Music and the New Cosmopolitanism:
Problems and Possibilities
Sarah Collins and Dana Gooley
“German composer.” “Russian composer.” “French composer.” “American
composer of Italian birth.” “Austrian composer, son of Leopold Mozart.”
These are the first sentences of the articles on Beethoven, Tchaikovsky,
Josquin Des Prez, Menotti, and W. A. Mozart from the New Grove
Dictionary, the central resource of music history research. Though the
sentences sound neutral and descriptive, they represent a particular way of
thinking about the identities of musicians, one we often take for granted:
that the nation to which a musician belongs is a “primary” fact, on par
with birth and death dates. Nations are part of the mental maps that ori-
ent us and help determine where a composer is “coming from” or where a
composer stands in the scheme of music history. Even before Mozart is the
son of Leopold, Grove tells us, he is the offspring of Austria. National tags
emplace musicians not only territorially, but also culturally. To call a mu-
sician “French” is not just to mark a place of birth but also to imply his or
her imbrication with the communal, institutional, and aesthetic affiliations
of the French nation. For reasons both pragmatic and ideological, the
communities of scholarship that shape, interrogate, and revise music–his-
torical narratives have found national frameworks difficult to avoid or
resist.
But national frames, however enabling for certain purposes, can also
be limiting, since the nation is only one among many possible entities or
communities to which music can establish a sense of belonging. Musicians
have often learned their art, acquired status, and reached audiences
through displacements and dislocations that take them beyond national
boundaries. An exceptionally strong talent or a hunger for education
might motivate them to undertake an international tour or seek out a par-
ticular music teacher in a faraway place. “In every time and place for
which a history can be written,” writes Celia Applegate, “one could
probably—in cases definitely—find musicians on the move.”1 Sometimes
these displacements are simply a matter of opportunity. In the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, patronage and diplomacy brought Franco-Flemish
doi:10.1093/musqtl/gdx006 99:139–165
The Musical Quarterly
VC The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions,
please e-mail: [email protected]
Deleted Text: -
polyphonists to Italy. In the mid-eighteenth century, Italian troupes traveled
to Paris and had a major impact on the city’s theatrical and intellectual life.
In the first half of the nineteenth century Russia attracted composers and
virtuosos from England, France, Germany, and Italy, many of whom received
patronage allowing them to stay there long-term.
Beyond these territorial movements, music can also displace musi-
cians stylistically and aesthetically. Aaron Copland arrived at his distinc-
tively “American.
This document summarizes the book "Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop Outside the USA" which examines how rap and hip-hop have been appropriated in local contexts around the world beyond its origins in African American culture in the USA. The book argues that more innovative developments can be found in places like France, England, Germany, and Japan where strong local currents of hip-hop have emerged. It also discusses how in places like Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands, hip-hop has been used as a vehicle for political expression of issues important to those regions. While acknowledging local appropriation, the document questions what constitutes the "global" in global hip-hop culture if it is defined only by its
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This document discusses the challenges of writing an essay about hip hop. It notes that exploring hip hop's roots in 1970s Bronx requires understanding the socioeconomic conditions. Discussing hip hop's evolution as a global phenomenon necessitates research into its elements like MCing, DJing, and graffiti art. Analyzing hip hop lyrics requires appreciation for language, rhythm, and rhyme schemes as well as socio-political messages. Examining hip hop's influence on culture involves fashion, language, and politics. Capturing hip hop's cultural significance and the emotions in the music challenges writers to balance academic analysis with lived experiences in the hip hop community.
Contact situation language and rhythm transformationElisabeth Penker
This document discusses the transformation of language and rhythm across different artistic disciplines such as music, visual art, and poetry. It provides historical examples of how rhythm was transformed through developments like syncopation in ragtime music and how language was transformed through early 20th century movements like Dadaism. It also discusses how developments in one artistic discipline, such as the introduction of noise and environmental sounds to music through Russolo's manifesto, influenced and related to transformations happening in other disciplines at the time through shared concepts and ideas. Overall, the document examines how contact between different artistic media and cultural contexts drove innovations that broke conventions and reinvented structures in language, music, and other forms of expression.
The document provides background information on the Western Renaissance and Romantic movements:
- The Western Renaissance began in 14th century Italy and spread throughout Europe, revisiting the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome. It was spurred by the recovery of classical literature by Italian scholars.
- The Romantic movement began in late 18th century Western Europe as a rebellion against Enlightenment rationalism. It emphasized emotion, nature, folklore and nationalism. Notable Romantic authors include Goethe, Wordsworth, and the Brontë sisters.
- Romanticism dominated 19th century English literature and influenced other countries, though some French authors are seen as part of the Realist movement. The era celebrated imagination
This document summarizes the book "Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop Outside the USA" which examines how rap and hip-hop have been appropriated in local contexts around the world beyond its origins in African American culture in the USA. The book argues that more innovative developments can be found in places like France, England, Germany, and Japan where strong local currents of hip-hop have emerged. It also discusses how in places like Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands, hip-hop has been used as a vehicle for political expression of issues important to those regions. While acknowledging local appropriation, the document questions what constitutes the "global" in global hip-hop culture if it is defined only by its
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This document discusses the challenges of writing an essay about hip hop. It notes that exploring hip hop's roots in 1970s Bronx requires understanding the socioeconomic conditions. Discussing hip hop's evolution as a global phenomenon necessitates research into its elements like MCing, DJing, and graffiti art. Analyzing hip hop lyrics requires appreciation for language, rhythm, and rhyme schemes as well as socio-political messages. Examining hip hop's influence on culture involves fashion, language, and politics. Capturing hip hop's cultural significance and the emotions in the music challenges writers to balance academic analysis with lived experiences in the hip hop community.
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The document discusses the Western influence on the music cultures of India, China, and Russia. It focuses on the role of Christian missionaries and native converts as "intermediary actors" who introduced Western hymns and music and modified them according to local tastes and traditions. Regarding Russia specifically, the document notes that Western classical music was initially dominated by foreign musicians at the Russian imperial court but that composers like Glinka incorporated Russian folk elements, sparking a nationalist movement. The "Mighty Five" group and the Russian Musical Society both embraced and resisted Western influences in different ways.
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2009 Final Dissertation, Media and Cultural Studies 'Higher than the Sun'Robert McPherson
This document discusses dance music culture and the concept of space and place within it. It begins with definitions of space and place, discussing how dance culture utilizes these concepts through its association with sites of resistance via loud music, drug use, and all-night dancing. It then provides historical context on the origins of dance culture in 1970s New York City, Chicago, Detroit, and the UK acid house scene of the late 1980s. It discusses how these early scenes involved marginalized groups and represented spaces of expression and defiance against mainstream society. The document goes on to discuss other topics in subsequent chapters.
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This document provides a worksheet with questions about natural selection and patterns of evolution. The worksheet asks students to write short answers in 100 to 200 words for each question. The questions cover direct evidence that supports the theory of natural selection such as examples; whether humans are subject to the same pressures of natural selection as other organisms and why; examples of convergent evolution, divergent evolution, adaptive radiation and co-evolution and implications one example may have for future humans; and how a new species evolves from a pre-existing species including factors affecting speciation.
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Need a reply 1Amy Simons is an aunt to my mum. Amy passed on.docxgemaherd
Need a reply 1
Amy Simons is an aunt to my mum. Amy passed on May 31, 2020, while surrounded by all her family members after a long fight with colon cancer; she was 48.
On December 21, 1972, Amy Simons was born in Redbone, Alabama, to the late Hadley and Pauline Simons. According to the story I was told by my mum, Amy was a wonderful and selfless person. She was the third child of four after Christine Simons, Reuben Simons, and her older sister to Raphael. The majority of her childhood and teenage years were in Alabama before relocating to New York for her college education at New York University. During her term in the school, she met Joshua, whom they bore their first child Fredrick in 1990. She deferred for one year before resuming and completing her Human Resource Management degree. They got married in 1991, after which they relocated back to Huntsville, Alabama. They opened a bakery in 1993 and were well known by the local community. She gave birth to her second child Diana in 1995; during this period, she began complaining about stomach discomfort. The medical assessment resulted in her having an operation that corrected the issue. In 1999, the Simons family relocated out to Redstone, Alabama, where they resided until Joshua's premature death in 2016.
After his death, she developed complications that were unidentified by numerous physicians. However, after consulting an oncologist in 2018, she was diagnosed with colon cancer. She underwent various sessions of chemotherapy and radiation therapy that extended her life. The affected parts of her colon were surgically removed, allowing her to recover without issue. However, cancer reemerged more aggressively; she died in hospital due to complications caused by the COVID-19 virus. Though her final months were trying and difficult, she maintained a positive attitude recognized by most community members who knew her. The notion was also shared by her doctors, who stated that she never complained and was always optimistic. Similar notions are expressed by the local law enforcement agents who were her close friends. Her baking skills further made her more popular, with the local police department being her primary market.
Amy was a driven and steadfast mother and member of the Redstone community. Her actions were focused on ensuring her children had all their requirements before focusing on others. Her role as the local “mum” made the locals cherish her personality. Her baking skills intrigued and captivated people from various counties and states. With her demise, she leaves behind two children and five grandchildren. Fredrick Simons is aged 31 years, with three children: Jackeline Simons, Chloe Simons, and Ryan Simons. Her daughter Diana aged 26, is married to Geoffrey Green with two children Brenda Green and Brian Green.
Amy’s main objective was to make her children and community happy; therefore, in memory of her desire, her bakery will host a commemo.
Need a PowerPoint 12 pages on the following nursing theory Peacefu.docxgemaherd
Need a PowerPoint 12 pages on the following nursing theory Peaceful end of life by Cornelia Ruland and Shirley Moore. APA format with reference.
All references must be with in the last 5 years and different sources most be used. PLEASE SEE ATTACHMENT FOR EXAMPLE OF WHAT IT IS SUPPOSE TO LOOK LIKE.
What need to be cover on PowerPoint.
Content
Covers primary elements of theory
Contains definitions of person, environment, health, and nursing
Discusses how the theory is used in nursing practice
Accurate and current information
Includes diagram or graphic of theory
Shows evidence of critical thinking
Organization
Well organized with introduction, body, & conclusion
Good transitions
Introduction includes attention-getter
Logical progression and connections
Conclusion includes summary and closure
Delivery
Clear, precise and appropriate word usage
Articulate and expressive
Level appropriate for audience
Maintains audience interest/responds to cues from listeners
Free of distracting mannerisms
Avoids reading from notes or over-reliance on written material
Enthusiasm
Creativity
Reference List
Uses a variety of appropriate references
Books, journals, websites, etc.
Correct APA format
Graphic Representation
Includes principle elements
of the theory
Clear
.
Need 5 papers along with reference page Topic Delay in Phys.docxgemaherd
Need 5 papers along with reference page
Topic: Delay in Physical security related to IT Sector
Covering below 2 topics
Business Continuity and Risk Mitigation
Budgetary Concerns
MUST follow below rules.
1. APA format
2. 4 References must be scholarly peer-reviewed articles
3. The purpose of the research paper is to associate controls (administrative, technical,
and physical) with your assigned physical security goal.
4. Find and review other information that associates with your topic area
5. Apply research from articles on chosen topic area to create research paper
.
Need 6 pages with APA format and referencesThere are several e.docxgemaherd
Need 6 pages with APA format and references
There are several emerging concepts that are using Big Data and Blockchain Technology. Please search the internet and highlight 5 emerging concepts that are exploring the use of Blockchain and Big Dat a
.
need a research paper about leadership in 10 pages with 10 reference.docxgemaherd
This 10 page research paper on leadership in organizations discusses 3 reasons why leadership is important and reviews literature on the topic without an introduction or reference page. The paper covers the background and significance of studying leadership, a literature review on leadership, the research design and methods used, preliminary conclusions, and implications.
Need a QUALITATIVE Journal, The topic is up to you as long as yo.docxgemaherd
Need a QUALITATIVE Journal, The topic is up to you as long as you choose a
peer-reviewed, academic
research piece.
Please use APA formatting and include the following information:
Introduction/Background: Provide context for the research article. What led the author(s) to write the piece? What key concepts were explored? Were there weaknesses in prior research that led the author to the current hypothesis or research question?
Methodology: Describe how the data was gathered and analyzed. What research questions or hypotheses were the researcher trying to explore? What statistical analysis was used?
Study Findings and Results: What were the major findings from the study? Were there any limitations?
Conclusions: Evaluate the article in terms of significance, research methods, readability and the implications of the results. Does the piece lead into further study? Are there different methods you would have chosen based on what you read? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the article in terms of statistical analysis and application? (This is where a large part of the rubric is covered.)
References
.
Need a one response for each discussion post in 50 to 75 words.docxgemaherd
Need a one response for each discussion post in 50 to 75 words
Discussion post 1
Payback Period: The payback period refers to the amount of time it takes to recover the cost of an investment. Simply put, the payback period is the length of time an investment reaches a break-even point. The desirability of an investment is directly related to its payback period. Shorter paybacks mean more attractive investments. The payback period is the cost of the investment divided by the annual cash flow. The shorter the payback, the more desirable the investment. Conversely, the longer the payback, the less desirable it is.
Net Present Value: Net Present Value (NPV) is the value of all future cash flows (positive and negative) over the entire life of an investment discounted to the present. NPV analysis is a form of intrinsic valuation and is used extensively across finance and accounting for determining the value of a business, investment security, capital project, new venture, cost reduction program, and anything that involves cash flow.
Internal Rate of Return: Internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate that makes the net present value of all cash flows (both positive and negative) equal to zero for a specific project or investment.
IRR: What Is It Used For?
The internal rate of return is used to evaluate projects or investments. The IRR estimates a project’s breakeven discount rate or rate of return, which indicates the project’s potential for profitability.
Based on IRR, a company will decide to either accept or reject a project. If the IRR of a new project exceeds a company’s required rate of return, that project will most likely be accepted. If IRR falls below the required rate of return, the project should be rejected.
IRR Formula?
You can use the following formula to calculate IRR:
0 (NPV) = P0 + P1/(1+IRR) + P2/(1+IRR)2 + P3/(1+IRR)3 + . . . +Pn/(1+IRR)n
Profitability Index Definition: Profitability index method measures the present value of benefits for every dollar investment. In other words, it involves the ratio that is created by comparing the ratio of the present value of future cash flows from a project to the initial investment in the project. The Profitability Index Method is often times compared similarly to the Net Present Value Method for their close proximity. One should use caution when utilizing both the NPV and profitability index methods in tandem. Often times, it has been found that both methods can rank projects in a different way. One project could possibly be ranked number 1 for one of the methods while it ranks dead last in the other. Use digression when using both in tandem.
There is relationship between profitability index and net present value method. If profitability index >1, the NPV is positive. If profitability index <1, NPV is negative. The profitability index is a relative measure of an investment’s value while NPV is an absolute measure.
Discussion Post 2
The payback period depicts the dur.
Need 20 -25 pages Identify the key problems and issues in .docxgemaherd
Need 20 -25 pages
Identify the key problems and issues in the case study.
Problems :
1. McD placed itself in the middle with overall-cost leadership and broad differentiation to please everyone. They lost focus on existing business.
2. Bussiness/Marketing strategy unable to provide well-perceived customer experience, did not engage customer’s expectationa and feedback
.
Need a research paper with ANY ONE of the below topicsT.docxgemaherd
Need a research paper with
ANY ONE
of the below topics:
The Research Report, select one of the following research areas:
i) Cyber Security and INTRANET Cloud Computing
ii) Cyber Security and EXTRANET Cloud Computing
iii) Cyber Security and Machine Learning
iv) Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence
v) Cyber Security and Internet of Things (IoT)
vi) Cyber Security and Robotics
vii) Cyber Security and Medical Technology
Please see the attached document on the instructions that have to be followed for this research paper.
.
Necesito un essay en espanolTema Explique algunas de las inst.docxgemaherd
Necesito un essay en espanol
Tema: Explique algunas de las instituciones sociales de mayor importancia y sus funciones para el desarrollo del individúo y la comunidad.
Instrucciones: Minimo de una pagina, con Introduccion, desarrollo y concluciones. Estilo APA, Lo necesito para el jueves 09/24/2020 a las 6:00 pm.
.
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Need a reply 1Amy Simons is an aunt to my mum. Amy passed on.docxgemaherd
Need a reply 1
Amy Simons is an aunt to my mum. Amy passed on May 31, 2020, while surrounded by all her family members after a long fight with colon cancer; she was 48.
On December 21, 1972, Amy Simons was born in Redbone, Alabama, to the late Hadley and Pauline Simons. According to the story I was told by my mum, Amy was a wonderful and selfless person. She was the third child of four after Christine Simons, Reuben Simons, and her older sister to Raphael. The majority of her childhood and teenage years were in Alabama before relocating to New York for her college education at New York University. During her term in the school, she met Joshua, whom they bore their first child Fredrick in 1990. She deferred for one year before resuming and completing her Human Resource Management degree. They got married in 1991, after which they relocated back to Huntsville, Alabama. They opened a bakery in 1993 and were well known by the local community. She gave birth to her second child Diana in 1995; during this period, she began complaining about stomach discomfort. The medical assessment resulted in her having an operation that corrected the issue. In 1999, the Simons family relocated out to Redstone, Alabama, where they resided until Joshua's premature death in 2016.
After his death, she developed complications that were unidentified by numerous physicians. However, after consulting an oncologist in 2018, she was diagnosed with colon cancer. She underwent various sessions of chemotherapy and radiation therapy that extended her life. The affected parts of her colon were surgically removed, allowing her to recover without issue. However, cancer reemerged more aggressively; she died in hospital due to complications caused by the COVID-19 virus. Though her final months were trying and difficult, she maintained a positive attitude recognized by most community members who knew her. The notion was also shared by her doctors, who stated that she never complained and was always optimistic. Similar notions are expressed by the local law enforcement agents who were her close friends. Her baking skills further made her more popular, with the local police department being her primary market.
Amy was a driven and steadfast mother and member of the Redstone community. Her actions were focused on ensuring her children had all their requirements before focusing on others. Her role as the local “mum” made the locals cherish her personality. Her baking skills intrigued and captivated people from various counties and states. With her demise, she leaves behind two children and five grandchildren. Fredrick Simons is aged 31 years, with three children: Jackeline Simons, Chloe Simons, and Ryan Simons. Her daughter Diana aged 26, is married to Geoffrey Green with two children Brenda Green and Brian Green.
Amy’s main objective was to make her children and community happy; therefore, in memory of her desire, her bakery will host a commemo.
Need a PowerPoint 12 pages on the following nursing theory Peacefu.docxgemaherd
Need a PowerPoint 12 pages on the following nursing theory Peaceful end of life by Cornelia Ruland and Shirley Moore. APA format with reference.
All references must be with in the last 5 years and different sources most be used. PLEASE SEE ATTACHMENT FOR EXAMPLE OF WHAT IT IS SUPPOSE TO LOOK LIKE.
What need to be cover on PowerPoint.
Content
Covers primary elements of theory
Contains definitions of person, environment, health, and nursing
Discusses how the theory is used in nursing practice
Accurate and current information
Includes diagram or graphic of theory
Shows evidence of critical thinking
Organization
Well organized with introduction, body, & conclusion
Good transitions
Introduction includes attention-getter
Logical progression and connections
Conclusion includes summary and closure
Delivery
Clear, precise and appropriate word usage
Articulate and expressive
Level appropriate for audience
Maintains audience interest/responds to cues from listeners
Free of distracting mannerisms
Avoids reading from notes or over-reliance on written material
Enthusiasm
Creativity
Reference List
Uses a variety of appropriate references
Books, journals, websites, etc.
Correct APA format
Graphic Representation
Includes principle elements
of the theory
Clear
.
Need 5 papers along with reference page Topic Delay in Phys.docxgemaherd
Need 5 papers along with reference page
Topic: Delay in Physical security related to IT Sector
Covering below 2 topics
Business Continuity and Risk Mitigation
Budgetary Concerns
MUST follow below rules.
1. APA format
2. 4 References must be scholarly peer-reviewed articles
3. The purpose of the research paper is to associate controls (administrative, technical,
and physical) with your assigned physical security goal.
4. Find and review other information that associates with your topic area
5. Apply research from articles on chosen topic area to create research paper
.
Need 6 pages with APA format and referencesThere are several e.docxgemaherd
Need 6 pages with APA format and references
There are several emerging concepts that are using Big Data and Blockchain Technology. Please search the internet and highlight 5 emerging concepts that are exploring the use of Blockchain and Big Dat a
.
need a research paper about leadership in 10 pages with 10 reference.docxgemaherd
This 10 page research paper on leadership in organizations discusses 3 reasons why leadership is important and reviews literature on the topic without an introduction or reference page. The paper covers the background and significance of studying leadership, a literature review on leadership, the research design and methods used, preliminary conclusions, and implications.
Need a QUALITATIVE Journal, The topic is up to you as long as yo.docxgemaherd
Need a QUALITATIVE Journal, The topic is up to you as long as you choose a
peer-reviewed, academic
research piece.
Please use APA formatting and include the following information:
Introduction/Background: Provide context for the research article. What led the author(s) to write the piece? What key concepts were explored? Were there weaknesses in prior research that led the author to the current hypothesis or research question?
Methodology: Describe how the data was gathered and analyzed. What research questions or hypotheses were the researcher trying to explore? What statistical analysis was used?
Study Findings and Results: What were the major findings from the study? Were there any limitations?
Conclusions: Evaluate the article in terms of significance, research methods, readability and the implications of the results. Does the piece lead into further study? Are there different methods you would have chosen based on what you read? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the article in terms of statistical analysis and application? (This is where a large part of the rubric is covered.)
References
.
Need a one response for each discussion post in 50 to 75 words.docxgemaherd
Need a one response for each discussion post in 50 to 75 words
Discussion post 1
Payback Period: The payback period refers to the amount of time it takes to recover the cost of an investment. Simply put, the payback period is the length of time an investment reaches a break-even point. The desirability of an investment is directly related to its payback period. Shorter paybacks mean more attractive investments. The payback period is the cost of the investment divided by the annual cash flow. The shorter the payback, the more desirable the investment. Conversely, the longer the payback, the less desirable it is.
Net Present Value: Net Present Value (NPV) is the value of all future cash flows (positive and negative) over the entire life of an investment discounted to the present. NPV analysis is a form of intrinsic valuation and is used extensively across finance and accounting for determining the value of a business, investment security, capital project, new venture, cost reduction program, and anything that involves cash flow.
Internal Rate of Return: Internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate that makes the net present value of all cash flows (both positive and negative) equal to zero for a specific project or investment.
IRR: What Is It Used For?
The internal rate of return is used to evaluate projects or investments. The IRR estimates a project’s breakeven discount rate or rate of return, which indicates the project’s potential for profitability.
Based on IRR, a company will decide to either accept or reject a project. If the IRR of a new project exceeds a company’s required rate of return, that project will most likely be accepted. If IRR falls below the required rate of return, the project should be rejected.
IRR Formula?
You can use the following formula to calculate IRR:
0 (NPV) = P0 + P1/(1+IRR) + P2/(1+IRR)2 + P3/(1+IRR)3 + . . . +Pn/(1+IRR)n
Profitability Index Definition: Profitability index method measures the present value of benefits for every dollar investment. In other words, it involves the ratio that is created by comparing the ratio of the present value of future cash flows from a project to the initial investment in the project. The Profitability Index Method is often times compared similarly to the Net Present Value Method for their close proximity. One should use caution when utilizing both the NPV and profitability index methods in tandem. Often times, it has been found that both methods can rank projects in a different way. One project could possibly be ranked number 1 for one of the methods while it ranks dead last in the other. Use digression when using both in tandem.
There is relationship between profitability index and net present value method. If profitability index >1, the NPV is positive. If profitability index <1, NPV is negative. The profitability index is a relative measure of an investment’s value while NPV is an absolute measure.
Discussion Post 2
The payback period depicts the dur.
Need 20 -25 pages Identify the key problems and issues in .docxgemaherd
Need 20 -25 pages
Identify the key problems and issues in the case study.
Problems :
1. McD placed itself in the middle with overall-cost leadership and broad differentiation to please everyone. They lost focus on existing business.
2. Bussiness/Marketing strategy unable to provide well-perceived customer experience, did not engage customer’s expectationa and feedback
.
Need a research paper with ANY ONE of the below topicsT.docxgemaherd
Need a research paper with
ANY ONE
of the below topics:
The Research Report, select one of the following research areas:
i) Cyber Security and INTRANET Cloud Computing
ii) Cyber Security and EXTRANET Cloud Computing
iii) Cyber Security and Machine Learning
iv) Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence
v) Cyber Security and Internet of Things (IoT)
vi) Cyber Security and Robotics
vii) Cyber Security and Medical Technology
Please see the attached document on the instructions that have to be followed for this research paper.
.
Necesito un essay en espanolTema Explique algunas de las inst.docxgemaherd
Necesito un essay en espanol
Tema: Explique algunas de las instituciones sociales de mayor importancia y sus funciones para el desarrollo del individúo y la comunidad.
Instrucciones: Minimo de una pagina, con Introduccion, desarrollo y concluciones. Estilo APA, Lo necesito para el jueves 09/24/2020 a las 6:00 pm.
.
Need 400 wordsBy October of 2017, Yahoo estimated that 3 billion.docxgemaherd
Need 400 words
By October of 2017, Yahoo estimated that 3 billion user accounts were compromised. Users' passwords in clear text, payment card data and bank information were not stolen. Yet, it remains one of the largest data breaches.
What that teach us as a security professional and as regular user ?
.
Need 1500 words Dissertationresearch method on the impact of C.docxgemaherd
Need 1500 words Dissertation/research method on the impact of Cryptocurrencies in the UAE. The format will be:
1)
Background
2)
Research Question, Aim and Objectives
3)
Potential impact of the dissertation
4)
Theoretical Context
5)
References
I have uploaded sample past papers, so please check them to understand the format of the essay. I have also uploaded some dissertation on cryptocurrencies in the Uae to help you out.
.
Need 250 words Initial Post and two replies of 100 words each. Will .docxgemaherd
Need 250 words Initial Post and two replies of 100 words each. Will post the replies later when they become available.
The Importance of Infrastructure
Based on your readings this week, in 200 to 300 words, describe two difficulties that an international logistician could experience in moving goods from a country with a developed infrastructure (transportation, communication, and utilities) to a country with a deficient infrastructure. Be sure to respond to at least two of your classmates’ posts.
.
Nazi GermanyBrenda Thomas LaShuntae JacksonThe R.docxgemaherd
Nazi Germany
Brenda Thomas
LaShuntae Jackson
The Rise of Nazi Germany
Hitler’s Expanding Axis
The United States’ Intervention
The Collapse of Nazi Germany
Key Points
The Rise of Nazi Germany
Hitler (Chancellor) January 30, 1933
Created A Secret Police Force
No Election
No Labor Unions
No Strikes
Cont. Hitler’ Expanding Axis
1. The Battle of Great Britain
German bombers attack Great Britain: The Blitz
b.In July and August 1940, the German Air Force launched day and night bombing raids against military targets across Southeast England. The air raids killed some 43,000 civilians, wounded thousands more, and left 2 million homeless.
Hitler’s Expanding Axis
Cont. Hitler’s Expanding Axis
2. Invades The Soviet Union
a. In April 1941 invading Nazi armies overwhelmed Yugoslavia and Greece. With Hungary Romania and Bulgaria under Nazi control, Hitler ruled nearly all of Europe.
b. On July 22, 1941 without warning massive German armies invaded their supposed alley, the Soviet Union, in “Operation Barbarossa.” Hitler's decision to attack the Soviet Union was the defining moment of the European war, for the German eventually would be worn down and thrown back by the Soviets.
Cont. Hitler’ Expanding Axis
3. The Attack on Pearl Harbor
American battleships were sunk disabled along with eleven other ships, japanese bombers also destroyed 180 American warplanes.
The raid which lasted less than two hours, killed more than 2,400 American servicemen and civilians and wounded nearly 1,200 more.The surprise Japanese attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 which prompted the immediate American entry into the war.
The United States’ Intervention
1. The Manhattan Project
Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer led the team of almost 200,000 people which consisted of distinguished scientists scattered among several secret facilities across the country to develop an atomic bomb before the German did.
This was a top secret effort set up by the President June 1940 called the National Defense Research Committee to coordinate military research.
Cont. The United States’ Intervention
2. The Lend Lease Bill
Introduced in Congress on January 10,1941.
Allowed the President to lend or lease military equipment to any country whose defense of the United States.
Cont. The United States’ Intervention
3. The Tripartite Pact
September 27, 1940 the Tokyo government signed a pact with Germany and Italy.
Each pledged to declare war on any nation that attacked any of them.
Cont. The United States’ Intervention
4. The Atlantic Charter 1941
Joint statement crafted by Franklin D. Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill listed the war goals of the allied powers.
The Collapse of Nazi Germany
Soviet troops enter Berlin.
Germany surrenders.
Hitler married his mistress, she poisoned herself, and he killed himself two days later.
May 2, Berlin fell. Five days later, on May 7 the ch.
Need a paper with atleast 1000 - 1200 words.you can find the del.docxgemaherd
Need a paper with atleast 1000 - 1200 words.
you can find the deliverables in the "Final Research Assignment Doc".
References in the "References Doc".
And attached an additional DOC for the "challenges of IoT security".
Note: I need this paper by Friday(10/09/2020) Evening before 9pm EST.
.
Necesito un Essay en español, alguien puede ayudarmeTema ¿Cuál.docxgemaherd
El documento solicita ayuda para escribir un ensayo en español de al menos una página sobre los temas que se pueden analizar dentro de la sociología en relación con la preferencia sexual, siguiendo el formato APA y necesitado para el miércoles.
Nature GeNetics VOLUME 46 NUMBER 10 OCTOBER 2014 1 0 8 9.docxgemaherd
Nature GeNetics VOLUME 46 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2014 1 0 8 9
A suite of forces and factors, including mutation, recombination,
selection, population history and gene duplication influence patterns
of intraspecific genetic variation. Distinguishing which factors have
shaped sequence variation across a genome requires extensive whole-
genome sequencing of multiple individuals, which has only recently
become tractable1. Most large-scale whole-genome resequencing
studies have focused on model and domesticated species1–5. However,
extensive sequencing of natural populations holds great promise for
advancing understanding of evolutionary biology, including identify-
ing functional variation and the molecular bases of adaptation. Recent
work in a number of species has identified genomic regions that show
signatures of positive selection, suggesting that such regions contain
loci that control adaptive traits4,6–8. Relatively few studies, however,
have combined genome-wide scans with phenotypic data to determine
whether computationally identified selected regions influence adap-
tive phenotypic variation5,9–13. Genome-wide studies of large natural
populations combined with phenotypic measurements are necessary
to determine which factors shape patterns of genetic variation within
species and, therefore, enhance understanding of adaptation.
With large geographic ranges spanning wide environmental gradi-
ents and a long history of research showing local adaptation14, forest
trees are ideal for examining the processes shaping genetic variation
in natural populations. Forest trees cover approximately 30% of ter-
restrial land area15, provide direct feedback to global climate15 and
are often foundation species that organize entire biotic communities
and biogeochemical systems16,17. Clearly, biotic and abiotic interac-
tions have influenced population sizes and distributions of forest
trees, leaving diagnostic signatures in the genomes of present-day
populations14,18,19. A deeper understanding of the evolutionary and
ecological forces that shaped these patterns will offer insights and
options for ecosystem management, applied tree improvement and
accelerated domestication efforts20.
Black cottonwood, Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray, is a dominant
riparian tree that has become a model for the advancement of genome-
level insights in forest trees21. The sequencing of 16 P. trichocarpa
genomes revealed widespread patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD)
and population structure22 and extensive genecological studies have
revealed a high degree of adaptive phenotypic variation in growth,
vegetative phenology and physiological traits such as water-use effi-
ciency and photosynthesis23–25, suggesting that local adaptation is
prevalent. To date, candidate gene–association analyses have revealed
loci with significant effects on phenotypic traits26,27. However, thus
far there have been no publications describing whole-genome asso-
.
Nature VS NurtureResearch writing 310Joi Tucker.docxgemaherd
Nature VS Nurture
Research writing 310
Joi Tucker
Wilmington University
Nature VS Nurture
Abstract
Nature vs Nurture is one of the oldest arguments known to the Psychology genre. For those who do not know; simply put, the underlying question is, can behaviors be inherited? Initially, upon answering the question without any regard to the actual research and experiments done in this field a conclusion was drawn that Nature outweighs Nurture and that the behaviors of men are innate in that they are inherited genes that have influence over our behaviors. Upon further investigation and deeper insight, it is of my belief that the behaviors of men are based not solely on the behavior of their parents and their genetic makeup but also, by socioeconomic, traditional, educational, religious, and many other external factors. This paper will demonstrate the multiple schools of thought and their perspective on behaviorism, specifically when it comes to the argument of Nature vs Nurture. These perspectives will be used in order to justify the position that was previously stated, that the behaviors of men are influenced not only by their biology but also by their upbringing and multiple external factors.
Nature versus Nurture is one of the oldest debates within Psychology. It is concerned with the extent to which aspects of behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e., learned) characteristics. Previous to delving into this topic I took the stance that Nature outweighed Nurture and that human behaviors were innate in that they were solely influenced by one’s genetic makeup. After vigorous research on the topic an attempt to take the stance that aspects of behavior are a product of inherited characteristics. Most people no matter what their upbringing and socioeconomical positions are prone to specific types of behaviors due to their genetic makeup. Within this argumentative essay, the attempt to write about Nature vs Nurture taking the perspective that human behaviors are derived from a combination of the two. The plan is to investigate multiple schools of thought in regards to the topic in order to prove the theory which was previously stated; human behaviors are a product of both genetic and environmental influences.
Within the world of biology, it is widely known that physical characteristics as well as one’s vulnerability to certain illnesses are because of one’s genetic makeup. It is of no surprise that one may share the color their mother’s eyes while inheriting their father’s diabetes. If you are a male, you may be prone to balding in your early 30’s just as your father did and women whose mother suffered from Breast Cancer have a higher likelihood of acquiring the same illness. Understanding how genetics works and now knowing how its functioning contributes to physical attributes as well as biological ailments, the question of whethe.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Music and the New CosmopolitanismProblems and Possibilities.docx
1. Music and the New Cosmopolitanism:
Problems and Possibilities
Sarah Collins and Dana Gooley
“German composer.” “Russian composer.” “French composer.”
“American
composer of Italian birth.” “Austrian composer, son of Leopold
Mozart.”
These are the first sentences of the articles on Beethoven,
Tchaikovsky,
Josquin Des Prez, Menotti, and W. A. Mozart from the New
Grove
Dictionary, the central resource of music history research.
Though the
sentences sound neutral and descriptive, they represent a
particular way of
thinking about the identities of musicians, one we often take for
granted:
that the nation to which a musician belongs is a “primary” fact,
on par
with birth and death dates. Nations are part of the mental maps
that ori-
ent us and help determine where a composer is “coming from”
or where a
composer stands in the scheme of music history. Even before
Mozart is the
son of Leopold, Grove tells us, he is the offspring of Austria.
National tags
emplace musicians not only territorially, but also culturally. To
call a mu-
sician “French” is not just to mark a place of birth but also to
2. imply his or
her imbrication with the communal, institutional, and aesthetic
affiliations
of the French nation. For reasons both pragmatic and
ideological, the
communities of scholarship that shape, interrogate, and revise
music–his-
torical narratives have found national frameworks difficult to
avoid or
resist.
But national frames, however enabling for certain purposes, can
also
be limiting, since the nation is only one among many possible
entities or
communities to which music can establish a sense of belonging.
Musicians
have often learned their art, acquired status, and reached
audiences
through displacements and dislocations that take them beyond
national
boundaries. An exceptionally strong talent or a hunger for
education
might motivate them to undertake an international tour or seek
out a par-
ticular music teacher in a faraway place. “In every time and
place for
which a history can be written,” writes Celia Applegate, “one
could
probably—in cases definitely—find musicians on the move.”1
Sometimes
these displacements are simply a matter of opportunity. In the
fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, patronage and diplomacy brought Franco-
Flemish
3. doi:10.1093/musqtl/gdx006 99:139–165
The Musical Quarterly
VC The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All
rights reserved. For Permissions,
please e-mail: [email protected]
Deleted Text: -
polyphonists to Italy. In the mid-eighteenth century, Italian
troupes traveled
to Paris and had a major impact on the city’s theatrical and
intellectual life.
In the first half of the nineteenth century Russia attracted
composers and
virtuosos from England, France, Germany, and Italy, many of
whom received
patronage allowing them to stay there long-term.
Beyond these territorial movements, music can also displace
musi-
cians stylistically and aesthetically. Aaron Copland arrived at
his distinc-
tively “American” voice in part by traveling to Paris and
absorbing the
currents of European modernism. And without traveling very far
at all,
J. S. Bach studied Italian and French scores to expand his
stylistic re-
sources and develop a hybridized aesthetic perspective quite
unlike that of
the typical German kapellmeister of his time. Thus can the
movement of
notated scores—and in later periods, of recordings—serve as an
4. agent of
displacement, resituating a musician in a “place” that cannot be
reduced
to a geographical origin or local network. And when scores or
recordings
are the mediators, this can occur regardless of whether the
musician
travels or engages in face-to-face encounters with unfamiliar
styles.
Musicians always come from definite, concrete places, but their
aesthetic
outlook often emerges from a place less easy to territorialize or
localize.
How can we orient ourselves toward the non-national and non-
localizable dimensions of music history and practice? What
vocabularies
and concepts can we engage to free us from the long, deep
influence of
nation-centered thinking? Do the displacing processes described
above
qualify as “European,” “international,” “transnational,”
“global,” “cosmo-
politan”? Do they constitute a situation of “cultural transfer”?2
All of these
concepts have been summoned and developed to address
particular kinds
of questions. But in recent years the term “cosmopolitan” has
been
embraced in a more enthusiastic and progressive spirit. There is
now a
burgeoning stream of scholarship that explicitly aims at
undermining
nation-oriented categories by focusing on transnational
exchanges,
border-crossing encounters, and expressions of the so-called
5. cosmopolitan
in music culture.3 These studies have had the welcome effect of
exposing
the exclusivist logic of nationalism, revealing the multiple
layers of affilia-
tion that play into music’s creation and consumption, and
theorizing musi-
cal expressions in terms of their manner of negotiating local,
regional,
national, and global axes of relation. They tend to align
cosmopolitanism
with recent intellectual trends, including a shift away from the
bounded
categories of identity politics toward an analysis of multiply
affiliated or
intersectional identity, a renewed interest in exilic and diasporic
forms of
expression, and a sharper focus on experiences of coerced
mobility, colo-
nial oppression, and migration brought about by economic
neoliberalism,
racism, and religious intolerance. With the resurgence of
nationalisms in
140 The Musical Quarterly
today’s political culture and the concomitant affirmation or
normalization
of political insularity, cosmopolitanism could not be a more
relevant and
welcome outlook.
It is precisely because cosmopolitanism is so appealing, both as
flexi-
6. ble model of belonging and as resistance to reactionary
nationalisms, that
it risks becoming overused and losing its critical potential. In
many recent
reclamations of cosmopolitanism, the concept of the nation
tends to linger
in the background, however faintly, as a negative image against
which the
cosmopolitan appears as good or desirably alternative. In
musicology, the
term is too often applied to anything that lacks national
singularity: insti-
tutions, social groups, distribution networks, genres, or stylistic
idioms,
composers, audiences, critics, cities, and journals. But what
binds together
this multiplicity of supposedly cosmopolitan things? We should
be wary of
using the term cosmopolitanism as a casual descriptor for the
multitude of
diverse encounters, affiliations, and alliances we discover. Not
all border-
crossing encounters reflect or produce cosmopolitan
sensibilities. Some
serve only to reinforce national identification, and others evince
primarily
commercial or administrative conditions that do not necessarily
carry over
into changes in ethical practices and attitudes of belonging.
As an alternative to such extremely wide applications of the
term
and to the conceptual primacy of the nation, we propose to
follow a nar-
rower interpretation of cosmopolitanism as an ethical–political
stance, de-
7. scended from the Stoics and Cynics of antiquity, reclaimed by
authors in
the Enlightenment, and carried through into modernity. Our
interpreta-
tion invests a certain virtue in belonging to, or striving to
belong to, a
“larger” world as a way of keeping local and parochial
attachments in
check. This understanding of cosmopolitanism takes it out of
the familiar
chain of synonyms such as “international” or “transnational”
and, by em-
phasizing its philosophical and attitudinal aspects, disjoins it
from the ste-
reotype of the rootless or effete cosmopolitan, which took shape
in the
late nineteenth century and effectively reduced “cosmopolitan”
to an iden-
tity marked by a lifestyle of luxury and travel. The study of
cosmopolitan-
ism in music, we suggest, can productively focus on how its
ethical–
political mandate has found its way into the behaviors,
attitudes, and
practices of composers, performers, and listeners. In this we
follow the
lead of “new cosmopolitan” criticism, which has for well over a
decade
sought to reclaim a critically productive cosmopolitanism and
trace out its
expressions in literature and other cultural forms.
Accordingly, this essay offers an overview of new cosmopolitan
dis-
course and identifies some of its intersections with recent
interventions by
8. musicologists and ethnomusicologists. Proceeding in a largely
theoretical
mode, we critique selected recent work on musical
cosmopolitanism to
Music and the New Cosmopolitanism 141
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assess the promises and potential pitfalls of this growing field.
We intend
to promote a more self-conscious use of the term and a
heightened aware-
ness of the dilemmas involved in advocating cosmopolitanism
as a desir-
able stance. The existence of such dilemmas need not invalidate
the
aspiration toward a cosmopolitan viewpoint. Indeed, a
responsible cosmo-
politan stance will only be enhanced by acknowledging and
delineating its
limitations through detailed and historically situated accounts
of its vari-
ous iterations. We further argue that addressing musical
cosmopolitanism
involves taking a longer historical view of the postures adopted
by com-
posers, performers, listeners, and critics than has been
customary in recent
studies, where it appears to belong mainly to the conditions of
the twenti-
eth and twenty-first centuries. Alongside such historical
inquiry, it also re-
quires that we examine our own practices of stance-taking as
9. very much a
part of that history.
Our ultimate goal is to suggest ways in which the concept of the
cos-
mopolitan might be focused in order to make the best of its
specificity vis-
�a-vis the transnational, the international, the global, and other
related
concepts. In particular, we propose to restore to it a focus on
philosophi-
cal, ethical, and political stance that is sometimes obscured
when it is de-
duced empirically from global flows, transnational networks,
and the like.
If we can identify a distinct field of behaviors, attitudes, and
practices in
musical life that are shaped by an ideal of belonging to a larger
world, and
find ways to elaborate on the historically contingent
circumstances that
this ideal has been invoked to critique, the term cosmopolitan
might enter
our discourse with a more distinct profile and with greater
critical poten-
tial. Questions about the possibility of a “global” history of
music, about
the problematic category of “world music,” and about the role
of interna-
tional relations in music history are occupying the attention of
musicolo-
gists more than ever. As they continue to preoccupy us, it will
become all
the more important to understand how we use the term
cosmopolitan and
how we can make it operate effectively in dialogue.
10. The New Cosmopolitanism and Musicology
Some of the confusion around cosmopolitanism arises from an
elision of-
ten made between empirically traceable cross-border phenomena
and the
stances or attitudes of cosmopolitan actors. Music historians
have mainly
used the term in the first, more descriptive sense, to mark
phenomena
that are international by virtue of membership, circulation, or
style. Here
the cosmopolitan is implicitly contrasted with the national, the
regional,
or the local. Even when used in this empirical sense, the term
often hints
at a broadened mentality or outlook, or a particular sense of
place in the
142 The Musical Quarterly
world. But crucially, this link is never spelled out, and too often
it is as-
sumed that cross-border phenomena naturally give rise to
cosmopolitan
stances. Cosmopolitanism will only be an analytically useful
concept if we
can place the focus more squarely on the outlook and its
relation to a mu-
sician’s historical circumstances. Discerning the composer’s or
listener’s
ethical stance and sense of “world-belonging” is unquestionably
a murky
11. task, and this presents methodological challenges that will be
discussed in
the final section of this essay. Nevertheless, difficulty and
ambiguity do
not justify an absence of analysis, and it is only by investigating
these kinds
of outlooks and their implications that we can extend
discussions of cos-
mopolitanism beyond the empirical, and reanimate the political
and ethi-
cal impetus implicit in the concept.
By concerning ourselves with the stances of musicians, critics,
and
listeners of the past, we have the potential to bring historical
actors into
dialogue with the thriving field of “new cosmopolitan”
criticism. In the
1990s a variety of theorists from anthropology, sociology,
political science,
literature, and other fields began revisiting the history and
philosophy of
cosmopolitanism in order to reframe discourses of difference,
identity, and
contingency that many believed had congealed into an inflexible
ortho-
doxy. New cosmopolitans voiced a sense of exhaustion with
negative cri-
tique and with the repetitive assertions of radical contingency.
While they
accepted a framework in which socially constructed difference
was taken
for granted, new cosmopolitans cautiously advocated a critical
method
that acknowledged, and made space for, the possibility of
communication
12. across differences or contingencies. Much of the impetus came
from the
robust debate initiated in an article by Martha Nussbaum, who
argued for
the propagation of a sense of world-belonging and global
awareness as a
means of sustaining foundational human aspirations toward
equality and
justice, and of averting the schism between multiculturalism and
national-
ism.
4
Nussbaum was roundly criticized for attempting to legitimize a
form
of Enlightenment universalism without adequately accounting
for its
tainted imperialist associations. Subsequent discussions
supported her
underlying mandate but attempted to reformulate a sense of
cosmopoli-
tanism that was “new” in contrast to the “old” sullied versions.
The new
cosmopolitanism gained prominence through publications such
as
Anthony K. Appiah’s essay “Cosmopolitan Patriots,” the
watershed essay
collection Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the
Nation, and a
2000 special issue of Public Culture devoted to the topic.5
Although the emerging perspectives were varied, new
cosmopolitans
tended to look favorably upon those aspects of globalization
that weakened
13. the force of constructs like the “nation,” and they affirmed new
sorts of affil-
iation and new senses of world-belonging—“thinking and
feeling beyond
Music and the New Cosmopolitanism 143
the nation” or “border thinking”6—that were emerging from the
ground of
national and ethnic differences. Many embraced
cosmopolitanism as a di-
versification of attachments that would not necessarily displace
national be-
longing, but would complement and complicate it, thus offering
a space for
subjectivities formed across and between the borders of the
modern state.
More recently, these developments have been criticized for
failing to advo-
cate a coherent political position, and have arguably diluted the
notion of
cosmopolitanism to the point of ineffectuality.7 The issues
remain conten-
tious since historically cosmopolitanism has been summoned to
support po-
sitions that can be viewed as both emancipatory and oppressive,
communal
and isolationist, tolerant of diversity yet homogenizing.
The new cosmopolitanism represents a development within the
politi-
cal philosophy of the academic Left and does not constitute a
musicological
project or historical method per se. It might therefore seem
14. almost perverse
to try engaging with the new cosmopolitans as musicologists. If
their debates
are already so contentious, how will we ever be able to relate
their concerns
to the very different fields and subfields of musicology? In
addition, the new
cosmopolitanism has a normative tendency—an antagonism
toward flat
assertions of difference—that grates against the methods of
historical and
ethnographic projects whose ostensible goal is to observe,
document, and
catalogue differences. In this circumstance, it would be
surprising if the ethi-
cal and political dimensions of cosmopolitanism were not
greeted with some
trepidation. Amanda Anderson has identified a widespread
discomfort with
cosmopolitanism in the field or literary studies and cultural
theory, and
wondered “whether the avowal of cosmopolitanism is destined
to have a
retrograde effect in the current debates”—a concern that may
also hold
true of musicology. “Why dredge up this tainted and
problematic word?”
she asks, and answers this by citing Bruce Robbins: “[We]
dredge it up so
we know our hands are already dirty anyway.”8
Are the hands of musicologists “already dirty” with the
assumptions
and postures that have made cosmopolitanism a problematic
word? Much
of the musicology of the past twenty years has arguably moved
15. in a cosmo-
political direction without describing itself as such. For
example, the vig-
orous critiques of Dahlhaus in the 1990s, and especially of his
German
biases, bore a skeptical political undercurrent that clearly
proceeded from
a cosmopolitan standpoint. Similarly, a desire to liberate the
field from re-
ified national categories has been notable in opera scholarship,
which long
thrived on the refined parsing of national-stylistic idioms.9
Michael Tusa,
for example, has argued that Weber’s Der Freischütz, once
considered a
historical crux of German national opera, is more accurately
understood
as a “cosmopolitan” opera through its conscientious blending of
the
national styles and a rejection of the supposed weaknesses of
Italian and
144 The Musical Quarterly
French styles from which it borrows. Tusa defines an early
nineteenth-
century model of cultural cosmopolitanism that helps separate
Weber’s
Der Freischütz from the Scylla of jingoistic German patriotism
and the
Charybdis of “rootless international” cosmopolitanism. The
resultant im-
age of Weber taking critical distance from the French and
Italian styles, in
16. order to correct or “improve” them, tellingly mirrors Tusa’s
own distinctly
modern position as a reviser of nation-centered musicological
interpretations.
Carolyn Abbate and Roger Parker, too, take on the entrenched
cate-
gories of national style in their A History of Opera. They argue,
for exam-
ple, that German and French varieties of comic opera of the
eighteenth
century are so interrelated as to deserve a single umbrella term,
“dialogue
opera”:
However useful it may sometimes be to draw distinctions
between the
three traditions [Italian, French, German], we need to bear in
mind that
such separations made themselves felt in different domains at
different
times, and that the aesthetic precepts and musical devices that
flowed
between the three dominant operatic traditions could often erase
their
differences.
10
The authors do not deny that these national-stylistic differences
exist, but
reassert the non-exclusivity of operatic languages in terms of
17. their circula-
tion and combination, a characteristic so pervasive as to
potentially “erase
their differences.”
11
The mildly corrective tone—“we need to bear in
mind that . . .”—is a trace of the disciplinary inertia against
which Abbate
and Parker are working, and this tone becomes stronger in their
later iter-
ation of the same idea: “There has never been much point to
trying to
close off one operatic tradition from the alternative languages
that feed it
and are fed from it.” In past historiography, of course, there was
very
much a point in emphasizing such differences. Thus Abbate and
Parker,
without adopting an overtly polemical tone, reveal a gently
normative,
cosmopolitical hand.
In spite of these pivots toward a cosmopolitan perspective, there
is
evidently a reluctance of scholars to self-identify as
“cosmopolitan.” The
problem is not merely that such self-identification would
compromise a
desired impression of neutrality, but that the term cosmopolitan
remains
tainted by nineteenth-century anti-cosmopolitanism, which
criticized cos-
mopolitans as rootless, and by historical associations with elite
classes and
18. imperialistic ideologies. Self-identifying as cosmopolitan brings
us face to
face with what Amanda Anderson calls the “awkward elitism”
of cosmo-
politanism, which lies in the contrast between the
cosmopolitan’s
Music and the New Cosmopolitanism 145
Deleted Text: crticized
privileged social status and the democratic or humanitarian
claims he or
she often advances. The awkwardness cannot be driven away by
proposing
alternative cosmopolitanisms, such as “vernacular” or “rooted”
ones, that
are understood to emerge spontaneously out of the experiences
of non-
elites, or to otherwise operate from non-European frames of
reference. For
in practice the identification and interpretation of such
cosmopolitanisms
has been mainly the work of an intellectual class of scholars and
critics.
Cosmopolitanism, in other words, may be inescapably elite in
some re-
spects, and it might be more productive to acknowledge this
than to skirt
around it rhetorically. The awkwardness of our position obliges
us not to
dismiss cosmopolitanism out of hand, but to track the specific
ends toward
which it is mobilized. This point has been made by a number of
“new cos-
19. mopolitan” authors who wish to retrieve a positively valued
“critical cos-
mopolitanism” from among the less attractive manifestations
that history
offers.
In a searching essay ethnomusicologist Martin Stokes has tried
to
make a more explicitly affirmative case for cosmopolitanism.
Like the mu-
sicologists who criticize the limits of nation-based categories,
Stokes
expresses impatience with some of the prevailing
methodological habits of
his discipline:
I’m struck by the somewhat limited nature of explanations that
would in-
terpret the hemispheric spread of quadrilles and polkas, for
instance, purely
in terms of empire, colonization, migration, settlement and so
forth. . . .
Could music and dance move, I find myself wondering,
according to an in-
terior logic, and not, simply, the logic of social movement and
politics.
Could it be that danced or musical form gets picked up by
another society
simply because of a human fascination for the diversity of form,
particularly
20. forms that embody or index satisfying and pleasurable social
processes? . . .
Don’t these kinds of thing also draw us to “other” music and
dance, more
often, perhaps, than the pursuit of distinction . . . or of
identity?12
Here Stokes takes ethnomusicology to task not only for
excluding motives
and agencies such as “pleasure and play” or “human
fascination,” but also
for its tendency to read music’s sociality in terms of
“distinction” and par-
ticularized identities. The global flows that brought European
dances to
the New World, he argues, cannot be fully understood in
showing how so-
cial groups produce differential articulations. They demand a
complemen-
tary account explaining how adaptation and dialogic exchange
with
exogenous musics can take place at all. This provocative
reclamation of a
“human” commonality that subtends cultural difference—bodily
in the case
of dance and inventive in the case of musical “diversity of
form”—does not
appear to be a return to universalism but rather a challenge to
146 The Musical Quarterly
methodological habits that may cause us to overrate the non-
transparency
21. of different cultures to one another. Stokes fully acknowledges
that musi-
cians and dancers are made by and constrained by the worlds
they inhabit,
but he takes the optimistic stance that in encounters with
cultural otherness
“musical cosmopolitans create musical worlds” that are “the
product of cer-
tain kinds of intentionality and agency.”13
Stokes’s suggestion that cosmopolitanism can offer alternative
lines
of interpretation and open new methodological pathways is
characteristic
of new cosmopolitan discourse generally. For example Jillian
Heydt-
Stevenson and Jeffrey N. Cox, in introducing a special journal
issue on
“Romantic Cosmopolitanism,” conceived the project as “an
exploration of
the ways in which cosmopolitanism offered cultural, social, and
political
practices that could not be reduced to local or national or
imperial ambi-
tions.”14 Challenging the interpretation of Romanticism as
inwardly
turned, disengaged from the world, and naturally inclined
toward essen-
tialist nationalism, they reinterpret it as a movement “fully
engaged in the
world,” whether through stances following “multiple
allegiances” or
through the cultivation of a “viable vision of world citizenship,
global de-
mocracy, and transnational institutions that offered an important
alterna-
22. tive to local attachments, patriotism, and international war and
expropriation.”15 Nineteenth-century Romantic authors and
their readers,
of course, had inherited cosmopolitan ideas and stances from
eighteenth-
century French, German, and Scottish sources, revising and
adapting
them to contemporary conditions. And literature has been an
important
field for cosmopolitical imaginings ever since. For this reason
Rebecca
Walkowitz, in a study of modernist and contemporary fiction,
describes
cosmopolitanism as “a tradition of political affiliation and
philosophical
thought” that involves “thinking and feeling in nonexclusive,
nondefini-
tive ways.”16 This “tradition” is not a linear, systematic
descent of ideas
from Enlightenment writers. It is spread more diffusely through
practices
of affiliation and political stance-taking that are keyed to
specific histori-
cal configurations. In the case of contemporary fiction, such
affiliations
and stances are not even practiced so much as imagined at the
level of
narratives and relationships. They are authorially constructed
even when
the material is derived from contemporary realities.
Studies of literary cosmopolitanism, then, zoom in at the level
of the
imaginary and the aspirational. They thrive on a recognizably
Western
and elite notion of authorship in which the author is a kind of
23. intellectual—thinking about, reflecting upon, and prospectively
reimagin-
ing the world through the medium of fiction, and from within a
certain
kind of tradition. This focus on authorial consciousness—which
does not
necessarily produce a fully apperceptive or sovereign
consciousness—puts
Music and the New Cosmopolitanism 147
Stokes’s approach into perspective. The New World musicians
he de-
scribes more closely resemble the “vernacular” or “discrepant”
cosmopoli-
tans proposed by postcolonial theory, who think and act
according to
non-European, “ground-up” epistemologies. For example, the
musicians
who, in his account, engaged with the European quadrille come
across as
brilliant appropriators, who absorb the exogenous, imported
genre into
already existing musical and dance practices. For Stokes, the
very fact
that such appropriation occurs seems to be sufficient to call it
“cosmopoli-
tan,” and there is no need to explain how the musical invention
intersects
with the musicians’ sense of world-belonging. In our view,
however, such
syncretic or hybridizing practices only become specifically
cosmopolitan
when they are related to an altered stance. The author-centered
24. approach
currently taken by literary studies is preferable not because we
wish to
shore up a dated or individualistic concept of authorship, but
because it
gives access to the conscious and reflective element that
distinguishes
cosmopolitanism from other kinds of global relationality and
from
empirically accessible processes of stylistic hybridization.
The focus on stance that we propose here also departs from the
idea
of “actually existing cosmopolitanism.” This phrase was coined
to advo-
cate for a concrete, “real” cosmopolitanism that would look like
a healthy,
materialist alternative to the abstract philosophical
cosmopolitanism of
Enlightenment philosophers such as Kant. The phrase might be
particu-
larly appealing to historians invested in the authority of
empirically
grounded research. But a conceptual opposition between
abstract, unlived
ideas, on the one hand, and material conditions and life
practices on the
other, cannot be sustained. It should go without saying that
Kant’s cosmo-
politanism, though expressed in the discourse of philosophical
reason, was
informed by “actually existing” conditions; it was a response to
an interna-
tional political order that was coming into being in the later
eighteenth
century, where it seemed increasingly urgent to contain large-
25. scale vio-
lence.17 Unfamiliarity with those historical conditions should
not lead to
the …
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Home > Reconsidering Theory and Practice in
Ethnomusicology: Applying, Advocating, and Engaging Beyond
Academia
Reconsidering Theory and Practice in Ethnomusicology:
Applying, Advocating, and Engaging Beyond Academia
Dr. Rebecca Dirksen
The branch of ethnomusicology commonly referred to as
“applied ethnomusicology” has
received comparatively little attention within the university
setting. The relative lack of
academic debate surrounding research and representation
activities labeled “applied” does
26. not, however, denote a paucity of such activity. Nor does it
reflect an absence of interest in
the subject. The dearth of discussion does reveal, however,
long-held tensions between
“pure” and “practical” scholarship and ingrained prejudices
against matters perceived as
atheoretical. These tensions and prejudices have decreased
significantly in recent years but
nevertheless remain present across the discipline. Arguably
more relevant today, the
positioning of applied ethnomusicology off to the side of more
dominant discourses hints at
some of the typical job parameters and work-related stresses
faced by “applied”
ethnomusicologists, which have tended to limit publications;
this, in turn, has limited broader
considerations of the subject.
In reality, applied research is central to the field and increasing
in importance. Whether or not
it is widely discussed, most ethnomusicologists have applied
their theoretical training in some
way during their careers, if not consistently, then at least on a
periodic basis. Moreover,
applied ethnomusicology is not a new phenomenon, as has
27. sometimes been assumed. In fact,
academic conversation on the subject hails at least as far back
as 1944, when Charles Seeger
issued a call for the development of an “applied musicology”—
although many researchers
were engaging in applied activities long before then. Today,
applied ethnomusicology stands in
firm response to “does it even matter?” and “what does it mean
for the ‘real world’?” in an
era when intellectual occupations are frequently dismissed as
irrelevant and elitist, and the
arts and humanities are too often written off as fluff or luxury.
In responding to a contemporary world, we also have some
tough questions to ask of
ourselves. Among them: across the discipline, are we
appropriately preparing new generations
of ethnomusicologists, given where the academic and non-
academic job market now stands
and where it may be in the future? Although some excellent
courses do of course exist, formal
study of applied ethnomusicology needs to make its way more
prominently into current
graduate curriculums as part of this preparation for new
professional realities. As a group of
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specialists, do we adequately get out into the community and
connect with people about our
work other than with those around whom we have done our
research? Most likely, we need to
talk and write a lot more about our applied and practical
activities, in ways accessible to lay
readership. And we need to demonstrate that the perceived gap
between pure and applied
research is really narrower than what it might seem.
The purpose of this essay is to provide background for these
discussions. Accordingly, I seek
to provide historical context and an overview of the state of
applied ethnomusicology today,
largely as it has evolved and exists as practice within the United
States.1 Although not an
exhaustive review of work conducted in this vein, this article is
29. meant to offer readers a
starting point for locating resources. Toward this goal, I will:
(1) review terminology and
definitions, (2) trace the evolution of applied ethnomusicology,
(3) lay out explanations for the
marginalization of applied research and practice, (4)
demonstrate the broadening domains of
applied work, and finally, (5) advocate for expanding the scope
of theoretical dialogue, which
should incorporate evolving understandings of ethics in research
and practice.
Wrestling with Terminology and Definitions
Just as the term “ethnomusicology” has been rigorously debated
since its implementation in
the 1950s, practitioners have struggled with naming the branch
of ethnomusicology here in
question. The Society for Ethnomusicology and the
International Council for Traditional Music,
which both support study groups devoted to the subfield, favor
“applied ethnomusicology.”
Many scholars, taking their cue from public folklore, prefer
“public” or “public-sector
ethnomusicology” (including Nicholas Spitzer and Robert
Garfias). Others find “activist”
30. (Ursula Hemetek), “advocacy” (Angela Impey, Jonathan
Kertzer), or even “active” (Bess
Lomax Hawes) to be more apt descriptors for their work. More
recently, Gage Averill has
invoked the term “engaged” to describe ethnomusicology
performed by ethnomusicologists
who act as public intellectuals, inspired by the Paris 1968
uprising but likely also influenced by
his long-term involvement with the mizik angaje (engaged
music) scene in Haiti (Averill 2010,
2007, 2003).2
Each of these descriptors has its limitations. While the term
“applied” is meant to point out
practical applications of the scholarship, some critics feel that
the word exudes academic
colonialism, whereby the elite scholar risks imposing—
applying—his or her erudite knowledge
on the supposedly unsuspecting and less knowledgeable culture
bearer (Block 2007:88). Also
problematic, claiming the adjective “applied” for work done
outside of the university implies
that academic work is somehow not applied work.3 By
comparison, the word “public” is
intended to reach out into broader society, beyond the
31. comparatively closed spaces of
academic institutions. Yet one might complain that “public”
harbors too great an association
with governmental agencies and thus automatically overlooks
activities initiated by private
individuals or groups, including non-governmental
organizations or private corporations.
“Advocacy” or “activist ethnomusicology,” often taken to
indicate a certain type of energy
directed toward socio-political concerns, could ascribe
motivations to the researcher that are
too political in nature for the work actually being conducted.
Furthermore, some scholars may
favor “engaged ethnomusicology” for its ability to reflect the
researcher’s desire for a deep
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and sustained engagement with the community. But the
terminology breaks down much like
the word “applied” does: it is incorrect to claim that
ethnomusicologists working within
academia are not in fact engaged with the groups and
individuals who participate in their
research.
This partial presentation of ongoing debates demonstrates that
the process of refining
fundamental terminology is far from complete. For the sake of
consistency, I adhere to SEM
and ICTM conventions in using “applied ethnomusicology”
throughout the remainder of this
essay. However, I—as a Haitianist—am inclined toward
“engaged ethnomusicology” for the
additional depth of meaning lent the term by linguistically
linking it to mizik angaje (see
footnote 1) and for the ease of translation between English and
French or Haitian Kreyòl.
Beyond the challenges of committing to vocabulary, defining
applied ethnomusicology is
equally difficult. This is due in part to recent interest in uniting,
under a single identifying label,
33. many strands of professional activity that have traditionally
fallen outside the boundaries of
mainstream ethnomusicological scholarship. Additional layers
of complexity stem from growth
within the field, as the scope of research broadens and domains
of application widen. In the
absence of any formative manual, one might turn again to the
scholarly societies for guidance
in understanding what applied ethnomusicologists do.4 For the
ICTM study group, applied
ethnomusicology is “the approach guided by principles of social
responsibility, which extends
the usual academic goal of broadening and deepening
knowledge and understanding toward
solving concrete problems and toward working both inside and
beyond typical academic
contexts.”5 The SEM Applied Ethnomusicology Section
maintains a similar proclivity toward
social responsibility, evident in online comments by section
members who consistently express
their desire to use their skills and knowledge in advocating for
and empowering the
communities in which they work. The section’s mission
statement explains that the group
34. “joins scholarship with practical pursuits by providing a forum
for discussion and exchange of
theory, issues, methods and projects among practitioners and
serving as the ‘public face’ of
ethnomusicology in the larger community.”6 Public
articulations of these definitions have
grown closer in recent years, likely because many of the same
individuals participate in both
groups.
Individual scholars speak along the same lines. Amy Catlin-
Jairazbhoy, in addressing SEM
section members through the Applied Ethnomusicology listserv,
referred to a “sense of
purpose” that permeates applied work and notes a common
aspiration “to engender change”
through participation and collaboration with practitioners and
performers. In reply, Ric Alviso
suggested that the applied scholar’s sense of purpose coincides
with the moral imperative to
“benefit humanity,” or else risk, through non-interested
research, perpetuating the status quo
of unequal power relations between the researcher and the
researched (Catlin-Jairazbhoy and
Alviso 2001:1). Nick Spitzer has indirectly echoed the need for
35. balancing power and
encouraging researcher-researchee collaboration whenever he
has explained that
ethnomusicologists should cultivate a sense of “cultural
conversation” in the place of “cultural
conservation” (2003; 1992:99).7 At the same time, though,
some folklorists see “social
intervention” as a powerful tool by which to (1) promote
learning, problem solving, and cultural
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conversation, (2) improve the quality of life, and (3) build
identity and community (Jones 1994)
—a view that readily translates to the practice of applied
ethnomusicology.8 In sum, this work
36. involves the collection of knowledge and the re-circulation of
that knowledge back into the
community studied, often in a way that seeks to advance
community-defined goals. Hence,
applied ethnomusicology may effectively be understood as
“both a discipline and an ethical
point of view” (McCarl 1992:121), which results in “knowledge
as well as action” (Titon
1992:315).
The proposed definitions are broadly stated and arguably
vague—perhaps necessarily so.
While precise parameters of the field remain elusive, this
looseness enables the flexibility to
remain inclusive of a broad array of activities and work
patterns.
Historical Context
Several scholars have cautioned against presuming that applied
ethnomusicology is a new
trend without historical precedence (Seeger 2006; Averill 2003;
Sheehy 1992). In fact, its
diverse modern iterations have arisen over the course of a
century out of an inextricable
combination of important individual contributions and larger
37. social processes, many of which
are outlined below.
The traceable record of applied music research actually predates
the academic discipline of
ethnomusicology, dating back at least as far as the
conservationist charge to collect
disappearing cultural material on the Native American Indian
reservations in the late 1800s and
early 1900s. As Native Americans were being acculturated into
(or forced to comply with) the
modern American mainstream, Frances Densmore observed that
the recordings she made of
music belonging to the Chippewa, Sioux, Winnebago, and other
tribes would ultimately be
important to the communities from which they were taken.
Densmore told those whom she
recorded, “I want to keep these things for you . . . [because] you
have much to learn about the
new way of life and you are too busy to use these things now. . .
. The sound of your voices
singing these songs will be kept in Washington in a building
that cannot burn
down.”9 Although her voice reflects now-uncomfortable
paternalistic and evolutionist attitudes
38. of the era, Densmore deposited the recordings into the archives
of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, making consultation of these heritage documents by
later generations of tribal
members possible.
In testament to the value of similarly archived recordings,
Passamaquoddy community scholars
Wayne Newell and Blanch Sockabasin have confirmed the
importance of Jesse Walter Fewkes’
1890 wax cylinder recordings for strengthening Passamaquoddy
community identity and
reviewing tribal history.10 Even though the circumstances under
which these cultural materials
were gathered would generally not meet contemporary research
standards, these cases
provide two early examples of applied ethnomusicology.
Other pioneering efforts of applied music research that helped
shape contemporary
philosophies and practices came from the Lomax family. Of
these, perhaps the earliest
significant contribution was John Lomax’s early collection of
cowboy songs and poems, which
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attributed then-unprecedented value to creative expressions of
previously dismissed “common
folk” (1919). This publication opened the doors to future
studies valuing “ordinary” creative
expressions. A second significant contribution followed during
the 1930s, as Alan Lomax joined
his father in recording songs from the rural South. Out of their
research trips came a well-
known act of advocacy through scholarly interest that became
part of the Lomax legacy: the
father-son team has been widely (and perhaps misleadingly)
credited with petitioning for the
release of blues musician Huddie Ledbetter (“Lead Belly”) from
a Louisiana penitentiary using
a recording of the prisoner singing.11 In late 1934, a few
40. months after the parole, the senior
Lomax asked Lead Belly to collaborate on a lecture-
demonstration of folk songs presented
before the Modern Language Association, helping to secure the
artist’s place as an iconic
figure of the black folk and blues tradition.
The Lomax family contributions to the field continue. From at
least the 1950s, Alan Lomax
touted the ideals of cultural pluralism from the vantage point of
a “stander-in-between” who
could moderate between powerful “cultural instruments” and the
ordinary people (Sheehy
1992:329). The junior Lomax’s best-known work—Folk Song
Style and Culture (1968), the
cantometrics study (1976), the Global Jukebox project (largely
unrealized during his lifetime)12
—underscored a fervent belief in the value of using musical
systems to compare and
understand social structures of the societies from which music
had sprung.13 Alan Lomax’s
younger sister Bess Lomax Hawes was likewise involved in
leading others to learn about and
honor cultural heritage. As deputy director for the Smithsonian
Institute’s 1976 Bicentennial
41. Festival of Traditional Folk Arts and later as the first director
of the Folk and Traditional Arts
Program at the National Endowment for the Arts, Hawes was
instrumental in advancing
national recognition and federal support for the folk arts.
The promotion and protection of culture and tradition were also
propelled under the New
Deal’s Works Progress Administration, when the preservation of
“living lore” was strongly
pursued. Benjamin Botkin (the national folklore editor of the
WPA’s Federal Writers’ Project
and later the head of the Archive of American Folksong at the
Library of Congress) and
Charles Seeger (who was involved with multiple federal
government programs including the
WPA’s Federal Music Project) were both directors of folklore
and folk song documentation
projects. Botkin oversaw the collection of life histories from
diverse segments of the American
population, hoping to foster understanding and tolerance for
diversity.14 Toward this aim, he
published dense anthologies such as The Treasure of American
Folklore to make folklore
accessible to consumers (Jones 1994:10). Seeger was hired by
42. the Resettlement Administration
specifically to use music as a resource to bring communities
together “around the project of
economic and social self-help” (Cantwell 1992:269).
Of possibly greater significance, though, were contributions that
Botkin and C. Seeger made
to the philosophical underpinning of applied work. Botkin was a
critic of the “pure folklorist”
as an Ivory Tower academic too often neglectful of on-the-
ground culture, history, literature,
and people but excessively occupied with maintaining the
boundaries of folklore as a pure and
independent discipline (Jones 1994:12).15 Botkin’s broad
positioning of folkloric studies within
society-at-large was mirrored by Seeger, who believed that
individuals engaged in
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government or public work had the responsibility to encourage
“music as a community or
social service” (C. Seeger 1944:12). This sense of social service
was borne out in Seeger’s
suggestion for the development of a field of “applied
musicology” that should be principally
concerned with “integrat[ing] music knowledge and music
practice, especially in the planning
and technical coordination of large-scale, long-term programs
of development” (18). His
position was remarkably prescient to contemporary
understandings of applied
ethnomusicology.
Francis Densmore, John and Alan Lomax, Bess Lomax Hawes,
Benjamin Botkin and Charles
Seeger are among the American scholars most frequently
credited as founders of today’s
applied ethnomusicology movement. Momentum for applied
ethnomusicology has grown
44. steadily since the mid-1990s led by a handful of individuals,
among whom are Jeff Todd Titon,
Anthony Seeger, Svanibor Pettan, Daniel Sheehy, Atesh
Sonenborn, Amy Catlin-Jairazbhoy,
Nicholas Spitzer, and Martha Ellen Davis. By 2010, proponents
of the sub-discipline had grown
too numerous to list individually, although together they still
represent a small subset of
professionals in the field. Recent awareness has increased in
part due to several important
conferences held on applied work within the last ten years,
including one hosted by Brown
University in 2003 (“Invested in Community: Ethnomusicology
and Musical Advocacy”) and the
ICTM Study Group on Applied Ethnomusicology meeting in
Ljublijana, Slovenia in 2008
(“Historical and Emerging Approaches to Applied
Ethnomusicology”). Moreover, annual SEM
meetings have featured panels sponsored by the SEM Section
for Applied Ethnomusicology.
Besides being shaped by early influence from specific
individuals, the rise of applied
ethnomusicology has been driven by five additional overlapping
factors.16 The first of these
45. factors is the rise of public folklore and applied anthropology as
distinct disciplines, both of
which are closely related to applied ethnomusicology.17 Pivotal
events building up these fields
include the founding of the American Folklore Society in 1888,
the designation of folklore and
anthropology as “scientific” subjects suited for study in the
university setting, and the
promotion of “cultural conservation,” which yielded important
dialogues on heritage
protection.18 Also strengthening the applied fields was the
backlash against “armchair
scholarship” and “Ivory Tower elitist isolationism,” which
prompted calls for fieldwork
concerning “regular folks” and research relevant to real life.
Much of the early fieldwork took
place among rural, indigenous populations and was rooted in
evolutionist thinking, but it
ultimately strengthened the connection between the university
and the community. Although
folklore was initially deemed a phenomenon of rural life,
fieldwork soon expanded to embrace
urban dwellers as well, especially when leading folklorist
Richard Dorson suddenly
46. “discovered” that folklore existed in the city (Abrahams
1992:22).
Applied work received another boost from the explosion of
interest in staging festivals to
commemorate folk life. Through productions such as the
National Folk Festival, Smithsonian’s
Folklife Festival, and the Newport Folk Festival, the population
can consume and participate in
its own representation simply by attending a performance
(Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1998).
Likewise, archives have played a role in presenting the
community to itself, by permitting
community members to enjoy performances safeguarded on
audio and visual recordings.
Finally, in advancing the applied side of these disciplines, the
past thirty years have seen a
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rapid expansion of scholarly societies geared toward promoting
“useful” research, including
the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology
(NAPA), the Southern California
Applied Anthropology Network (SCAAN), and the Society for
Applied Anthropology (SAA) in
addition to the previously highlighted ICTM study group and
SEM section.
The second factor is that applied ethnomusicology, like public
folklore and applied
anthropology, has been pushed along by particular trends,
sensibilities, and needs held by the
American population during certain eras. The Great Depression
compelled anthropologists to
look for practical ways to solve problems impacting society,
which explains the implementation
of the New Deal cultural documentation projects. By contrast,
the post-World War II
environment and mid-century independence movements
encouraged the questioning of
Eurocentric and colonialist values while simultaneously
heightening concern for and interest in
48. marginalized communities. As Eurocentrism and colonialism
were being examined, public
discourse also turned to explore cultural pluralism and cultural
equity (see A. Lomax 1972).
New appreciation for culture of the masses spurred the folk
revival movement, until
McCarthyism and Cold War politics administered a heavy blow
as the FBI investigated folk
artists and supporters for alleged communist sympathies.19
Like scholars of any other discipline, applied anthropologists,
folklorists, and
ethnomusicologists have found themselves navigating discursive
challenges that change over
time: cultural relativism and salvage ethnography, for example,
are no longer deemed
intellectually sound arguments even as they were once
academically fashionable. During the
twenty years following World War II, the paradigm of fieldwork
shifted from “building a
national culture out of regional folklore to using performances
of folklore to give a public
presence to underrepresented cultural groups” (Hufford
2006:846). As Anthony Seeger has
49. explained, while the history of applied anthropology in the
United States is long, it has also
been “somewhat conflicted” as it progresses through successive
ideologies (2008:272).
Third, public agencies and private sector organizations acting
on behalf of the public have
played a significant role in developing the atmosphere and
infrastructure necessary for the
growth of these three parallel disciplines. The availability of
federal jobs for anthropologists
and folklorists (with the WPA, for example) plummeted after
World War II. However, other
public sector programs, such as the Smithsonian Institute, grew
in popularity and replaced
previous models. In addition, international, federal, state and
local funding agencies acting in
support of the arts—including the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the National Endowment for the Arts,
the National Endowment for the
Humanities, and the New York State Council on the Arts—
gained prominence.20 Legions of
non-profit private organizations working in the public domain
have sprung up as well, such as
50. the National Council for the Traditional Arts, the California
Traditional Music Society, and
CityLore. Independent folklore groups (La Troupe Makandal,
Csárdás Dance Company,
Barynya, Jean Appolon Expressions) are innumerable, as are
independent record labels
ostensibly less concerned with profits than with benefiting the
artists and society more
generally (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, Cumbancha,
Ethical Music).21 These
organizations have employed applied ethnomusicologists,
folklorists and anthropologists and
contribute to the overall climate supporting applied work.
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A fourth factor contributing to the rise in applied work is
51. simply observed: exponentially more
Ph.D.s have been awarded than there are academic positions
available. Several years ago,
Susan Wright reported that the United Kingdom graduates
roughly one hundred
anthropologists from doctoral programs per year who must
compete over one or two
academic openings—a phenomenon that has only become more
exaggerated (2006:28). In the
United States, a similarly extreme imbalance exists between
holders of humanities PhDs and
the number of university positions vacated or created in any
given year. At the most
fundamental level, graduates must seek out jobs anywhere they
are available, which includes
the public sector, the development sector, the commercial
sector, and the like. Such
employment tends not to be so-called “pure” ethnomusicology.
The fifth and most recent factor revolves around growing
preoccupations with music therapy,
cultural tourism, violence reduction initiatives, and post-
disaster recovery efforts. Although just
beginning to receive scholarly attention, these side interests are
unquestionably …
52. 16 APRIL/MAY 2020
Music is alchemy. It has the ability to profoundly change our
perceptions of and inter-actions with the world. It is a
kaleidoscope of views from a nearly infinite mosaic of
possibilities. Music can lift and transport us
to anywhere on the globe and then suddenly
drop our anchor at unexpectedly exotic locales.
Sitars place us immediately in India, gamelans
in Indonesia and didjeridoos in Australia.
Bagpipes march us to the Scottish Highlands,
while pan pipes climb the Andes. We know
these instruments have a home in the world,
but what is not readily apparent is their role
within those home cultures. That juncture of
place and role is where the discipline of ethno-
musicology lives. It focuses on that interaction
between music and culture, providing one
window into the soul of a people.
The discipline of ethnomusicology has been
defined in many ways. A recent Google search
of “What is ethnomusicology?” turned up 2.72
million results in .50 seconds.1 Some research-
ers look strictly at the music itself, its structure
and how it may be similar to or different than
Western music. Others look at how the music
is used within its culture as well as how it is
made and played. Musical cultures represent
a complex interplay between people, ideas,
religion, geography, technology, language and
more. It is an understatement to say that such
a continuum provides a very broad and active
53. range for research and performance.
Social Process
Ethnomusicologists examine music as a
social process to understand not only what
music is but what it means to its practitioners
and audiences. It is highly interdisciplinary,
with individuals often having training in
music, anthropology, folklore, performance
studies, dance, cultural studies,
gender studies, race or eth-
nic studies, and other
fields. The generosity
of the field allows for
many diverse special
interest groups, such as
cognitive ethnomusicolo-
gy (the cognitive study of
music, language, metaphor,
narrative and emotion),
ecomusicology (to support
social justice), economic
ethnomusicology, music and
violence, disability and deaf
studies, cultural revitalization
through music, and medical
ethnomusicology (health, heal-
ing and cultural practices) as
well as study of specific types
of music, such as Celtic music,
Balinese music, jazz or rap.2
What human beings always
have in common is their basic biology. All
54. humans are faced with the same problems:
How do we adapt to our environments, both
natural and social, to survive and prosper?
Defined as that set of attitudes, beliefs and
values that shape the behavior of a population,
culture provides stability and yet is fluid and
responsive to change. Culture guides us to “do
the right thing” to keep society functioning,
and it allows us to pass on that knowledge. It
changes when needed, but it also alters what
And
By Diane Baxter, NCTM
Ethnomusicology
Alchemy
Ethnomusicology
Alchemy
AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER 17
18 APRIL/MAY 2020
we are likely to perceive or attend to. Music
is one cultural vehicle through which people
share the commonality of their experiences.
Ethnomusicologist Patrick Burke writes that
“most ethnomusicologists reject the common
claim that ‘music is a universal language.’
One might as well call talking a universal
language—lots of people around the world do
55. it, but they don’t automatically understand
one another. That said, music appears to be a
universal behavior and a universal preoccupa-
tion.”3 John Blacking states that “music is both
a social fact and multi-media communication:
there are many societies that have no word for
‘music’ and do not isolate it conceptually from
dance, drama, ritual, or costume...”4
In every society music expresses the inex-
pressible, without violence (blues, rap, heavy
metal, folk, marches, drumming). It bonds
people to their society and culture. Poise, con-
fidence, a sense of place, and team play are
taught to the young, while such performances
serve as reminders to the rest. It socializes
children by instructing them how to learn and
to acquire proper behavior and attention. It
unites and rallies people during crises, sup-
ports religion, encourages mating and coordi-
nates work. And sometimes it even entertains.
“Music is a basic need of human survival.
Music is one of the ways we make sense of
our lives, one of the ways in which we express
feelings when we have no words, a way for us
to understand things with our hearts when we
can’t with our minds.”5
Around the World
In many areas of the world, it is more
important that everyone in the society par-
ticipate in the music making than it is to
note their expertise. For the Maori of New
Zealand, music and dance are found together.
Traditionally, to sing without a purpose is
56. regarded as an evil omen. If there is no reason
to sing, then you don’t sing. For this reason,
traditional recordings are difficult to obtain.
While strict rhythm and proper vocal unison
are very important to the correct perfor-
mance of Maori music, this concern is not just
aesthetic. For the traditional Maori to break
the continuity of a song is to invite death or
disaster. Accuracy is crucial because you can
bring on harm from a supernatural power. In
other societies to sing without purpose can be
considered an expression of joy or of misery
and is seen as a basic human right. In reli-
gious settings, music can be only vocal, or only
instrumental, or essential or forbidden. It can
be socially affirming, or a protest. During the
1960s civil rights movement, the act of singing
together became the movement. The act of
music speaks power.
Native American music varies widely in
terms of geography, but certain generaliza-
tions hold. Music is an oral tradition, deeply
enmeshed in society, often integrating ceremo-
nial and social events. It can have supernatural
power. Song texts are often filled with voca-
bles (nonlexical syllables), therefore it is the act
of singing that holds the power. For example,
in the traditional Blackfoot culture a medicine
man may have a bundle of objects for curing
purposes. There is no power in the medicine
bundle itself, until the act of singing enables
interaction between the medicine man and the
supernatural world. Navajo music ranges from
personal songs for pleasure to deeply sacred
57. chants that can be sung only in the appropriate
ceremonial context. Bruno Nettl aptly points
out that “the rather athletic view of music
taken in Western culture, where star perfor-
mances by individual composers and perform-
ers and their ability to do very difficult things
is measured, is replaced in Native American
cultures with quite different values.”6
In North Indian Classical traditions, central
to the music is the belief that everything in the
universe moves in repeating cycles, endlessly
going through cycles of creation, dissolution
and recreation. Rhythmic patterns known as
tala are clear examples of this cyclical concept.
Patterns based on from 3 to 108 beats are used
as the foundation for performance, where as
much as 90% of the melodic material may be
improvised. These musical traditions can be
traced back nearly 2000 years, with origins
in the Vedic hymns. Ravi Shankar has written:
“To us, music can be a spiritual discipline on
the path to self-realization, for we follow the
traditional teaching that sound is God. By this
process individual consciousness can be ele-
vated to a realm of awareness where the reve-
lation of the true meaning of the universe—its
eternal and unchanging essence—can be joy-
fully experienced.”7 The concept that “sound is
Ethnomusicology And Alchemy
AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER 19
58. God” is a profound realization of music’s criti-
cal role in the society.
In Bali, serious literature, poems and
prayers begin with the letter “ONG.” The
sound of this letter resonates through the
body, alerting all of one’s gods and demons
(your emotions, qualities and thoughts) to
alertness. Balinese music specialist Michael
Tenzer notes that “Music is ubiquitous in Bali;
its abundance is far out of proportion to the
dimensions of the island. The Hindu-Balinese
religion requires gamelan for the successful
completion of most of the tens of thousands
of ceremonies undertaken yearly.”8 Music is
simply a part of everyday life, whether it be to
accompany martial arts, to sell goods or to race
bulls. There is music for entertaining the gods
in festivals, to accompany offerings at a tem-
ple, to provide for cremated remains, even to
be played during a young woman’s ritual tooth
filing ceremony. In Bali, music and dance share
structures and terminology. They are wedded
together.
World Music in Films
The concept of world musics being combined
with other art forms is nowhere more evident
than in contemporary film, but it is an endeav-
or that is not approached lightly. After all, does
one approach a supernatural being lightly?
Film composers, orchestrators and arrangers
have become extremely skilled in thinking
globally.
59. Moana, the animated Disney movie released
in 2016, is set in Polynesia on a fictional
island. To be cognizant of culturally sensitive
issues, Disney formed and consulted with
Oceanic Story Trust, a group of advisors that
included academics, anthropologists, linguists,
historians and choreographers, as well as
“tattoo artists, navigators, fishermen, elders,
and artists.”9 Disney Animation sponsored
research trips to the South Pacific Islands of
Juri, Samoa, Tahiti, Moorea, New Zealand,
Bora Bora and Tetiaroa. “Every name in the
movie either comes from or was approved
by the Oceanic Story Trust. Moana’s name
means ‘of the sea.’ Every draft of the script,
every little change, was sent to the Oceanic
Story Trust to vet.”10 Most of the cast mem-
bers are Polynesian. The songs were written
in Samoan, Tokelauan and English by Opetaia
Foa’i, Lin-Manuel Miranda and Mark Mancina.
Dave Metzger arranged and orchestrated all
of the music in the film. It took three full days
to record the percussion parts alone.11 Samoan
by birth, Opetaia Foa’i started a contemporary
music group called Te Vaka, which claims a
“distinct original sound and un-touristy devo-
tion to the South Pacific and the stories of its
ancestors.”12 Band members are featured in
many of the songs of Moana. This inclusion of
cultural sensitivities gives an indication of the
seriousness in trying to understand and repre-
sent various areas of the world without simply
appropriating materials.
Contemporary Compositions
60. The incorporation of world musical
traditions into contemporary composi-
tion is exemplified in Kevin Walczyk’s 5th
Symphony, Freedom From Fear: Images From
the Shoreline.13 The commissioned symphony
was to be centered around displaced peoples.
Walczyk thought of President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt’s address to the United Nations in
1941 when he spoke of four essential human
freedoms. The last of the four was freedom
from fear. The symphony’s four movements
are “The Relinquishing,” “Sands of White and
Black,” “Lullaby” and “Sea Crossings–Mother
of Exiles.” Two images of shorelines served
as the foundation for the second movement.
The first is a photograph entitled “Three
Americans,” which appeared in a September
1943 Life magazine article. It depicted the bat-
tle of Buna-Gona in Papua, New Guinea, and
was the first image of dead Americans that
President Roosevelt allowed to be published
during World War II. Walczyk incorporated
two percussion instruments indigenous to
Papua, New Guinea: log drums, known as
“slit” drums, and a bullroarer. “In Papua New
Guinea, bullroarers hold a traditional place of
honor in men’s ceremonial clubhouses. The
Namau people of the Purari River Delta used
them during funerals of important men and
called them imunu viki (‘weeping spirits’).”14
The log drums and bullroarer were used to
represent the “weeping spirits” of the three
dead soldiers.
The second image shows protesters in Biloxi,
61. Mississippi in 1959. As part of the struggle for
civil rights, people participated in “wade-ins”
Ethnomusicology And Alchemy
20 APRIL/MAY 2020
in an effort to desegregate the use of public
beaches. Walczyk used the civil rights anthem,
We Shall Overcome, throughout sections of the
movement. To speak to its Mississippi locale,
he incorporated an abstraction of Delta blues.
The third movement of the symphony,
Lullaby, takes its inspiration from the image,
Humanity Washed Ashore. This is the photo-
graph of three-year old Aylan Kurdi, a Syrian
refugee who died when the raft he was on cap-
sized before reaching the Greek Island of Kos in
September 2015. His brother and mother also
drowned. Walczyk took the title of the move-
ment from a Syrian folksong that originated
near Aylan’s home. A second folksong provided
some lyrics and melodic motifs. A boy soprano
sings in this movement to represent Aylan,
while a soprano represents his mother. The
movement also utilizes an abstraction of Syrian
music by using specific tunings of the tradi-
tional instruments, qanun, arghul and ney. The
middle of this movement features an intense
jazz-like section that incorporates rhythmic
elements and variant forms of the muwashshat,
a musical form that is popular in Aleppo, where
Aylan’s family originated. Sensitivity such as
62. Walczyk’s when incorporating materials from
around the world is paramount to maintaining
the integrity of cultures.
Metzger and Walczyk are not using these
musics to just make interesting sounds.
Carefully, they are trying to let the voices
of those cultures speak to the world. They
know, because they are musicians, that
American music tells the American story.
The music of other cultures tells their stories.
Ethnomusicology provides us with profound
and illuminating ways to understand the
Notes
1. Google, accessed September 27, 2019,
2. The Society for Ethnomusicology, accessed
September 20, 2019.
3. Patrick Burke, “What is Music?”
Humanities, The Magazine of the National
Endowment for the Humanities, January/
February (2015), Volume 36, Number 1,
accessed September 12, 2019,
http://www.neh.gove/humanities/2015/
januaryfebruary/feature/what-music.
4. John Blacking, A Commonsense View of
all Music. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1989), p. 3.
5. Karl Paulnack, 2003 Address to the
Parents of the Freshman Class. Speech
Transcript, delivered August 28, 2003.
63. Reprinted on https://staff.ithaca.edu/
kpaulnack/transcripts/2003welcome/.
6. Bruno Nettl, Charles Capwell, et. al.,
“Native American Music”, in Excursions
in World Music 4th Edition (New Jersey,
University of Chicago Press, 2004), 268.
7. Shankar, Ravi. “On Appreciation of Indian
Classical Music.” Accessed September 12, 2019.
www.ravishankar.org
8. Michael Tenzer, Balinese Music (Berkeley
and Singapore: Periplus Editions, 1991), 3.
9. Poblete, Jordan. “Disney Animation
Created an Oceanic Story Trust,” The Disney
Examiner, Nov 2, 2016.
10. Poblete, “Disney Animation.”
11. David Metzger, Public Address, Western
Oregon University, Monmouth, Oregon, May
31, 2019.
12. “Te Vaka” www.tevaka.com, accessed
September 20, 2019.
13. Kevin Walczyk, composer.
www.kevelimusic.com.
14. “Bullroarer,” www.metmuseum.org/art/
collection/search/504985.
AMT
64. Diane Baxter, PhD, NCTM,
professor of music at Western
Oregon University, has
received many awards for
teaching and creative work.
While Diane performs and
consults far and wide, she
lives, writes, plays and thinks
in Brownsville, Oregon.
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65. Introduction to the Special Issue: The
Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music
Laudan Nooshin
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67. in various ways thematised notions of historical ‘Otherness’, as
well as some of the
contributors to the 1995 special issue of the Journal of the
American Musicological
Society on ‘Music Anthropologies and Music Histories’. As I
discuss below, Shelemay’s
observation (citing her earlier 1996 article) that ‘On the ground,
wherever scholars
actually practice a musical ethnography, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to
discern where boundaries conceptualized and named
geographically can in fact be
drawn’ (2001:4) has especial salience for the articles presented
in this themed issue of
Ethnomusicology Forum; this is symptomatic both of the trend
towards ethnography
within musicology (that is, the musicology of western art music,
or ‘historical
musicology’ in the United States; henceforth simply
‘musicology’), and more broadly
of changes within the discipline since the late 1980s which have
led to a growing
interest in and engagement with ethnomusicological thought and
method.
68. More or less concomitant with these changes within
musicology, ethnomusicol-
ogists became increasingly interested in the study of urban
traditions, particularly as
part of what has been termed ‘ethnomusicology at home’. In
turn, this engagement
with the familiar led to greater attention to what Bruno Nettl*in
his study of an
exemplar music school in the American mid-west*described as
‘the last bastion of
unstudied musical culture’ (1995:2): western classical music;
unstudied, that is, from
Laudan Nooshin is Senior Lecturer in Ethnomusicology at City
University London. She has published widely on
various aspects of Iranian music culture, including creative
processes in Iranian classical music and music and
youth culture in Iran. Recent publications include the edited
volume Music and the Play of Power in the Middle
East, North Africa and Central Asia (Ashgate Press, 2009). Her
forthcoming monograph is entitled Iranian
Classical Music: The Discourses and Practice of Creativity
(Ashgate). Since 2008, Laudan has been co-Editor of
Ethnomusicology Forum. Correspondence to: Laudan Nooshin,
Centre for Music Studies, City University
London, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB, UK. Email:
[email protected]
69. ISSN 1741-1912 (print)/ISSN 1741-1920 (online)/11/030285-16
# 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17411912.2011.659439
Ethnomusicology Forum
Vol. 20, No. 3, December 2011, pp. 285�300
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17411912.2011.659439
an ethnomusicological perspective. For Nettl, this represented
the culmination of
many years of writing about ‘other’ musics, as he describes
reaching a point where
‘eventually, also having practiced the outsider’s view, to look
also at the familiar as if
it were not, at one’s own culture as if one were a foreigner to it’
(1995:1). Martin
Stokes also sees this trend as an indication of
‘Ethnomusicology’s coming of age . . .
demonstrated in its ability to interrogate the familiar and the
similar, not just the
exotic and different’ (2008:209). Shelemay goes further,
arguing that such a move is
an important step towards ‘de-colonising’ ethnomusicology and
helping the field to
70. ‘emerge from behind a veil of cross-cultural difference’
(2001:25).
Two points emerge from these observations, one concerning the
apparent
convergence of different areas of music study; and the second,
following on from
this, the question of (sub)disciplinary identities and their
continued usefulness or
otherwise. These questions have been explored fairly
extensively in recent years, most
notably in Henry Stobart’s (2008) edited volume The New
(Ethno)musicologies, but
also in writings by Shelemay (1996), Jonathan Stock (1997a),
Tomlinson (2003, on
the relationship between ethnography and historiography), and
more recently
Georgina Born (2010). In particular, the trends above have
prompted anxieties
about disciplinary boundaries: if ethnomusicology is no longer
characterised (at least
in large part) by its engagement with ‘other’ musics, and if
musicologists are starting
to draw on ethnography as a central research methodology, what
are the implications
71. for the relationship between these two areas of music studies?
Before considering
this question further, however, it should first be noted
that*Nettl’s comments
notwithstanding*there have in fact been a number of
ethnomusicological studies of
western art music over the past several decades, admittedly not
all strongly
ethnographic. Nettl himself, in a landmark article published in
1963, sought to
apply the techniques of ethnomusicology to ‘western’ music by
conducting a
questionnaire survey of college students examining their
classifications of music, and
asking what these might reveal about aspects of culture beyond
music. More than two
decades later, Nettl adopted a similar approach in seeking to
understand ‘the
relationship of the musical system to the rest of culture’
(1989:8) through examining
how music is studied and what is valued within western music
education. In his
earlier 1963 piece (a response to an article by Merriam on the
purposes of
ethnomusicology), Nettl proposes that ethnomusicology’s
72. uniqueness, and what it
might usefully offer to other areas of music study, lies not in
any distinct purpose (as
suggested by Merriam) but in its techniques and approaches.
Almost 50 years on, this
idea is thoroughly borne out by the articles presented in this
volume.
A number of other scholars have similarly sought to apply the
techniques and
approaches of ethnomusicology to the study and understanding
of western art music.
Some of this work has focused on institutions such as music
schools (Cameron 1982;
Kingsbury 1988; Nettl 1995), research centres (Born 1995) and
orchestras (Herndon
1988; Small 1987), whilst others examine particular locales or
communities (see
Bohlman 1991; Brennan 1999; Finnegan 1989; see also
Wachsmann 1981). Since the
early 2000s, a growing body of literature has emerged,
including several monographs
286 L. Nooshin
73. and doctoral dissertations (see, for example, Beckles Willson
2009a, 2009b; Cottrell
2004; El-Ghadban 2009; Etherington 2007*and several other
chapters in Kartomi,
Dreyfus and Pear 2007; Everett and Lau 2004; Melvin and Cai
2004; Pitts 2005; Pitts
and Spencer 2008; Sailer 2004; Shelemay 2001; Usner 2010;
Wint 2012; Yoshihari
2007), and this work is by no means the sole preserve of
ethnomusicologists, but
includes writings by music educators, performers,
musicologists, anthropologists and
others, arguably attracting a more diverse range of scholars than
many other areas of
ethnomusicological study. The current issue seeks to contribute
to this field of
research and is, to my knowledge, the first collection of essays
on the topic. The aim
of this brief introduction is not to present an exhaustive survey
of extant literature on
the ethnomusicology of western art music (for a useful overview
of such work to the
early 2000s, see Cottrell 2004:2�8), but to explore some of the
themes and issues
which emerge from this area of study.
74. Several of the chapters in Stobart’s volume invoke a somewhat
binary characterisa-
tion of music studies that focuses on the relationship between
musicology on the one
hand and ethnomusicology on the other. Clearly, this only
captures a particular slice of
music studies broadly conceived: where in this binary would
one position music
psychology, popular music studies, performance studies, music
education or music
informatics, for instance?
1
Moreover, the correlates with cognate disciplines outside
music*media studies, history, anthropology, sociology,
psychology, linguistics, and so
on*can often be as strong as those between different areas of
music studies. These
comments notwithstanding, and however one conceives the field
of music studies and
its internal and external relationships, if one retains the
musicology/ethnomusicology
binary for the moment, there is much to suggest that we are
indeed working in an era
of methodological, if not disciplinary, convergence. Several
scholars use the term. Stokes,
75. for instance, notes the recent ‘convergence of people working in
different disciplines
and intellectual traditions on new musical subjects and objects’
(2008:207) and
Nicholas Cook, in a chapter in the same volume, observes that:
. . . a major convergence of interests between musicology and
ethnomusicology has
taken place, and [that] as a result there is as yet untapped
potential for the sharing
or cross-fertilization of methods for pursuing them. (2008:51)
As evidence for such convergence, Cook cites both the 2000
joint conference of the
American Musicological Society, the Society for
Ethnomusicology and other North
American scholarly music societies, at which it was often
difficult to tell which society
was sponsoring a particular session; and his experience of
reading two doctoral
dissertations by authors in distinct fields of music research but
whose theoretical
approaches and methodologies overlapped significantly. As will
be discussed below,
the articles in this volume tell a similar story. Tracing some of
the more significant
changes within musicology, Cook notes the ‘shift[ed,] in the
76. closing decades of the
twentieth century, towards the understanding of music in its
multiple cultural
contexts, embracing production, performance, reception, and all
other activities by
virtue of which music is constructed as a significant cultural
practice’ (2008:49);
Ethnomusicology Forum 287
greater scholarly reflexivity; increased attention to performance
(away from the
notated score); and particularly a move towards understanding
‘music as an agent of
meaning rather than just a reflection of it’, such that ‘music’s
meanings . . . [are
understood] as something constantly renewed and regenerated
through social usage’
(2008:56�57). Cook describes this as the
‘ethnomusicologization of musicology’
(2008:65), although of course not all of these changes
necessarily came via
ethnomusicology. The extent to which musicology has changed
over the last 15
years is made clear by the fact that Stock’s (1997a)
77. characterisation of the differences
between musicology and ethnomusicology now seems
surprisingly (and pleasingly)
dated if one looks at current work in the field. There is no doubt
that both
musicology and ethnomusicology have changed, and there has
certainly been
convergence: but its degree is debateable. The idea expressed
by Cook that
musicology and ethnomusicology have arrived at the same
place*but by different
routes, which has complicated their relationship*is not shared
by all. His now
(in)famous conclusion that ‘we are all musicologists now’ was
strongly contested at
the 2001 one-day conference of the British Forum for
Ethnomusicology at which
Cook presented an earlier version of his 2008 article, leading to
a re-formulation in
the published version to: ‘we are all ethnomusicologists now’
(bringing him more in
line with Frank Harrison’s much earlier 1963 statement that ‘it
is the function of all
musicology to be in fact ethnomusicology’, cited by Cook from
Lieberman 1997:200
78. [2008:65]). As distinctions of ‘insider’/‘outsider’ and self/other,
on which the
musicology/ethnomusicology divide was initially founded,
become increasingly
blurred and perhaps redundant, Cook concludes that
‘distinguishing between
musicology and ethnomusicology seems to me as hopeless as it
is pointless’
(2008:64). Amongst those who might concur one could list
Nettl, John Blacking,
Jim Samson and Shelemay, the latter arguing strongly for a
more integrated field of
music studies (Shelemay 1996). On the other hand, Kerman
(1985) and Stock
(1997a) are somewhat more sceptical, the former based on the
assertion that ‘Western
music is just too different from other musics’ (Kerman
1985:174)*with the
implication that ethnomusicologists only study ‘non-western’
music*the latter
based on differences in approach.
Much of the debate around these issues rests on an underlying
assumption that
convergence is in principle ‘a good thing’, if not always
possible. A somewhat different
79. perspective has recently been put forward by Georgina Born
(2010), who
characterises the debate as perhaps overly concerned with
achieving an affable
consensus*and describing Nicholas Cook (in his 2008 article) as
acting as a
‘marriage broker’ (2010:215). Instead, she asks whether, in ‘the
wished-for
rapprochement between the subdisciplines of music scholarship’
(209), ‘Do we
perhaps give up too much of the rich and idiosyncratic
patchwork of subdisciplinary
histories by suggesting such an integration? Do we suppress the
agonistic pleasures of
continuing inter-subdisciplinary dialogues?’ (2010:206).
Instead, she proposes a
‘relational musicology’ which draws on the productive tension
of the ‘agonistic�
antagonistic’ mode of interdisciplinarity in which:
288 L. Nooshin
. . . research is conceived neither as a synthesis nor in terms of
a disciplinary
division of labour, but as driven by an agonistic or antagonistic
relation to existing
forms of disciplinary knowledge and practice. Here,
80. interdisciplinarity springs from
a self-conscious dialogue with, criticism of, or opposition to,
the intellectual,
aesthetic, ethical or political limits of established disciplines, or
the status
of academic research in general . . . This does not mean that
what is produced
by such interdisciplinarity can be reduced to these antagonisms;
nor does it imply
any overtly conflictual relations between emergent
interdiscipline and prior
disciplinary formation. Rather, with the agonistic-antagonistic
mode we highlight
how this kind of interdisciplinary practice stems from a
commitment or desire to
contest or transcend the given epistemological and ontological
foundations of
historical disciplines*a move that makes the new interdiscipline
irreducible to its
‘antecedent disciplines’ . . . What is remarkable about the
agonistic-antagonistic
mode is that it is often intended to effect more radical shifts in
knowledge practices,
shifts that are at once epistemic and ontological. (Born
2010:211)
In asking what a truly integrated field of music studies might
look like, Born
questions whether earlier promises of sub-disciplinary dialogue
or integration (for
instance in Mark Everist and Nicholas Cook’s [1999] volume
Rethinking Music), have
delivered; she suggests that any such field would need to both
81. ‘disrupt[ing] the
conceptual boundary between music and the social’ (221) and
engage more fully with
‘the sciences of the cultural, social and temporal, which is to
say anthropology,
sociology and history’ (2010:210) (some might argue that they
have been doing the
latter for many decades).
Notwithstanding these ongoing and healthy debates about the
relationship
between the various musicologies, work on the ground clearly
suggests that the
dividing line between musicology and ethnomusicology (if we
take that particular
binary) is less clear than ever. Scholars may continue to feel a
sense of belonging and
allegiance to particular disciplinary ‘homes’, but the work itself
becomes increasingly
difficult to categorise according to disciplinary boundaries. This
will be discussed
further in relation to the specific articles in this volume, in the
context of which
Bohlman’s observation almost two decades ago that ‘different
domains within the
82. study of music . . . no longer simply co-exist, but rather interact
to change the spatial
construction of the field. No domain is spared from the
approaches of its discursive
cohabitants*say, historical musicology from analysis,
ethnomusicology from history, or
music theory from cultural contexts’ (1993:435; emphasis
added) seems particularly
pertinent.
The Current Volume
The current volume marks an important milestone for
Ethnomusicology Forum as the
journal moves from two to three issues per year. It is also
something of a personal
watershed as I come to the end of my four-year term as journal
co-Editor. When
Andrew Killick and I assumed co-editorship of the journal in
September 2007, one of
our aims was to provide a platform for work which crossed or
contested disciplinary
boundaries, and we did this in various ways, including through
themed issues*for
Ethnomusicology Forum 289
83. example, the special volumes on ‘Screened Music: Global
Perspectives’ (in 2009) and
‘Ethnomusicology and the Music Industries’ (in 2010); by
inviting guest editors from
outside ethnomusicology, such as film music composer and
musicologist Miguel
Mera; by including interviews with music industry figures such
as Ben Mandelson (in
2010); and by publishing work by scholars from outside
ethnomusicology such as
popular musicologist Nicola Dibben (in 2009), music
psychologists Ian Cross (in
2010) and Ruth Herbert (in 2011), and music archaeologist
Graeme Lawson (in
2010). For myself in particular, seeking to break down what,
since the earliest days of
my ethnomusicological training, I have regarded as the
somewhat artificial
boundaries between musicology and ethnomusicology was
something of a mission.
Even before my editorial term started, I was exploring the idea
of a special issue that
would examine the intersection of ethnomusicology and
musicology by publishing
84. current research by both musicologists and ethnomusicologists
on some aspect
of western art music. Quite fortuitously, my appointment
coincided with the
2007 biennial conference of the International Council for
Traditional Music, held in
Vienna, where I heard a particularly inspiring presentation by
Eric Usner on the
politics of the 2006 Mozart Year, which had ended just six
months before the
conference.
2
The paper is published in extended form here. From this time, I
knew
that this was a topic with great potential, and I even toyed
briefly with the idea of a
special issue on the ethnomusicology of Mozart. As I started to
plan the current issue,
I became increasingly alerted both to musicologists undertaking
work which could be
described as broadly ethnomusicological, particularly in their
use of ethnographic
method, and of ethnomusicologists working on western art
music. This issue has had
85. a long gestation but it gives me the greatest pleasure that my
final task as co-Editor of
a journal that I played a small role in helping to establish 20
years ago should be to
produce a volume which resonates with some of my deepest
held scholarly
convictions*as someone who came to ethnomusicology as a
classically-trained
musician and for whom the study of ethnomusicology changed
forever how I would
experience ‘my’ music. Continuing in self-reflexive mode for a
moment, I also
wonder whether the urge to seek out commonalities and to
challenge binary
constructions such as East/West and
musicology/ethnomusicology*a challenge
which is, incidentally, precisely what the ethnomusicology of
western art music
does*arises partly from my own experiences as a post-colonial
‘other’ living in one
of the metropolitan power centres of the global ‘north’.
This volume comprises five main articles, followed by a short
reflective item by
(ethnomusicologist) Pirkko Moisala on the process of writing a
(largely musicolo-
86. gical) book about contemporary Finnnish composer Kaija
Saariaho. The main
articles begin with Rachel Beckles Willson’s study of European
and North American
music teachers working on Palestine’s West Bank as part of
international aid
investment in the region. The article examines some of the
issues around teachers’
motivations for taking up work in the West Bank, their
expectations and the
realities*political and social*once they arrive, as well as
considering what such
western musical intervention in the region means, whether
framed in terms of the
290 L. Nooshin
supposed civilising effects of western classical music or
offering children an
alternative to everyday violence. In particular, Beckles Willson
points to some
interesting resonances between the role that such teachers see
themselves as playing
and that of European mission in nineteenth-century Palestine.
The next article, by
87. Tina K. Ramnarine, explores the symphony orchestra as an
agent of civil society.
Beginning with a consideration of the metaphor of ‘orchestra as
society’, Ramnarine
focuses on three case studies of projects through which UK-
based orchestras have
sought to attract new audiences through various initiatives and
outreach
programmes, partly in response to an ageing and diminishing
listenership.
Ramnarine examines the potential of such programmes to effect
lasting social
change, and asks what role the orchestra can play in relation to
issues of race equality,
economic poverty, environmentalism, and so on. The next
article, by Melissa C.
Dobson and Stephanie Pitts, also focuses on new audiences,
reporting on a project
with ‘first-time attenders’ at western classical music concerts.
Project participants in
London and Sheffield attended a number of concerts, followed
by both focus group
discussions and one-to-one interviews. Dobson and Pitts present
the results of the
88. project, quoting extensively from participants on their
experiences of concert
attendance, experiences that were shaped by both musical and
social factors. Dobson
and Pitts’ conclusions have significant potential practical
application in terms of
understanding the needs and expectations of newcomers to
classical music concerts.
The authors also reflect on the interface between the social
psychology of music (in
which their work is rooted) and ethnomusicology, considering
what the latter can
bring to such a study, particularly in terms of ‘balancing the
desire to generalise
findings to populations with recognition of the benefits of
focusing on individual
listening experiences to gain deeper insights into this
multifarious phenomenon’. In
‘Ethnographic Research into Contemporary String Quartet
Rehearsal’, Amanda
Bayley traces a single work*Michael Finnnisy’s Second String
Quartet*‘from
composition, through rehearsal and performance, to reflections
on performance’, as
performed by the Kreutzer Quartet, focusing primarily on the
89. only rehearsal of the
piece, which was also attended by the composer. Asking how
‘methodologies from
ethnomusicology can advance our understanding of rehearsal
and performance in the
string quartet tradition’, Bayley uses quantitative and
qualitative methods (observa-
tion, interviews, questionnaires, recording of the rehearsal) to
examine various
aspects of the rehearsal process, including the structuring of
time, the kinds of
language used and interactions between the performers and
between performers and
composer, and the role of negotiation and collaboration in
shaping the musical work.
The result is a ‘rehearsal model’ which offers the possibility of
comparison with
rehearsals of other pieces, by other ensembles or in the context
of other performer�
composer collaborations. The final article, by Eric Usner,
explores the events marking
the Mozart Year 2006, the 250th anniversary of Mozart’s
birth*focusing on events in
Vienna*during which ‘Mozart’ became mobilised as a cultural
signifier, variously
presented and received as ‘tradition’, as a folklore spectacle for