More about our Myanmar
Office
Myanmar opium cultivation
continues to drop as regional drug
market changes: UNODC report
Yangon (Myanmar), 11 January 2019 - The area of
opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar dropped to 37,300
hectares (ha) in 2018, down 10% from the 41,000 ha
recorded in 2017, according to the Myanmar Opium
Survey 2018 released today by the UN Office on Drugs
and Crime (UNODC).
Reductions in cultivation have taken
place in practically all regions, but
have been most significant in South
Shan with a decline of 17% and
Kachin State with a decline of 15%,
followed by East Shan and North
Shan declining 8% and 7%. With an
average yield of 14 kg per ha in
2018 total opium production
dropped from 550 to 520 metric tons, equivalent to
approximately 53 tons of heroin destined for the domestic

and regional drug markets.
The report reconfirms the link between conflict and opium
in Myanmar, with the highest levels of cultivation
continuing to take place in unstable areas of Shan and
Kachin states. Troel Vester, UNODC Country Manager,
noted that "entrenched poverty and opium cultivation in
Myanmar are closely connected. Poor opium farming areas
need better security and sustainable economic
alternatives."

He added, "drug production has to be carefully and
candidly assessed and discussed, and it requires
continuing access to isolated areas to develop and gather
data and information. At the same time, crime groups are
using unstable and insecure parts of the country to do
business, and without addressing lawlessness these areas
will continue to be a safe-haven for those who profit from
the drug trade."
The decline in opium cultivation occurs against the

backdrop of a dramatically changing regional drug
market. Opium and heroin have declined over recent
years as countries across East and Southeast Asia have
reported a strong shift toward synthetic drugs and
especially methamphetamine.
Deputy Minister of Home Affairs General Aung Thu
acknowledged that further effort will be needed to
effectively address the production of opium, heroin and
other drugs in Myanmar. He commented that "the
Government of Myanmar is pleased to see further declines
in opium cultivation, but we also agree that there is still
much to do, and we will continue to support programmes
that provide viable alternatives to opium. We will also
work with our neighbours of the Mekong MOU, ASEAN and
UNODC on shared strategies to address the production
and cross-border trafficking of drugs and precursor
chemicals in the region."
Miwa Kato, UNODC Director of Operations, emphasized the importance of sustainable
alternative development initiatives and regional cooperation, noting "Myanmar has taken
important steps to address opium cultivation, especially in South Shan where we are
running a large alternative development programme together, and we recognise that
maintaining support will be critical over the near and medium term. At the same time the

regional dimension is undeniable, and solutions will have to involve surrounding countries
and international partners, and we will support with our regional programme." She
remarked further, "drug production and conflict are often connected, and we will be
scaling-up our participation in UN efforts that support a sustainable peace."
Click here to learn more about UNODC's regional work on drugs and precursors.
Click here to learn more about the Mekong MOU.
Click here to learn more about UNODC's work on sustainable alternative development.
Copyright©2019 UNODC, All Rights Reserved,

Synthetic Drugs in
East and South-East Asia
Global SMART Programme
March2019
Trends and Patterns of
Amphetamine-type Stimulants and
New Psychoactive Substances

Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by the Research and Trend Analysis Branch, Division for Policy Analysis and Public
Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, under the supervision of Ms. Angela Me, Chief of the
Research and Trend Analysis Branch, and Mr. Justice Tettey, Chief of Laboratory and Scientific Section.
Core team
Research and drafting
Martin Raithelhuber
Inshik Sim
Tun Nay Soe
Graphic design and layout
Akara Umapornsakula
Magali Lapouge
Administrative support
Jatupat Buasipreeda
The present report also benefited from the expertise and valuable contributions of UNODC colleagues in the
Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
This publication was made possible by the generous contribution of the Governments of Australia, Canada,
China, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, Thailand, the United Kingdom,
and the United States.
DISCLAIMERS
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes
without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The
content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC, Member States or
contributory organizations, and nor does it imply any endorsement.
This document has not been formerly edited. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Included in this assessment are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Japan,
Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea,
Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
The regional overview section includes data from Macau, China, Mongolia, and Taiwan Province of China.

Synthetic Drugs in East and South-East Asia
Trends and Patterns of Amphetamine-type Stimulants and
New Psychoactive Substances
A Report from the Global SMART Programme
March 2019
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Contents
General Abbreviations................................................................................................................................i
List of Figures, Maps and Tables...............................................................................................................iii
Regional trends: East and South-East Asia ................................................................................................1
Summary of major trends and emerging concerns........................................................................................1
Overview of the methamphetamine market..................................................................................................1
Overview of the “ecstasy” market...............................................................................................................11
Overview of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) market .....................................................................12
Brunei Darussalam .................................................................................................................................17
Cambodia ................................................................................................................................................21
China ......................................................................................................................................................25
Indonesia ................................................................................................................................................31
Japan.......................................................................................................................................................35
Lao PDR .................................................................................................................................................39
Malaysia ..................................................................................................................................................43
Myanmar .................................................................................................................................................47
Philippines ..............................................................................................................................................51
Republic of Korea....................................................................................................................................55
Singapore ................................................................................................................................................61
Thailand..................................................................................................................................................65
Viet Nam .................................................................................................................................................71

i
General Abbreviations
ARQ Annual report questionnaire
ATS Amphetamine-type stimulants
BNN National Narcotics Board (Indonesia)
CCDAC Central Committee for Drug Abuse Control (Myanmar)
CNB Central Narcotics Bureau (Singapore)
DAINAP Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
DDB Dangerous Drugs Board (Philippines)
EWA UNODC Early Warning Advisory on New Psychoactive Substances
HONLEA Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies (Asia and the Pacific)
IDS Individual Drug Seizures
INCB International Narcotics Control Board
KCS Korean Customs Service
Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic
LCDC Lao National Commission for Drug Control and Supervision
MHLW Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)
NACD National Authority for Combating Drugs (Cambodia)
NADA National Anti-Drugs Agency (Malaysia)
NNCC National Narcotics Control Commission (China)
NPA National Police Agency (Japan)
NPS New Psychoactive Substances
ONCB Office of the Narcotics Control Board (Thailand)
PDEA Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
RMP Royal Malaysia Police
SMART Synthetics Monitoring: Analyses, Reporting and Trends
SMCC Safe Mekong Coordination Center
SODC Standing Office on Drugs and Crime (Viet Nam)
SPO Supreme Prosecutors’ Office (Republic of Korea)
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

iii
List of Figures, Maps and Tables
Figures
Regional trends: East and South-East Asia
Figure 1. Potential opium production in Myanmar, 2013-2018
Figure 2. Seizures of methamphetamine in East and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Figure 3. Proportion of methamphetamine related treatment admissions among all treatment admissions, 2017
Figure 4. Proportion of females among persons admitted to treatment centers for methamphetamine in
selected countries in East and South-East Asia, 2017
Figure 5. Seizures of methamphetamine tablets in the East and South-East Asia by country, 2013-2018*
Figure 6. Typical retail price of methamphetamine tablet per tablet for selected countries in East and South-
East Asia, 2014 and latest year available
Figure 7. Seizures of crystalline methamphetamine in East and South-East Asia by sub-region, 2013-2018*
Figure 8. Number of methamphetamine manufacturing facilities dismantled in East and South-East Asia,
2013-2018*
Figure 9. Photos of methamphetamine production facilities dismantled in Kutkai, North Shan, Myanmar
Figure 10. Seizures of methamphetamine in China and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Figure 11. Photos of major teabag packages found in East, South-East Asia and Oceania
Figure 12. Amounts and the number of cases of pseudoephedrine seizures in Myanmar, 2013-2018
Figure 13. Seizures of sodium cyanide in Thailand and Myanmar, 2014-2018
Figure 14. Seizures of “ecstasy” in East and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Figure 15. Appearance of NPS in East and South-East Asia by substance group, 2008-2018*
Figure 16. Proportion of NPS in East and South-East Asia by pharmacological effect, 2008-2018*
Figure 17. Seizures of ketamine in East and South-East Asia by sub-region, 2013-2018*
Brunei Darussalam
Figure 1. Number of people who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities in Brunei Darussalam
by drug type, 2013-2018
Figure 2. Number of people who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities in Brunei Darussalam
by age group, 2018
Cambodia
Figure 1. Number of people who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities in Cambodia, 2013-
2018*
Figure 2. Drug treatment centre admissions in Cambodia by age group, 2017
Figure 3. Number of drug-related arrests* and cases in Cambodia, 2013-2018
Figure 4. Retail prices of methamphetamine tablet in Cambodia in USD, 2013-2017
Figure 5. Retail prices of crystalline methamphetamine in Cambodia in USD, 2013-2017
China
Figure 1. Proportion of registered drug users by type of drug used in China, 2013-2018*
Figure 2. Proportion of newly registered drug users by type in China, 2017
Figure 3. Number of people registered for using synthetic drug in China, 2013-2017
Figure 4. Number of illicit synthetic drug manufacturing facilities dismantled in China, 2013-2018*
Figure 5. Types of NPS identified by the NPS Monitoring Programme of China, 2017
Figure 6. Top 10 synthetic opioids identified by the NPS Monitoring Programme of China, 2017
Hong Kong, China
Figure 1. The number of people who use methamphetamine, ketamine, heroin and cocaine in Hong Kong,
China, 2013-2018*

iv
Indonesia
Figure 1. Estimated number of people who used drugs at least once in 2017 and prevalence in Indonesia aged
between 10-59 years-old by selected drug type
Figure 2. Methamphetamine-related arrests in Indonesia, 2008-2017
Figure 3. Number of illicit amphetaminetype stimulants manufacturing facilities dismantled in Indonesia,
2009-2018*
Figure 4. Top 10 NPS identified in seized materials* analysed in Indonesia, 2017
Figure 5. Total number of NPS cases and amounts seized in Indonesia, 2015-2017
Japan
Figure 1. Estimated number of people who have used drugs once in their lifetime in Japan, 2015 and 2017
Figure 2. Number of drug-related consultations at health centres in Japan, 2013-2017*
Figure 3. Number of drug-related arrests by the National Police Agency of Japan, 2013-2017
Figure 4. Proportion of embarkation points of methamphetamine trafficking to Japan by number, 2013-2017
Figure 5. Seizures of methamphetamine by mode of trafficking in Japan, 2013-2017
Figure 6. Proportion of NPS reported by Japan by substance group, 2008-2018*
Figure 7. Number of cases and arrestees related to NPS in Japan, 2013-2017*
Lao PDR
Figure 1. Number of cases and arrests for drug-related offences in Lao PDR, 2013-2018
Figure 2. Seizures of unspecified chemicals, 2013-2018
Malaysia
Figure 1. Number of people brought into formal contact with authorities for drug use in Malaysia by drug
type, 2016-2017
Figure 2. People who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities in Malaysia by age group, 2017
Figure 3. Number of illicit drug manufacturing facilities dismantled in Malaysia by drug type, 2014-2018*
Figure 4. Number of methamphetamine tablet related cases and seizures, 2014-2018*
Figure 5. Number of crystalline methamphetamine related cases and seizures, 2014-2018*
Myanmar
Figure 1. Number of people admitted to drug treatment centres in Myanmar by drug type, 2013-2017
Figure 2. Proportion of persons admitted to drug treatment centres in Myanmar by age group, 2017
Figure 3. Drug related arrests and number of cases, 2013-2018
Philippines
Figure 1. Proportions of crystalline methamphetamine related treatment admissions among all treatment
admissions, 2013-2017
Figure 2. Methamphetamine related treatment admissions by gender, 2013-2017
Figure 3. Proportions of drug treatment admissions in the Philippines by age group, 2017
Figure 4. Number of drug-related arrests in the Philippines by drug type, 2013-2018*
Republic of Korea
Figure 1. Number of people who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities in the Republic of
Korea by drug type, 2013-2018
Figure 2. Seizures of crystalline methamphetamine in the Republic of Korea, 2013-2018
Figure 3. Number of people brought into formal contact with authorities for supplying drugs in the Republic
of Korea by drug type, 2013-2018
Figure 4. Proportions of embarkation points for crystalline methamphetamine seized in the Republic of Korea,
2013-2017
Figure 5. Number of blocked and deleted websites for circulating illicit drugs in the Republic of Korea, 2013-
2017
Figure 6. Proportions of NPS identified in the Republic of Korea by substance type, 2011-2018*

v
Singapore
Figure 1. Trends in people who use methamphetamine or heroin brought into formal contact with authorities,
2013-2017
Figure 2. People who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities for the first time by drug type,
2017
Figure 3. Number of NPS identified from drug samples analysed by the Health Sciences Authority in
Singapore by substance group 2016-2018*
Figure 4. Top 10 NPS identified in Singapore by substance, 2017
Figure 5. Top 10 NPS identified in Singapore by substance, 2018*
Thailand
Figure 1. Number of drug-related cases and arrests, 2013-2017
Figure 2. Seizures of methamphetamine tablet and crystalline methamphetamine in Thailand, 2013-2018
Viet Nam
Figure 1. Number of registered drug users in Viet Nam, 2013-2018*
Figure 2. Registered drug users in Viet Nam by drug type, 2018*
Figure 3. Types of drugs used by newly registered drug users, 2014-2018*
Figure 4. Registered drug users in Viet Nam by age group (percentage), 2018*
Figure 5. Number of drug-related cases and arrests in Viet Nam, 2013-2018*
Figure 6. Synthetic NPS* identified in Viet Nam by substance group, 2017-2018**
Tables
Table 1. Results of methamphetamine samples analyses to identify synthesis route in China, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Synthetic opioids identified in East and South-East Asia, 2017-2018
Brunei Darussalam
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Brunei Darussalam, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Number of people who use drugs receiving treatment by gender and selected drug types, 2016-2017
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Brunei Darussalam, 2013-2018
Table 4. Retail prices of selected illicit drugs in Brunei Darussalam in BND (USD), 2018
Cambodia
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Cambodia, 2013-2017*
Table 2. Drug treatment centre admissions in Cambodia by drug type and gender, 2017
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Cambodia, 2013-2018*
Table 4. Typical purities of selected drugs in Cambodia (percentage), 2013-2017
China
Table 1. Seizures of selected drugs in China, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Retail prices of selected drugs in China in USD, 2016-2017
Hong Kong, China
Table 1. Seizures of selected drugs in Hong Kong, China, 2013-2017
Table 2. Retail prices of selected drugs in Hong Kong, China, in USD, 2016-2018*
Indonesia
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in Indonesia, 2013-2017

vi
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs in Indonesia, 2013-2018*
Table 3. Retail prices of selected drugs in Indonesia in USD, 2016-2017
Table 4. Typical purities of crystalline methamphetamine in Indonesia, 2016-2017 (percentage)
Table 5. Seizures of selected NPS by substance in Indonesia, 2015-2017 (gram)
Japan
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in Japan, 2007-2017
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs in Japan, 2013-2018*
Table 3. Retail prices of selected drugs in Japan in USD, 2015- 2017
Lao PDR
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Lao PDR, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs and chemicals in Lao PDR, 2013-2018
Table 3. Average wholesale or retail prices of selected drugs in Lao PDR, 2017
Malaysia
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in Malaysia, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Drug treatment admissions by drug type and gender in Malaysia, 2017
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Malaysia, 2013-2018
Table 4. Trends in wholesale / retail prices of selected drugs in Malaysia in USD, 2014-2018
Table 5. Typical purities of selected drugs in Malaysia, 2018
Myanmar
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Myanmar, 2013-2018
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs in Myanmar, 2013-2018
Table 3. Proportions of seizures of selected drugs in Myanmar by state, 2018
Table 4. Seizures of selected precursor chemicals in Myanmar, 2013-2018
Table 5. Retail prices of selected drugs in Myanmar in USD, 2016-2018
Philippines
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in the Philippines, 2013-2017
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs and precursor chemicals in the Philippines, 2013-2018
Table 3. Number of illicit methamphetamine manufacturing facilities dismantled in the Philippines, 2009-
2018
Table 4. Retail prices of selected drugs in the Philippines in USD, 2015-2018
Table 5. Purities of selected drugs analysed in the Philippines, 2016-2017
Republic of Korea
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in the Republic of Korea, 2013-2018*
Table 2. Number of people admitted to drug treatment centres in the Republic of Korea, 2013-2017
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Korea, 2013-2018
Table 4. Purities of crystalline methamphetamine samples analysed in the Republic of Korea, 2016-2018
Table 5. Retail prices ofselected drugs in the Republic of Korea in USD, 2016-2018
Singapore
Table 1. Trends in use of specific drugs in Singapore, 2013-2017*
Table 2. Drug treatment admissions by drug type in Singapore, 2013-2017
Table 3. Number of people who use drugs admitted to treatment centres by gender and drug type, 2017
Table 4. Seizures of selected illicit drugs in Singapore, 2013-2018*

vii
Thailand
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in Thailand, 2013-2017*
Table 2. Drug treatment admissions in Thailand by drug type, 2013-2017
Table 3. People who underwent treatment services for drug use by gender and by drug type, 2017
Table 4. Seizures of selected drugs in Thailand, 2013-2018
Table 5. Purities of selected drugs analysed in Thailand, January-May 2018
Table 6. Retail prices of selected illicit drugs in Thailand by region in Thai Baht, 2018
Viet Nam
Table 1. Trends in use of selected drugs in Viet Nam, 2013-2017*
Table 2. Seizures of selected drugs in Viet Nam, 2013-2018*
Table 3. Purities of selected drugs analysed in Viet Nam (percentage), 2017
Table 4. Wholesale and retail prices of selected drugs in Viet Nam in USD, 2017
Table 5. List of synthetic NPS* identified in Viet Nam, 2017-2018**
Maps
Map 1. Countries reporting methamphetamine as their primary drug of concern, 2008 and 2018 (or the
latest year available)
Map 2. Perceived methamphetamine tablet trafficking flows in the Mekong region, 2016-2018
Map 3. Perceived crystalline methamphetamine trafficking flows in East and South-East Asia, 2016-2018
Map 4. Perceived methamphetamine precursor chemical trafficking flows into Myanmar, 2018
Thailand
Map 1. Top 10 provinces for methamphetamine tablet seizures in Thailand, January-October 2018

REGIONAL TRENDS: EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA
1
Summary of major trends and emerging concerns
• Since the latter part of the 2000s, there has been a strong shift in the drug market in East and South-East
Asia, from opiates to methamphetamine.
• Seizures of methamphetamine in the region in 2017 amounted to more than 82 tons, by far the largest
amount ever reported from the region. Latest available data for 2018 – confirmed by countries in the region
mostly by the third quarter of the year1
– show a further substantial increase, reaching 116 tons.
• Increased quantities of methamphetamine seizures and decreases in retail prices of the drug in East and
South-East Asia suggest that the supply of the drug has expanded.
• Methamphetamine related treatment admissions account for a large majority of all drug related treatment
admissions in the region.
• Transnational organized crime (TOC) groups operating in the region have been increasingly involved in the
manufacture and trafficking of methamphetamine and other drugs in the Golden Triangle in recent years.
• Substantial quantities of precursor chemicals for methamphetamine have been continuously diverted and
trafficked within the region.
• While the content of MDMA in “ecstasy”2
tablets found in the region vary from country to country, there
have been noticeable increases in the average MDMA content of “ecstasy” tablets found in the region in
recent years.
• Tablet preparations sold as “ecstasy” but containing substances other than MDMA, including new
psychoactive substances (NPS), continued to be found in the region.
• Potent synthetic opioids (e.g. fentanyl), implicated in fatalities in other parts of the world, are being identified
by some countries in the region.
• Annual seizures of ketamine have been declining since 2015, which has been driven by decreases in quantities
of the drug seized in China. However, seizures of the drug have been rapidly increasing in several countries
in South-East Asia.
phetamine. With the exception of Viet Nam, all the 13
countries3
in the region reported methamphetamine as
their primary drug of concern in 2018 or the latest year
available, while a decade ago only 5 countries reported
that to be the case.4
The shift to methamphetamine has
affected even countries traditionally known to have a
relatively large market for heroin, such as China and
3 The 13 countries are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, the
Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam.
4 Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
(DAINAP).
Regional trends: East and
South-East Asia
Overview of the methamphetamine market 1
,2
There has been a strong shift in the drug market in
East and South-East Asia, from opiates to metham-
1 At the time of writing, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia, Myanmar, the
Philippines, the Republic of Korea, and Thailand - have provided the
drug seizure data for all of 2018. China, Indonesia, and Singapore
have provided the data up-to September 2018, Viet Nam for the first
eleven months of 2018, and Japan for the first half of the year, and
the first eight months for Taiwan Province of China.
2 MDMA could be not a main substance for some of “ecstasy”
tablets sold as ecstasy in the region.

Global SMART Programme 2019
2
Figure 1. Potential opium production in
Myanmar, 2013-2018
Note: Data for 2016 are not available.
Source: UNODC, Myanmar Opium Survey 2018 and previous
years.
Malaysia. In Malaysia, the number of methampheta-
mine users detected by law enforcement authorities
surpassed that of heroin users for the first time in
2017.5
5 Data for 2018 was available for Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand.
Data for 2017 was used for the rest of countries.
Map 1. Countries reporting methamphetamine as their primary drug of concern, 2008
and 2018 (or the latest year available)6
* Note: Data for the Democratic Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, China, Macau, China, Mongolia and Taiwan Province of China are not available.
Source: Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP); Official Communication with Japan and the Republic of
Korea, January 2019.
Thailand
Malaysia
Indonesia
Myanmar
China
Republic
of Korea
Singapore
Viet Nam
Lao PDR
Philippines Thailand
Malaysia
Indonesia
Myanmar
China
Republic
of Korea
Singapore
Viet Nam
Lao PDR
Philippines
2018 or latest year available2008
Japan Japan
Cambodia Cambodia
Brunei Darussalam Brunei Darussalam
Countries reported methamphetamine as their primary drug of concern
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
Amount(tons)
2013 2014 2015 2017 2018
Figure 2. Seizures of methamphetamine in
East and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
6
Note: *Data for 2018 include only those confirmed by countries in the
region. For more information, see footnote 1 of the report.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years
for Hong Kong, China; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years
for Macau, China; UNODC ARQ 2016 and previous years for
Mongolia; Official communication with the National Police
Agency (NPA), Japan, January 2019; Official communication
with the Supreme Prosecutors’ Office (SPO), the Republic of
Korea, February 2019; The Ministry of Health and Welfare,
Taiwan Province of China, “September 2018 drug statistics”,
September 2018.
6 DAINAP.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2013 2014 2015 2017 2018*2016
Seizures(tons)

3
Figure 4. Proportion of females among
persons admitted to treatment centers for
methamphetamine in selected countries in
East and South-East Asia, 2017
* Note: Data for 2015 was used for Lao PDR and data for 2016 was
used for Indonesia and Viet Nam.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 for Myanmar.
treatment than men. In 2016, globally and across
all drug types one in three drug users were women,
while women accounted only for one in five people
in treatment.10
Seizures of methamphetamine continue to follow
upward trends, both in terms of tablet and in
crystalline form. The amount of methamphetamine
tablets seized annually in East and South-East Asia
continues to increase every year. In 2017, seizures of
methamphetamine tablets in the region amounted to
nearly 450 million tablets, a 40% increase compared
to the preceding year.11
Confirmed amounts of the
drug seized by countries in the region in 2018 already
exceeded the total reported in 2017 by far, reaching
745 million tablets,12
with Thailand accounting for
more than 515 million tablets .13
It is worthy of note
that the amount seized in Thailand in 2018 is 17 times
larger than the combined amount of the drug seized
a decade ago (29.8 million tablets) by all countries
in East and South-East Asia.14
The steep increase in
annual seizures of methamphetamine in the region
appears to have been largely driven by the quantities of
individual seizures of the drug had become larger. The
market for methamphetamine tablets remains largely
10 UNODC, World Drug Report 2018, June 2018.
11 DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 for Japan; UNODC ARQ 2017 for the
Republic of Korea.
12 DAINAP; Official communication with NPA, Japan, January 2019;
Official communication with SPO, the Republic of Korea, February
2019.
13 Official communication with the Office of Narcotics Control
Board (ONCB) of Thailand, January 2019.
14 DAINAP.
Figure 3. Proportion of methamphetamine
related treatment admissions among all
treatment admissions, 2017
* Note: Data for 2015 were used for Lao PDR.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 for Myanmar;
UNODC ARQ 2017 for the Republic of Korea.
Evidence shows a steep decrease in potential amounts of
opium produced in Myanmar, the largest opium poppy
producer in the region. Between 2013 and 2018, there
has been a 40% decrease in the estimated amount of
opium produced in the country. On the other hand, the
over 116 tons of confirmed methamphetamine seizures in
the region in 2018 represents a 210% increase compared
to seizures in 2013.
Several countries in the region, including Brunei,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, report
an upward trend in the number of methamphetamine
users brought into formal contact with authorities for
drug use.7
In addition, the number of registered drug
users for methamphetamine in China and Viet Nam
also continued to increase in recent years.8
In 2017, methamphetamine related treatment
admissions continued to account for a large majority
of all treatment admissions in several countries in
East and South-East Asia. This included countries
such as Myanmar, who traditionally have a larger
proportion of other drug related admissions, other
than methamphetamine.9
The proportion of women and girls entering treatment
is quite low in many countries in the region. This
may be an indication of women having less access to
7 For more information, see respective country chapters in the
report.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Myanmar
Malaysia
Republic of Korea
Singapore
Thailand
Philippines
Brunei Darussalam
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Other drugsMethamphetamine
Myanmar
Malaysia
Lao PDR
Viet Nam
Thailand
Philippines
Indonesia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Singapore
ProporƟon(%)
None
0
5
10
15
20
25

4
Figure 5. Seizures of methamphetamine
tablets in the East and South-East Asia by
country, 2013-2018*
Note: * Data for 2018 include only those confirmed by countries in
the region. For more information, see footnote 1 of the report.
Source(s): UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Hong
Kong, China; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Macau,
China; DAINAP; Official communication with NPA, Japan,
January 2019; Official communication with SPO, the Republic
of Korea, February 2019.
confined within the Greater Mekong Sub-region, as
more than 99% of methamphetamine tablets seized
annually in East and South-East Asia have been
reported from the sub-region over the last decade.15
The typical purity of methamphetamine tablets found
in East and South-East Asia has been relatively stable,
mostly within the range of 15 and 25 %16
, albeit with
some inter-country variation. On the other hand,
the retail price of methamphetamine tablet has been
decreasing in several countries in the region in recent
years. The steep increases in seizures, stable purity and
decreasing retail prices of methamphetamine tablets
might be indicative of ‘oversupply’ of the drug within
the region.
Data on seizure, price and purity also show the
expansion of the crystalline methamphetamine market
in East and South-East Asia. With the exception of
2016, seizures of the drug in the region have been
expanding every year over the last decade. In 2017,
a total of 39.4 tons of crystalline methamphetamine
wereseizedintheregion,surpassingthepreviousrecord
15 Ibid.
16 For instance, about 99% of 146.3 million methamphetamine
tablets analysed in Thailand during the first five months of 2018 were
within the range of 15 – 25%. In addition, based on the typical purity
of methamphetamine tablets analysed in China in 2017 was 17%.
amount reported in 2015 (34.7 tons).17
Preliminary
data for 2018 show a further substantial increase, with
countries in the region reporting at least 48 tons of
seized drug. The six Mekong countries18
accounted
for 72 % of the total crystalline methamphetamine
seizures between 2013 and 2018.
The average purity of crystalline methamphetamine
in East and South-East Asia continues to remain high.
For instance, Thailand reported that the vast majority
(91%) of samples analysed in the country in 2017 had
purities over 90%.19
China also reported the average
purity of crystalline methamphetamine samples (N =
3,377) analysed in the country in 2017 was 89%.20
Other countries in the region – Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Viet Nam – in
2017 had purities between 70 – 80%.21
While purity
has remained high, the retail price of crystalline
methamphetamine in several countries in the region,
17 DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Hong Kong,
China; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Macau, China;
UNODC ARQ 2016 and previous years for Mongolia; Official com-
munication with NPA, Japan, January 2019; Official communication
with SPO, the Republic of Korea, February 2019; The Ministry of
Health and Welfare, Taiwan Province of China, “September 2018 drug
statistics”, September 2018.
18 The six Mekong countries are Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myan-
mar, Thailand and Viet Nam.
19 ONCB, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in Thailand”, pre-
sented at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang
Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
20 NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented
at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
Thailand, August 2018.
21 DAINAP.
0
100,000,000
200,000,000
300,000,000
400,000,000
500,000,000
600,000,000
700,000,000
800,000,000
Other countries
Thailand
Myanmar
Lao PDR
China
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Seizures(Numberoftablets)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Retailpricepertablet(US$)
Cambodia (2014)
Cambodia (2017)
Malaysia (2014)
Malaysia (2018)
Myanmar (2014)
Myanmar (2017)
Thailand (2014)
Thailand (2018)
Figure 6. Typical retail price of metham-
phetamine tablet per tablet for selected
countries in East and South-East Asia,
2014 and latest year available
Note: The high-low bars represent the upper and lower limits of the
price ranges for those countries which reported such ranges in addition
to the typical price.
Source(s): DAINAP

5
including Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia,
Myanmar, and Thailand, has decreased in recent years.22
Overall, available data in East and South-East
Asia suggest a glut of methamphetamine in the
region. To some extent, improved law enforcement
activities in the region can explain increases in
seizures of methamphetamine in recent years, yet
the unprecedented amounts of methamphetamine
seized in 2018 by so many countries at the same time
suggests an uninterrupted supply of the drug.
The number of clandestine methamphetamine
laboratories23
dismantled in East and South-East Asia
continued to increase from 2008 to 2015, reaching
its peak with 526 laboratories dismantled in the latter
year. However, since its peak in 2015, the number has
been declining every year, and the preliminary figure
for 2018 reported from the region represents a 75%
decrease compared to that of 2015.
The decreases have been mainly driven by the number
reported from the Government of China where the
22 See respective country chapters in the report.
23 The number of dismantled facilities manufacturing metham-
phetamine is an important indicator to assess the level of supply
of the drug although there are several limitations, especially when
there is limited information for the scale of dismantled facilities.
Nonetheless, it provides a good understanding of the extent of drug
production.
number of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories
dismantled decreased by nearly 60% between 2015
and 2017. Preliminary data for 2018, up to October,
showed a further substantial decline.24
Although
there is no comprehensive data to assess the scale of
manufacture of the dismantled methamphetamine
facilities, the trend may indicate an overall reduction
in the availability of the drug in the country.
Thepersistentdownwardtrendobservedinthenumberof
dismantled methamphetamine manufacturing facilities
in East and South-East Asia together with increasing
seizures may indicate the presence of undetected large-
scale clandestine manufacturing facilities or clusters of
small-scale manufacturing facilities.
Data on seizures and prices suggest that the
methamphetamine market in China has contracted
while the market outside China has expanded. The
intensified law enforcement operations in China has
led to a spike in the typical wholesale price for 1 kg of
crystalline methamphetamine illicitly manufactured
in the country from US $ 2,910 in 2015 to US $
21,800 in 2018, indicating a shortage of the substance
in the domestic market.25,26
On the other hand,
24 National Narcotics Control Commission (NNCC) of China, “Pre-
cursor chemicals in China”, presented at the High-level Regional Con-
ference on Precursor Control, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar November 2018.
25 NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented
at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
26 According to the Government of China, N-isopropylbenzylamine
has been increasingly used as a substitute of methamphetamine due
to its decreases in domestic supply of the drug in the country.
Figure 7. Seizures of crystalline metham-
phetamine in East and South-East Asia by
sub-region, 2013-2018*
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Six Mekong countries Other countries in the region
Seizures(kg)
Source(s): Source(s): UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years
for Hong Kong, China; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years
for Macau, China; UNODC ARQ 2016 and previous years for
Mongolia; DAINAP; Official communication with NPA, Japan,
January 2019; Official communication with SPO, the Republic of
Korea, February 2019.
Number
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Figure 8. Number of methamphetamine
manufacturing facilities dismantled in East
and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Note: * Data for 2018 cover the first ten months of the year.
Source (s): DAINAP; Country Reports presented by national
authorities at the 10th
Regional SMART workshop, Chiang
Rai, Thailand, August 2018; and Country Reports presented
by national authorities at the High-level Regional Precursor
Conference, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar, November 2018.

6
wholesale prices for methamphetamine manufactured
in the Golden Triangle has decreased, suggesting an
oversupply. For example, Viet Nam authorities have
reported a price of US $ 8,000 for 1 kg of crystalline
methamphetamine perceived to have originated
from the Golden Triangle in 2017, down from the
US $ 13,500 reported in 2016.27
The lower price
of methamphetamine manufactured in the Golden
Triangle in comparison to the rest of the region could
have led TOC groups, including Taiwanese TOC
groups, to increasingly source the drug from the
Golden Triangle.
Law enforcement operations in the Golden
Triangle gives evidence to large quantities of
methamphetamine, as well as other synthetic drugs,
being produced there. Between February and March
2018, Myanmar authorities dismantled six large scale
drug manufacture facilities in Kutkai, Northern Shan
State. Based on the chemical precursors and substances
found, the facilities appeared to have been used in the
manufacture of methamphetamine and ketamine.
In total, more than 1.2 million methamphetamine
tablets, 259 kg of crystalline methamphetamine, 2,350
kg of ketamine and various precursor chemicals were
seized.28
Prior to these, almost all methamphetamine
facilities dismantled in the country were tablet
production facilities.
Withthesurgeinmethamphetamineproductioninthe
GoldenTriangle, annual seizures of methamphetamine
have increased significantly in countries in the
Mekong region, in particular Lao PDR, Myanmar
27 SODC, “Increasing drug flows and production in the Golden
Triangle”, presented at the Transnational Organized Crime Conference
in Lao PDR, Vientiane, Lao PDR, November 2018.
28 CCDAC, “Synthetic drug situation in Myanmar”, presented at the
2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
and Thailand. For instance, methamphetamine tablets
seized in 2018 in Thailand alone amounted to 515
million tablets, larger than the combined seizures of
the drug reported from all countries in the region in
any preceding year.29
Data on seizures of methamphetamine by province
in Thailand suggest a notable change in trafficking
patterns of methamphetamine sourced from the
Golden Triangle with intensified flows of crystalline
methamphetamine into Malaysia. In 2018, quantities
ofcrystallinemethamphetamineseizedintheSouthern
part of the country, close to Malaysia, accounted for
one-third of the entire seizures of the drug, while the
corresponding figure for 2013 was only 7%.
The diverging trends of the methamphetamine
markets in China and in the Golden Triangle is
visible also in the trafficking patterns of crystalline
Figure 10. Seizures of methamphetamine
in China and South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Note: *Data for 2018 include only those confirmed by countries in the
Source(s): DAINAP.
29 DAINAP; Official Communication with ONCB, Thailand, January
2019.
Figure 9. Photos of methamphetamine production facilities dismantled in Kutkai, North
Shan, Myanmar
Note: Photo was contributed by CCDAC, Myanmar.
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Seizures(kg)
China South-East Asia

7
methamphetamine. If in 2015, China and Hong
Kong, China, were the top two embarkation points
for methamphetamine trafficked to Australia, in
2017, Thailand and Malaysia ranked the second and
the third respectively, after the United States.30,31
Lao PDR has also been increasingly targeted as a
transit point for methamphetamine trafficked within
and from the region. Seizures of methamphetamine,
in particular its tablet form, made along the border
with Thailand have significantly increased in recent
30 UNODC, ARQ 2017 for Australia.
31 UNODC, ARQ 2015 for Australia.
years. For instance, between 2016 and 2018 (August),
seizures of methamphetamine tablets made in the Lao
PDR- Thailand border areas increased by 75%, from
5.1 million tablets to 21 million tablets.32
Increasing illicit flows of methamphetamine tablets
westward from the Golden Triangle, in particular into
Bangladesh, have been continuously noted in recent
years. According to the Government of Myanmar,
about one-third of all methamphetamine tablets seized
32 Safe Mekong Coordination Centre (SMCC), “Overview of Drug
Situation in the Golden Triangle & the Mekong Region” presented at the
MYANMAR
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
VIETNAM
LAO PDR
MALAYSIAINDONESIA
CHINA
INDIA
BANGLADESH
Map 2. Perceived methamphetamine tablet trafficking flows in the Mekong region, 2016-
2018
Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United
Nations.
Source(s): UNODC elaboration based on information from responses to ARQ 2016 and 2017; Country presentations presented at the
2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and the Mekong Drugs and Precursor Trafficking Route Analysis
workshop, Ho Chi Minh, Viet Nam, April 2018.

8
in 2018 were found in Rakhine state, indicating large
flows of the drug from Myanmar to Bangladesh.33
Seizures of methamphetamine tablets in Bangladesh
in 2017 amounted to more than 40 million tablets,
representing a 42% increase compared to the figure
reported in 2013.34
Recently, there have been several large-scale
methamphetamine trafficking cases in the maritime
domain reported by countries in the region, including
Indonesia, Japan, as well as Australia. For instance,
33 Official communication with Central Committee for Drug Abuse
Control (CCDAC) of Myanmar, February 2019.
34 UNODC ARQ 2013 and 2017 for Bangladesh.
thereweretwolargescalecrystallinemethamphetamine
trafficking cases in the vicinity of Riau Islands of
Indonesia, which resulted in seizures of more than
2.6 tons of the drug, believed to have originated from
the Golden Triangle.35
Those arrested in both cases
were members of Taiwanese TOC groups, which have
been playing a significant role in methamphetamine
manufacturing and trafficking in the region. Several
countries in the region and neighbouring countries,
including Australia, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, the
35 National Narcotics Board (BNN) of Indonesia, “Latest situation
on synthetic drugs and responses to the threats in Indonesia”, pre-
sented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand,
August 2018.
Map 3. Perceived crystalline methamphetamine trafficking flows in East and South-East
Asia, 2016-2018
Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United
Nations.
Source(s): UNODC elaboration based on information from responses to ARQ 2016 and 2017; Country presentations presented at the
2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and the Mekong Drugs and Precursor Trafficking Route Analysis
workshop, Ho Chi Minh, Viet Nam, April 2018.
China
Viet Nam
Myanmar
Thailand
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Philippines
Taiwan Province
of China
Indonesia
Singapore
Brunei
Malaysia
Timor Leste
Australia
S o u t h C h i n a S e a
J a v a S e a
B a y o f
B e n g a l
C o r a l S e a
T i m o r S e a
Republic
of Korea Japan
E a s t C h i n a S e a
India
!
To New Zealand
Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea

9
Philippines, the Republic of Korea and Thailand, have
also reported arrests of members of Taiwanese TOC
groups for methamphetamine trafficking cases over
the last two years.36
Seizures data indicate that the trafficking of crystalline
methamphetamine is largely within the region, but
there is also evidence of some trafficking with outside
the region. Crystalline methamphetamine trafficking
flows from the Mekong region to Israel for example,
have been noted in recent years. According to data
from the World Customs Organization’s Regional
Intelligence Liaison Office – Asia Pacific (WCO
RILO-AP), methamphetamine trafficked from Lao
PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam to Israel were recorded
in the top 10 trafficking routes of the drug in Asia and
the Pacific by number in 2017.37
Japan38
and the Republic of Korea39
have reported
seizures of methamphetamine originating from
outside the region: North America, in particular from
36 Country presentations delivered by AFP of Australia, NPA of
Japan, SPO of the Republic of Korea, PDEA of the Philippines, NADA
& RMP of Malaysia, ONCB of Thailand, and NACD of Cambodia, at the
37 In 2017, a total of 553 methamphetamine trafficking cases were
reported from countries in Asia and the Pacific to the Custom En-
forcement Network (CEN) database, an online global seizure database
among customs authorities.
38 For more information, see the respective country chapter in the
report.
39 Ibid.
Mexico in recent years. Some quantities of the drug
originating from North America have also been seized
in the Philippines. During the first half of 2018, 27
parcel posts containing crystalline methamphetamine
were seized in the country, with 26 of these reported
to have been sent from California, the United States.40
The chemical masking of methamphetamine to evade
detection has been noted in recent years in seizures
in Australia, Japan and New Zealand.41
The masked
product,basedonareactionofmethamphetaminewith
tert-butyl methyl(1-phenylpropan-2-yl)carbamate
(t-BOC), is easily converted to methamphetamine by
treating it with sulphuric acid.
Forensic data, albeit limited, from countries in the region
indicate that ephedrine and pseudoephedrine42
remain
the major precursor chemicals used in the manufacture
of methamphetamine in the region. A large majority
40 Dangerous Drug Board (DDB) & Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA), “Latest situation on synthetic drugs and responses to
the threats in Philippines”, presented at the Regional SMART Work-
shop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
41 Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), “Latest situ-
ation on synthetic drugs and responses to the threats in Japan Part
II”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
Thailand, August 2018; Australian Federal Police (AFP), “Precursor
control in Australia”, presented at the High-level Regional Conference
on Precursor Control, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar November 2018.
42 Both chemicals have widespread legitimate use in the phar-
maceutical industry, in bulk form and in the form of pharmaceutical
preparations.
Box story. Crystalline methamphetamine trafficked in teabag packages

In East and South-East Asia, teabag packages have been used by TOC groups for some years to conceal
crystalline methamphetamine for trafficking. A persistent trend observed across several countries in East and
South-East Asia and neighboring Oceania is the use of particular teabag packages.
Figure 11. Photos of major teabag packages found in East, South-East Asia and Oceania
Note: Photo was contributed by ONCB, Thailand.
During the first seven months of 2018, Thai authorities seized more than 12,000 teabag packages containing
crystalline methamphetamine, suggesting the wide use of teabag packages in the Golden Triangle.42
Trafficking
case information from other countries in East and South-East Asia also strongly indicates that to be the case.

10
of methamphetamine samples analysed in China in
recent years appear to have been manufactured with
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. One of the 38
methamphetamine samples analysed in Indonesia in
2018 was a racemic mixture of methamphetamine,43
showing the use of 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P)
as the precursor used in the manufacture of the
sample.44
A large proportion of methamphetamine
samples analysed in recent years in Australia and the
Republic of Korea, both of which seize substantial
quantities of the drug originating from the region,
were determined to have been manufactured from
ephedrine/pseudoephedrine.45
Table 1. Results of methamphetamine
samples analyses to identify synthesis
route in China, 2013-2018*
Year Ephedrine P-2-P
2013 91.9% 7.6%
2014 96.5% 3.4%
2015 95.0% 5.0%
2016 99.4% 0.5%
2017 98.4% 1.6%
2018* 93.0% 4.5%
Note: * Data up-to the 1st
half of 2018. The exact number of
methamphetamine samples analysed each year is not available.
NNCC has informed that about 6,000 methamphetamine samples
are analysed annually.
Source: NNCC, “Precursor Chemicals in China: Regulation,
Enforcement Capacity & Trafficking Trends”, presented at
the High Level Regional Precursor Conference, Nay Phi Taw,
Myanmar, November 2018.
However, in recent years there have been strong
indications of increased use of P-2-P to manufacture
methamphetamine in the region. According to the
Office of Narcotics Control Board of Thailand, 189
out of 265 crystalline methamphetamine samples
analysed between 2017 and January 2019 appeared
to have been manufactured with P-2-P as the
starting material. Additionally, about 82 % of the
total methamphetamine samples (N = 17) collected
43 Manufacturing methamphetamine with P-2-P as the base
material would yield result in the racemic (50:50) mixture of d- and
l-methamphetamine barring any further attempt to enrich d-isomer,
which is more potent than l-isomer. On the other hand, ephedrine/
pseudoephedrine based methamphetamine synthetic routes would
yield d-methamphetamine.
44 BNN, “Methamphetamine impurity profiling result”, December
2018.
45 Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC), Illicit Drug
Data Report 2016 – 2017; SPO, the Republic of Korea, “Metham-
phetamine impurity profiling result”, presented at the 28th
Anti-Drug
Liaison Officials’ Meeting for International Cooperation (ADLOMICO),
Busan, the Republic of Korea, September 2018.
from Cambodia and analysed in Thailand in 2018
indicated P-2-P based manufacturing methods.
Types of chemicals seized in Myanmar also show
P-2-P based methamphetamine manufacturing
methods have been used in the Golden Triangle.
In recent years, there are indications that Lao PDR
may have been increasingly targeted as a transit
country for chemicals used in the manufacture of
methamphetamine. In 2018, a record amount of over
5 tons of chemicals was seized in the country. Due to
limited forensic capacity in the country, the identities
of the seized chemicals have not been established.
The use of pre-precursors for manufacturing
methamphetamine in order to circumvent national
and international precursor control frameworks has
been a challenge for countries in the region. In 2017,
Chinese authorities seized 206 tons of 2-bromo-1-
phenyl-1-propanone (2-Bromopropiophenone), a
chemical which is not under the international control
but can be used for the illicit manufacture of ephedrine.
Figure 12. Amounts and the number of
cases of pseudoephedrine seizures in
Myanmar, 2013-2018
Note: The amount of pseudoephedrine found in each tablet varies.
Source: DAINAP; CCDAC “Synthetic drug situation in
Myanmar”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018; CCDAC, “Myanmar
country report”, presented at UNODC 42nd
Meeting of Heads of
National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Asia and the Pacific
(HONLAP), Bangkok, Thailand October 2018. CCDAC,
“Precursor Chemicals in Myanmar: Regulation, Enforcement
Capacity & Trafficking Trends”, presented at the High Level
Regional Precursor Conference, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar,
November 2018.
Seizures(numberoftablets)
Numberofcases
0
5,000,000
10,000,000
15,000,000
20,000,000
25,000,000
30,000,000
35,000,000
40,000,000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018*
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018*
2013
Amounts Number of cases

11
Since 2016, significant quantities of sodium cyanide
(NaCN)havebeenseizedinMyanmarandThailanden
route to the GoldenTriangle. Sodium cyanide is a non-
scheduled chemical at the international level, but could
be used as a pre-pre-precursor for methamphetamine.
However, there has been no concrete evidence that
sodium cyanide has been used for the manufacture of
methamphetamine in the Golden Triangle.
Map 4. Perceived methamphetamine
precursor chemical trafficking flows into
Myanmar, 2018
Kut Kai
C H I N A
L A O
P D R
T H A I L A N D
I N D I A
B A N G L A D E S H
Kachin
Shan
Sagaing
Mandalay
Chin
Rakhine
Magway
Bago
Kayah
Ayeyar waddy
Kayin
Mon
Yangon
Taninthar yi
Wa
Mong La
Myitkyina
Monywa
Tamu
Haka
Mandalay
Meiktila
!
Nay Pyi Taw
Muse
Lashio
Taunggyi
Kyaing Tong
Tachileik
Pan Hsang
Loikaw
Magway
Sittwe
Pyay
Bago
YangonPathein
Hpa-An
Mawlamyine
Dawei
Kawthoung
G u l f o f
M a r t a b a n
G u l f o f
T h a i l a n d
A n d a m a n S e a
0 100 200 300 400
Km
B a y o f
B e n g a l
Myawaddy
Mong Yawng
Kengtung
Mongyai Tangyan
Pyin U Lwin
Loilem
F r o m
V i e t N a m
Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used
on the map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the
United Nations.
Source: UNODC elaboration based on information from
CCDAC, “Synthetic drug situation in Myanmar”, presented
at the SMART Regional Workshop, Hanoi, Viet Nam, August
2017; CCDAC, “Precursor Chemicals in Myanmar: Regulation,
the High Level Regional Precursor Conference, Nay Pyi Taw,
Myanmar, November 2018.
Overview of the “ecstasy” market
The “ecstasy” market in East and South-East Asia
remains small compared to the methamphetamine
market. Limited data from countries in the region
show that the problematic use of “ecstasy” accounted
foraverysmallproportionofalldrug-relatedtreatment
admissions.46
Similar to previous years, in 2017, none
of countries in the region reported “ecstasy” as one of
the top three commonly used drugs, with the exception
of Indonesia, which listed the drug as the third most
widely used.47
However, “ecstasy” use was perceived
to have increased in several countries in the region
in 2017, including Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Singapore. In addition, crystalline
MDMA (3-4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine),
generally considered to be purer than “ecstasy” tablets,
appears to be available in the region.48
The manufacture of “ecstasy” doesn’t seem to be
widespread in East and South-East Asia. In 2017,
only three countries in the region - China, Malaysia
and Viet Nam - reported to have seized “ecstasy”
manufacture facilities. However, it is important
to note that Viet Nam authorities reported to have
seized a relatively large-scale “ecstasy” manufacture
46 For instance, about 1% of all drug related treatment admissions
in Malaysia and the Philippines in 2017 were “ecstasy” related, and
the corresponding figure for Singapore was less than 1%.
47 UNODC ARQ 2017 for Indonesia.
48 For instance, according to data on seized material samples of
Indonesia in 2017, there were two samples of crystalline MDMA;
National Narcotics Board (BNN), “Samples submitted to BNN’s lab”,
presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thai-
land, August 2018.
Figure 13. Seizures of sodium cyanide in
Thailand and Myanmar, 2014-2018
Note: The Thailand figures for 2016 and 2017 include the amount of
sodium cyanide confiscated.
Source: CCDAC, “Precursor Chemicals in Myanmar: Regulation,
the High Level Regional Precursor Conference, Nay Phi Taw,
Myanmar, November 2018; Official communication with ONCB
of Thailand, January 2019.
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
Thailand Myanmar
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Seizures(kg)

12
facility in 2017, which resulted in seizures of 400
kg of “ecstasy” tablets, 85 kg of the drug in powder
form and some quantities of safrole, a precursor
for manufacturing ecstasy.49
A clandestine MDA50
(3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine) laboratory was
dismantled in Jakarta in 2017, and according to
national authorities the substance was used in mixture
with water for clubs in the country.51
In 2017, a total of approximately 9 million “ecstasy”
tablets were seized in East and South-East Asia. This
represents a significant increase compared to the three
preceding years when around 3 million tablets were
seized annually. One of main reasons for the steep
rise is a single trafficking case related to 1.2 million
tablets trafficked from the Netherlands and seized in
Indonesia.52
Indonesia alone accounts for more than
40% of the total “ecstasy” seizures reported in the
region between 2013 and 2017, followed by China
(28%) and Malaysia (14%).53
“Ecstasy” flows from other regions to East and South-
East Asia continue to be reported. In addition to the
Figure 14. Seizures of “ecstasy” in East and
South-East Asia, 2013-2018*
Source(s): UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Hong Kong,
China; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Macau, China;
UNODC ARQ 2016 and previous years for Mongolia; DAINAP;
Official communication with NPA, Japan, January 2019; Official
communication with SPO, the Republic of Korea, February 2019;
The Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taiwan Province of China,
“September 2018 drug statistics”, September 2018.
49 SODC, “Synthetic drug situation in Viet Nam”, presented at the
50 MDA is an analogue of MDMA.
51 BNN, “Precursor control in Indonesia”, presented at the
High-level Regional Precursor Conference, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar,
November 2018.
52 BNN, “Country presentation”, presented at the Mekong Drugs
and Precursor Trafficking Route Analysis workshop, Ho Chi Minh City,
April 2018.
53 DAINAP.
large seizure made in Indonesia from the Netherlands,
in August 2018, Cambodian authorities seized about
98 kg of “ecstasy”, the largest amount ever seized in
the country.54
Germany was the departure point of the
drug but the origin remains unknown.55
In addition,
Philippine authorities reported a seizure of 14,720
tablets of “ecstasy” trafficked from France in August
2017.56
The average content of MDMA in “ecstasy” tablets
found in the region varies from country to country,
yet there have been noticeable increases across
countries in the MDMA content of “ecstasy” tablets.
Several countries in the region, including Cambodia
and Indonesia, reported “ecstasy” tablets with nearly
50% of MDMA content.57
Within the region, limited
forensic data indicate a trend towards high dose
MDMA in “ecstasy” tablets similar to what has been
observed in Europe.
Overview of the new psychoactive substances
(NPS) market
Between 2008 and 2018, a total of 434 different NPS
were reported by countries in East and South-East
Asia, almost half of the 891 different NPS reported for
the same period at the global level. The total number
of NPS reported by countries in the region peaked in
2015 but has been declining since, consistent with the
global NPS trend.
Synthetic cannabinoids (136) and synthetic
cathinones (98) accounted for more than 50% of
the total number of NPS identified in the region,
followed by phenethylamines (68). Globally, synthetic
cannabinoids also constitute the largest category in
terms of the number of substances reported to the
UNODC.58
The synthetic cannabinoids account
for largest proportion of the total number of NPS
identified in Japan and Republic of Korea. However,
Indonesia and Viet Nam continue to report an
54 NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the
55 Ibid.
56 Dangerous Drug Board (DDB) & Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA), “Latest situation on synthetic drugs and responses to
the threats in Philippines”, presented at the Regional SMART Work-
shop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
57 National Authority for Combating Drugs (NACD), “Synthetic drug
situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Work-
shop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018; BNN, “Samples submitted to
BNN’s lab”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang
Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
58 UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS.
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
10,000,000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Numberoftablets

13
increasing number of synthetic cannabinoid seizures.59
In terms of pharmacological effects, substances with
stimulant effects (including most of the synthetic
cathinones) are the most reported (170), followed by
thecannabinoidreceptoragonists(136).Awidevariety
of substances with stimulant effects were reported by
Japan (131), followed by China (68).60
The high
number of substances with stimulant effect could
relate to the existing large regional amphetamine-type
stimulants (ATS) market where NPS could be used
as substation or as complementary to the controlled
substances.
Synthetic opioids, some of which have been
implicated in overdose deaths outside the region,
especially in North America, are being identified
in the region, particularly in China and Japan. The
number of synthetic opioids reported to the UNODC
Early Warning Advisory by countries in the region has
risen from only 3 substances in 2013 to 19 substances
in 2018. There is a paucity of information on the
use of these synthetic opioids in the region with
a considerable heroin market, there are risks that
traffickers might substitute heroin with synthetic
opioids or adulterate the heroin supply with synthetic
59 Country reports presented by Member States during the 2018
Annual SMART Workshop for East and South-East Asia in Chiang Rai,
Thailand.
60 UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS; Country Reports pre-
sented by national authorities at the 10th
Regional SMART workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
opioids to maximize their profits. Given the limited
forensic capacity of several countries in the region to
identify these substances, such a development could
go underreported.
The region is frequently perceived as a source of NPS
trafficked to other parts of the world. Information
on the use of most NPS in the region is limited, but
available forensic information indicates that tablets
sold as “ecstasy” or under various street names include
a wide variety of NPS rather than MDMA/MDEA”.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Other substances
Tryptamines
SyntheƟc cathinones
SyntheƟc cannabinoids
Plant-based substances
Piperazines
Phenethylamines
Phencyclidine-type substances
Aminoindanes
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* 2018*
Number
Figure 15. Appearance of NPS in East and South-East Asia by substance group, 2008-
2018*
Note: * Based on the analysis of 434 NPS. Data for 2017 and 2018 are preliminary.
Source(s): UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS; Country Reports presented by national authorities at the 10th
Regional SMART
workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
Figure 16. Proportion of NPS in East and
South-East Asia by pharmacological effect,
2008-2018*
Note: * Based on the analysis of 434 NPS. Data for 2017 and 2018
are preliminary.
Source(s): UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS; Country
Reports presented by national authorities at the 10th
Regional
SMART workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
Unassigned
SyntheƟc opioid receptor agonist
SƟmulant
SedaƟve hypnoƟc
Hallucinogen
DissociaƟve/AnaestheƟc
Cannabinoid receptor agonist
2%
14%
39%
5% 5%
31%
4%

14
Table 2. Synthetic opioids identified in East
and South-East Asia, 2017-2018
Substance name Year reported
2,2’-Difluorofentanyl 2017
2-Methylacetylfentanyl 2017
4-Fluoroisobutyrfentanyl 2017
Acrylfentanyl 2017
Benzylfentanyl 2017
Butyrfentanyl 2017
Cyclopropylfentanyl 2017
Furanylfentanyl 2017
Methoxyacetylfentanyl 2017
U-47700 2017
U-48800 2017
4-Chloroisobutyrfentanyl 2018
4-Fluoroisobutyrfentanyl 2018
Cyclopropylfentanyl 2018
Methoxyacetylfentanyl 2018
Tetrahydrofuranylfentanyl 2018
Source(s): UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS; Country
Reports presented by national authorities at the 10th
Regional
SMART workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
Seizures of the psychoactive plants kratom61
and
khat62
continue to be reported in the region. In 2018,
Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand reported almost
400 tons63
of seized kratom. Seizures of khat, were
reported by Cambodia, Hong Kong, China, Republic
of Korea and Viet Nam in the past two years. While
there are indications of the use of kratom in the region,
there is no reported use of khat.
Annual seizures of ketamine in East and South-East
Asia have been declining since 2015 when the record
amount of the drug was seized in the region. The
downward trend in annual ketamine seizures in the
region is largely due to a significant drop in quantities
seizedinChinawheretherehavebeensomeindications
of the decreased availability of the drug in recent years.
Between 2015 and 2017, annual seizures of ketamine
in China decreased by more than 60%, from 19.6
tons to 7.3 tons64
, and there was a 40% decrease in
the number of dismantled clandestine ketamine
laboratories during the same period: 97 in 2015 to
61 Mitragyna speciose is a native plant of South-East Asia. It has
both stimulant and sedative effect.
62 Catha edulis is a native plant of the Horn of Africa and the Ara-
bian Peninsula. It has stimulant effect.
63 Please see Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand chapters for more
information.
64 DAINAP.
54 in 2017.65
On the other hand, annual seizures of
ketamine in several countries in the region, including
Cambodia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand, have
been increasing rapidly in recent years.66
There has been a proliferation of the illicit manufacture
of ketamine in South-East Asia, which may have
been related to the decrease in the illicit production
of ketamine in China. Based on substances found
at drug manufacture sites dismantled in Myanmar
in early 2018, a total of 2,350 kg of ketamine were
seized in the country.67
Several drug trafficking cases
have been reported in recent years from Thailand
involving seizures of ketamine together with other
drugs, such as methamphetamine and heroin,
originating in the Golden Triangle.68
Viet Nam also
reported to have dismantled small-scale clandestine
ketamine laboratories in 2017 and during the first
half of 201869
, and Malaysia seized its first ever illicit
ketamine manufacturing facility in 2016.70
Figure 17. Seizures of ketamine in East and
South-East Asia by sub-region, 2013-2018*
Note: * 2018 data include only amounts confirmed by countries in the
Source(s): DAINAP; Official communication with NPA, January
2019; Official communication with SPO, February 2019.
65 NNCC, “Precursor chemicals in China”, presented at the High-
level Regional Conference on Precursor Control, Nay Phi Taw, Myan-
mar November 2018.
66 DAINAP; For more information, see respective country chapters.
67 CCDAC, “Myanmar country presentation”, ONCB “Synthetic
drug situation in Myanmar”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional
Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.
68 For instance, on 26th
July 2018, Thai authorities seized 100 kg of
ketamine alongside with 11.8 million methamphetamine tablets and
600 kg of crystalline methamphetamine in Singburi, Thailand; Narcot-
ic Suppression Bureau (NSB) of Royal Thai Police, Thailand,” Country
Report” presented at the 28th
Anti-Drug Liaison Officials’ Meeting for
International Cooperation (ADLOMICO), Busan, the Republic of Korea,
September 2018.
69 Standing Office of Drugs and Crime (SODC), “Synthetic drug situ-
ation in Viet Nam”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
70 NADA and Royal Malaysian Police, “Latest situation on synthetic
drugs responses to the threats in Malaysia”, presented at the Global
SMART Programme regional workshop, Hanoi, Viet Nam, August 2017.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Seizures(kg)
Rest of countries in E/SE AsiaChina, Hong kong, China, and Taiwan Province of China

15
Recent ketamine manufacture and trafficking cases
indicate that Indian drug trafficking syndicates may
be playing a role in the ketamine market in the
region. For instance, in June 2017, Indian authorities
dismantled a synthetic drug laboratory in Chennai and
seized about 110 kg of ketamine destined for Malaysia
together with 55.5 kg of pseudoephedrine. A total of
11 people were arrested – 10 Indian nationals and one
Malaysian.71
It is worthy of note that members of an
Indian drug trafficking syndicate were also arrested in
the first clandestine ketamine laboratory dismantled
in Malaysia in 2016.72
71 Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), India, Annual Report 2017.
72 NADA and Royal Malaysian Police, “Latest situation on synthetic
drugs responses to the threats in Malaysia”, presented at the Global
SMART Programme regional workshop, Hanoi, Viet Nam, August
2017.

16

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
17
Methamphetamine
• Crystalline methamphetamine remains the primary drug of concern in Brunei Darussalam and accounts for
a large majority of drug-related arrests and treatment admissions every year (see table 1 and figure 1).
• The price (USD 140 – 150 per gram) and purity (over 70%) of crystalline methamphetamine in the country
at the retail level have remained stable in recent years (see table 4).
“Ecstasy”1
• While the use of “ecstasy” is low in the country, expert perception indicates an increase in the use of the drug
in 2017, similar to a trend observed in its neighbouring maritime South-East Asia countries (see table 1).
New Psychoactive Substances (NPS)
• The use of ketamine has been increasing in Brunei Darussalam in recent years, and there have been no
reports on the use of other NPS.
Other drugs
• Nimetazepam, a benzodiazepine derivative, sold under the name of a discontinued proprietary product,
‘Erimin 5’, continues to be marketed and used in the country.
Key facts and figures
Drug demand indicators
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Brunei Darussalam, 2013-2018*
Drug type 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Crystalline methamphetamine      
“Ecstasy”      ●
Cannabis herb      
Inhalants     ● 
Ketamine      
Nimetazepam  ●    
Note: * Based on expert perception provided by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), Brunei Darussalam.
 = Increase,  = Decrease,  = Stable, ● = Not reported
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC Annual Report Questionnaires (ARQ) 2017 and previous years for Brunei Darussalam; Official
communication with NCB, February 2019.
1 MDMA could be not a main substance for some of “ecstasy” tablets sold as ecstasy in the country.
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

18
Figure 1. Number of people who use drugs
brought into formal contact with authorities
in Brunei Darussalam by drug type, 2013-
2018
Source(s): DAINAP; NCB, “Synthetic drug situation in Brunei
Darussalam”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018; Official communication with
NCB, February 2019.
broughtintoformalcontactwithauthorities
in Brunei Darussalam by age group, 2018
Source(s): DAINAP; NCB, “Synthetic drug situation in Brunei
Darussalam”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018; Official communication with
NCB, February 2019.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Other drugs
Nimentazepam“Ecstasy”
CannabisCrystalline methamphetamine
Number
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 263
141
22
201
53
2
7
Below 15 years
60 years or above
50 - 59 years
40 - 49 years
30 - 39 years
20 - 29 years
15 - 19 years
N = 689
Table 2. Number of people who use drugs receiving treatment by gender and selected drug
types, 2016-2017
2016 2017
Drug type Male Female Total Male Female Total
Methamphetamine 175 25 200 190 30 220
Cannabis 3 0 3 2 0 2
Inhalants 1 0 1 2 0 2
Codeine 1 0 1 0 0 0
Poly drug use 0 0 0 1 0 1
Total 180 25 205 195 30 225
Source(s): DAINAP; NCB, “Synthetic drug situation in Brunei Darussalam”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
Drug supply indicators
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Brunei Darussalam, 2013-2018
Drug type Unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Crystalline methamphetamine kg 2 4.3 1.4 0.7 0.8 0.8
“Ecstasy” tablet /g 6
25 and
0.5 g
43 and
30.4 g
21
31 and
1.6 g
0
Cannabis herb kg 0.8 8.7 3.8 6 1.1 0.4
Heroin kg 0.8 8.1 ● ● ● ●
Ketamine tablet /g 18 g
14 and
123.1 g
10.2 g 17.6 g
50 and
54.5 g
21 g
Nimetazepam tablet / g 129 570
243 and
4.1 g
457 and
1.4 g
453 and
11.8 g
275
Note: ●= Not reported.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC ARQ 2017 and previous years for Brunei Darussalam; and NCB, “Synthetic drug situation in Brunei
Darussalam”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018; Official communication with
NCB, February 2019.

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
19
Table 4. Retail prices of selected illicit drugs in Brunei Darussalam in BND (USD), 2018
Drug type Unit 2018
Crystalline methamphetamine per g
195
(144)
“Ecstasy” per tablet
30
(22)
Cannabis herb per g
15
(11)
Ketamine per g
50
(37)
Benzodiazepines (Erimin 5) per tablet
10
(7)
Note: NCB has reported the same prices of the drugs in the table in BND for 2017 and 2018; The conversion ratio used is 1 BND = 0.74 USD
(as of 17 January 2019)
Source(s): DAINAP; Official communication with NCB, February 2019.

20

CAMBODIA
21
Methamphetamine
• The market for methamphetamine, particularly its crystalline form, continues to expand in
Cambodia. This expansion in recent years has been accompanied by an increase in the number of
people brought into formal contact with authorities in connection with drug use and the number
for treatment admissions (see figure 1 and table 2).
• Increasingly larger quantities of crystalline methamphetamine continue to be seized annually, with
the amount seized in 2018 exceeding amount of the five previous years combined (see table 3).
• The average retail prices of both crystalline methamphetamine and methamphetamine tablets have
decreased significantly in recent years, indicating the wider availability of the drug (see figure 4 and
5).
“Ecstasy”1
• Annual seizures of “ecstasy” have increased significantly in recent years, mainly due to large
quantities of the drug trafficked from Europe (see table 3).2
• Based on the limited use of “ecstasy” in the county, a large proportion of the drug seized may have
been destined for other countries.
• In 2018, Cambodia made its first seizure of khat, originating from Ethiopia and destined for the
United States.3
The use of synthetic NPS, excluding ketamine, is not documented.
Other drugs
• Cambodia continues to be used as a transit point for cocaine trafficking by transnational organized
crime groups.4
2 National Authority for Combating Drugs (NACD), “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
CAMBODIA

22
Table 1. Trend in use of selected drugs in Cambodia, 2013-2017*
Drug type 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Methamphetamine tablets     
Crystalline methamphetamine     
Ecstasy ● ●   
Cannabis herb ● ●   
Heroin ● ●   
Note: *Based on expert perception provided by NACD, Cambodia
 = Increase,  = Decrease,  = Stable, ● = Not reported
Source(s): Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
broughtintoformalcontactwithauthorities
in Cambodia, 2013-2018*
Note: * Data cover the first half of 2018.
Source(s): DAINAP; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in
Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop,
Figure 2. Drug treatment centre admissions
in Cambodia by age group, 2017
Source(s): DAINAP; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Number
Table 2. Drug treatment centre admissions in Cambodia by drug type and gender, 2017
Drug type Male Female Total
Methamphetamine 13,243 2,304 15,547
Heroin 121 27 148
Ketamine 39 3 42
Other drugs 37 12 49
Total 13,440 2,346 15,786*
Note: * The total number of admissions for drug treatment centres in 2017 was 15,796, and included those admitted for poly-drug use.
Source(s): DAINAP; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
> 46 years
36 - 45 years
26 - 35 years
18 - 25 years
10 - 17 years
43%
40%
9%
3%5%
N = 15,786

CAMBODIA
23
Table 3. Seizures of selected drugs in Cambodia, 2013-2018*
Drug type Unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Methamphetamine tabletsa
tablets 173,349 87,000 265,760 490,689 371,556 77,000
Crystalline methamphetamine kg 32.4 29 72.9 66.3 80.1 306.6
“Ecstasy”b
tablets 0 10,533 70 5,509 83,533 599,200
Cannabis herb kg 168.5 19.9 1,511.5 37 116.3 74
Cocaine kg 12.9 7.9 5.3 14 12.8 5.4
Heroin kg 38.3 1.8 2.5 6.2 22.5 1.3
Ketamine kg 0.0c
0.0c
0.1 1.1 6.3 36.3
Note: * Data for 2018 are preliminary and subject to change. a
Thesefigures include quantities reported as grams; all of which were converted into
estimated tablet equivalent at 90 mg per tablet.
b
Thesefigures include quantities reported as grams; all of which were converted into estimated tablet equivalent of 300 mg per tablet. c
Less than
0.05 kg of ketamine was seized.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC Annual Report Questionnaire (ARQ) 2016 and previous years for Cambodia; NACD, “Synthetic
drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and previous
years; Cambodian National Police, “Drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the UNODC Transnational Organized Crime Threat
Assessment for South-East Asia Consultative Workshop, Bangkok, Thailand, January 2019.
Figure 3. Number of drug-related arrests* and cases in Cambodia, 2013-2018
Note: Data does not include people who use drugs brought into formal contact with authorities.
Source(s): NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand,
August 2018; Cambodian National Police, “Drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the UNODC Transnational Organized Crime
Threat Assessment for South-East Asia Consultative Workshop, Bangkok, Thailand, January 2019.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
CasesArrests
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Number

24
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
PricepertabletinUSD
Table 4. Typical purities of selected drugs in Cambodia (percentage), 2013-2017
Drug type 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Methamphetamine tablets 3 – 18 10 – 19 9 – 19 0.5 – 22.4 11 – 21
Crystalline methamphetamine 4 – 84 3 – 86 4 – 84 1.3 – 97.3 68 – 78
“Ecstasy” tablets 6 29 – 39 34 – 47 ● 29 – 39
Ketamine (powder) 50 46 – 57 40 – 54 1.9 – 81.5 49 – 59
Heroin 20 – 84 33 – 71 33 – 66 41.6 – 80.2 63 – 73
Cocaine 50 – 80 58 ● ● 73 – 83
Note: ● = Not reported.
Source(s): NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand,
August 2018; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”, presented at the 2016 SMART Regional Workshop, Vientiane, Lao PDR,
August 2016.
Figure4.Retailpricesofmethamphetamine
tablet in Cambodia in USD, 2013-2017
price ranges reported in addition to the typical price.
Source(s): NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”,
presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
Thailand, August 2018; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in
Vientiane, Lao PDR, August 2016.
Figure5.Retailpricesofcrystallinemetham-
phetamine in Cambodia in USD, 2013-2017
price ranges reported in addition to the typical price.
Source(s): NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in Cambodia”,
presented at the 2018 SMART Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai,
Thailand, August 2018; NACD, “Synthetic drug situation in
Vientiane, Lao PDR, August 2016.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
PricepergraminUSD
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

CHINA
25
Methamphetamine
• Increases in the number of people registered for synthetic drug use continued in 2017 (see figure 2), which
could have driven by methamphetamine.1
• The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in China appears to be decreasing. The number of crystalline
methamphetamine manufacturing facilities dismantled in the country has decreased every year since 2014
(see figure 4).
• A steep increase in the wholesale price of crystalline methamphetamine in 2018 (US $21,800/kg) compared
to the corresponding data reported in 2015 (US $2,910/kg) may indicated reduced availability of the drug.2
• China remains vulnerable to the risk of diversion of precursor chemicals used in the illicit manufacture
of methamphetamine. Transnational organized crime groups in China continue to circumvent existing
domestic and international legal frameworks by using non-scheduled precursor chemicals.3
“Ecstasy”4
• Although the size of the “ecstasy” market is significantly smaller than methamphetamine, annual seizures of
the drug have been on the rise since 2014. Record amounts of the drug were seized in 2017 (see table 1).
• Diverse substances have been found in tablets sold as “ecstasy” in the country. These include new psychoactive
substances, such as N-isopropylbenzylamine, 5-MeO-DALT, 4-MPD, and N-ethylpentylone.
• Despite national measures to restrict NPS, new substances, including potent synthetic opioids, continue to
emerge in the country (see figure 6).
• In 2017, the synthetic cathinone group of substances, mainly consisting of stimulants, accounted for the
largest proportion of the total number of NPS identified by the country’s NPS Monitoring Programme,
followed by synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic opioids (see figure 5).
• By substance, N-Ethylpentylone (stimulant) was the most frequently reported NPS, followed by 4-CEC
(stimulant), AMB-FUBINACA (synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist), α-PVP (stimulant), and
N-Ethylhexedrone (stimulant) according to the NPS Monitoring Programme in 2017.5
• The amount of ketamine seized in China continues to decrease. Seizures of the drug in 2017 were the lowest
reported over the last decade (see table 1).
Other drugs
• The Golden Triangle remains the primary source of heroin found in China, accounting for over 95% of
the total heroin seized in the country.6
However, the amount of heroin from Afghanistan seized in the
1 Based on the latest segregated data for the registered synthetic drug users by drug type (2016), methamphetamine accounted for 92.8% of
the total synthetic drug users.
2 National Narcotics Control Commission (NNCC) of China, “Precursor chemicals in China”, presented at the High-level Regional Conference on
Precursor Control, Nay Phi Taw, Myanmar November 2018.
3 For instance, alpha-phenylacetoacetamid (APAA) has been increasingly used as a substitute for alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN), a
substance scheduled in Table I of 1988 UN drug convention since 2014.
5 NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand,
August 2018.
CHINA

26
Figure 2. Proportion of newly registered
drug users by type in China, 2017
Source(s): NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”,
presented at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and previous country reports
presented at past workshops.
country increased in 2017 for the first time since 20137
, likely due to a decrease in areas under opium poppy
cultivation in the Golden Triangle.8
• China has been increasingly targeted as a transit location for cocaine trafficking.9
Figure 1. Proportion of registered drug users by type of drug used in China, 2013-2018*
Note: * Data cover the first half of the year.
Source(s): NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop,
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and previous country reports presented at past workshops.
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
1,000,000
1,500,000
1,250,000
1,750,000
Numberofusers
N = 344,400
Other drugs
SyntheƟc drugs
Heroin and other opiates
77.10%
16.60%
6.30%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Other drugsHeroin and other opiatesSyntheƟc drugs
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
ProporƟons(%)
Figure 3. Number of people registered for
using synthetic drug in China, 2013-2017
Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018.6
,7
,8
,9
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 For instance, the latest UNODC Opium Survey for Myanmar denotes the total area of opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar in 2017 was
41,000 hectares (ha), down 25% from the 55,500 ha recorded in 2015.
9 NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented at the Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand,
August 2018.

CHINA
27
Figure 5. Types of NPS identified by the
NPS Monitoring Programme of China, 2017
Figure 4. Number of illicit synthetic drug
manufacturing facilities dismantled in
China, 2013-2018*
Note: * Data covers the first ten months of the year.
Source(s): DAINAP; NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic
drugs in China”, presented at the Global SMART Programme
Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018;
NNCC, “Precursor chemicals in China”, presented at the High-
level Regional Conference on Precursor Control, Nay Phi Taw,
Myanmar November 2018.
Table 1. Seizures of selected drugs in China, 2013-2018*
Drug type Unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
Crystalline
methamphetamine
kg 8,000.0 13,700 22,600 17,361.8 17,066.0 8,518.4
Methamphetamine
tabletsa tablets 115,000,000 114,000,000 120,700,000 129,123,556 122,222,222 97,644,444
Methamphetamine
powder
kg ● ● ● 399.7 2,196 190.4
Methamphetamine
liquid
Lt ● ● 1,443.7 1,323.8 136.2 1,130
“Ecstasy”b
tablets 435,200 153,333 632,100 1,200,266 3,333,333 137,133
Ketamine kg 9,692.3 11,212.9 19,600 10,361.1 4,730.8 4,533.3
Cannabis herb kg 4,495.7c
4,000 8,700d
5,833.3 2,520.4 2,399.1
Cannabis resin kg ● 0.2 ● 34.4 0.06 ●
Cocaine kg 51.3 113 97.7 1,530 311.7 ●
Heroin kg 8,552.9 9,300 8,800 8,777 7,200 ●
Opium kg 1,463.5 1,741.0 2,451.9 3,104 3,914.5 ●
Note: * Data covers the first nine months of the year. ● = Not reported. a
Figures reported other than the number of tablets converted into
estimated pill equivalents at 100 mg per tablet. b
Figures reported other than the number of tablets converted into estimated tablet equivalents at
300 mg per tablet. c, d
Includes cannabis herb and cannabis resin.
Source(s): DAINAP; UNODC Annual Report Questionnaire; Official communication with NNCC, October 2014; Official
communication with NNCC, November 2015; NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented at the Global SMART
Programme regional meeting, Beijing, China, 16-17 September 2015; NNCC, “Annual Report on Drug Situation in China 2016”,
March 2016; Official communication with NNCC, April 2016; NNCC, “Latest situation of synthetic drugs in China”, presented at the
Global SMART Programme Regional Workshop, Chiang Rai, Thailand, August 2018 and previous country reports presented at past
workshops; Official communication with NNCC, December 2018.
0
100
200
300
400
500
KetamineMethamphetamine tablet Crystalline methamphetamine
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018*
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018*
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018*
Number
Others
Fentanyl and its analogues
SyntheƟc cannabinoids
SyntheƟc cathinones62%
19%
10%
9%
N = 834

28
Figure 6. Top 10 synthetic opioids identified
by the NPS Monitoring Programme of
China, 2017
62%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2,2'-Diﬂuorofentanyl
M
D-U-47700
U-49900
2-M
ethylacetylfentanyl
U-48800
4-Fluoroisobutyrfentanyl
Cyclopropylfentanyl
Furanylfentanyl
M
ethoxyacetylfentanyl
U-47700
Benzylfentanyl
Fentanyl
Number
Table 2. Retail prices of selected drugs in
China in USD, 2016-2017
Drug type Unit 2016 2017
Crystalline
methamphetamine
per gram 59 45.6
Methamphetamine
tablet
per tablet 26 15 - 17
“Ecstasy” per tablet 23 32 – 45.4
Heroin per gram 77
(45 – 121)
70 – 73
Ketamine per gram 22.7 26 - 39
Cocaine per gram 56
(38 – 121)
59 – 126.4
Cannabis herb per gram 24
(9 – 60)
15.8 – 27.3
Source(s): UNODC Annual Report Questionnaire; DAINAP.
Hong Kong, China
Methamphetamine
• The reported number of people who use crystalline methamphetamine in Hong Kong, China, remains high,
despite the first reported decrease in recent years in 2017 (see figure 1).
• Theretailpriceof1gramofcrystallinemethamphetaminereportedasofJune2018showsasignificantincrease
compared to 2017 (see table 2). Given the decreasing number of reported users of the drug and seizures, the
increase in the retail price could point to a decreasing availability of crystalline methamphetamine.10
“Ecstasy”11
• Seizures of “ecstasy” increased significantly in 2017 compared to the preceding year (see table 1). However,
the reported number of “ecstasy” users and related arrests annually still account for a minuscule proportion
of the number of people who use illicit drugs.12
• Ketamine use has declined in Hong Kong, China, over the last few years, evidenced by data on use, seizures
and prices over the last few years. This trend might point to a decrease in supply of the drug trafficked from
China.
• Hong Kong, China, has been a major transit location for the shipment of NPS, including khat. In 2017, a
record amount of khat (more than 6 tons) was seized by the Hong Kong Customs and Excise Department,
most of which was destined for China and the United States.13
Other drugs
• While heroin continued to be the most commonly reported drug of use in 2017, the reported number of
people who use heroin decreased ever year over the last decade.14
10 Purity-adjusted prices were not available to confirm this hypothesis.
11 MDMA could be not a main substance for some of “ecstasy” tablets sold as ecstasy in Hong Kong, China.
12 For instance, in 2017, less than 0.5 % of the all reported drug users were “ecstasy” users.
13 Hong Kong Customs & Excise Department, “Experience Sharing on Combating NPS in Hong Kong”, presented at the World Customs Organi-
zations Catalyst 2 Training Workshop, Seoul, the Republic of Korea, April 2018.
14 NDSB, “Central Registry of Drug Abuse Sixty-Fifth Report 2006 - 2015”, NDSB, “Newly/previously reported drug abusers by age group by
common type of drugs abused (T3).

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