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Module
In
FORC 101
Course Code
Forensic Photography
College of Criminal Justice
Education BS-Crim
Module No. 9
METHODS OF CRIME SCENE
SEARCHES

2nd Semester 2022
Sheila Lou G. Pili
Assistant Professor IV
Aika S. Lunado
Instructor I
WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
INSTRUCTION TO THE USER
This module would provide you an educational experience while
independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It
covers the topic about Forensic Photography.
Reminders in using this module:
1. Keep this material neat and intact.
2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue
amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.
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Chapter 9
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, you can:
1. Discuss the types or methods of searches;
2. Distinguished the types or methods of searches be applied in the crime
scene.
3. Identify the SOCO Team Composition; and
4. Discuss the function of each in the Soco Team Composition.
Specific Topics
a) Methods of Crime Scene Searches & SOCO Team Composition
b) Time Allotment (4 ½ hours -per session)
Target date to submit
Chapter 9
METHODS OF CRIME SCENE SEARCHES
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module will discuss all the matters involving the crime scene
photography and the preparations needed in the court exhibits and the admissibility
of photographs as evidence in the court.
Elevation Zone Search

This type of search is used with indoor crime scene where evidence may be on the
walls or in the ceiling ( example: bullet holes, blood splatters, etc.). Only one elevation
zone should be checked at a time.
Overlapping Zone Search
The Team Leader should observe and supervise the search while other team
members perform the search. With a overlapping search items are unlikely to be
missed.
Lane or Strip Search
Commonly used when searching a large area looking for a large object. Several
Explorers will stand in one long line and all walk the same direction. Stakes and string
can also be used to create “lanes” for which each Explorer would be responsible.
The strip/line search is done by dividing the crime scene into a series of lanes in
which personnel search up and down the lanes until the scene is completely searched. Are
accomplished by the searchers walking in parallel along defined lanes in the same direction.
Spiral Search

Commonly used when looking for an object that is suspected to be a
specific distance from another, for example: shell casing from a gun or an object
thrown by hand from a specific location, but thrown in an unknown direction. A
stake in the center with a string attached will assure proper distance and avoid
overlapping already searched areas or missing areas not yet searched.
Involves a spiral into (inward) or out from (outward) a crime scene. A
practical disadvantage with outward spiral searches is the evidence may be
destroyed as the searchers move to the center of the crime scene area to begin their
outward search.
The spiral search is used most often for outdoor crime scenes, is conducted
by one person, and is done by walking in a circle from the outermost point of the
inner perimeter toward the center of the circle.
Grid Search
This is the most thorough search technique. Similar to a strip search but
also done in opposite direction.
Another example of a strip search.

Zone Search
Zone Search
Involves dividing the area to be searched into adjacent zones. The smaller
the size of the zone, the more methodical the search can be. Zone searches may be
done by multiple searchers per zone.
A zone/quadrant search is one in which the crime scene is divided into four
quadrants and searched using another method, such as a strip or line search.
Wheel Ray
Wheel ray
� Essentially a circular search
� Start at a critical point
� Travel outward along a straight line(rays)
� Difficult for searching large areas
� Use only for special situations with limited applications
� Pie/wheel search, the crime scene is divided into a large circle with numerous
sectors and searched using another method, such as a strip/line search.
SOCO TEAM COMPOSITION
MODULE OVERVIEW

of the photograph as evidence in the court.
SOCO TEAM
SOCO TEAM COMPOSITION
1. Team Leader
2. Photographer & Photographic Log Recorder
3. Sketch Preparer
4. Evidence Recorder/ Custodian
5. Evidence Recovery Personnel
6. Specialists
Medical Examiner/Coroner
Odontologist
Blood Pattern Analyst
Post Blast Technician
Crime Laboratory Examiner
7. Driver/ Guard
1. Team Leader
a. Assume control of the crime scene.
b. Conduct initial walk-through.
c. Determine search patterns.
d. Designate command post location.
e. Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies.
f. Ensure that sufficient supplies and equipment are available.
g. Control access to the scene and designate an individual to log
everyone into the scene.
h. Continually reevaluate efficiency of search during the entire course of
operation.
i. Release the scene after a final survey and inventory of the evidence.
2. Photographer & Photographic Log Recorder
a. Photograph the entire area before it is entered.
b. Photograph victims, crowd, and vehicles.
c. Photograph the entire scene with overall, medium, and close-up
coverage. d. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved.
e. Photograph all latent fingerprints, and another impression
evidence.
f. Photograph blueprints, maps and obtain previous photographs of
scene, as required. Prepare photographic log and photographic sketch.
3. Sketch Preparer
a. Diagram immediate area of scene and orient sketch with the north.
b. Set forth on sketch major items of evidence and coordinate evidence nomenclature with
Evidence
Recorder/Custodian and Evidence Recovery Personnel.
c. Indicate adjacent buildings, rooms, furniture, and so forth, as needed. d. Designate and
label areas to be searched and advise Team Leader and all other search members of
nomenclature for designated areas.
e. Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and list assistant(s) on the
sketch.
f. Ensure necessary administrative information, such as scale disclaimer (not drawn
to scale), is recorded on the sketch.

4. Evidence Recorder/ Custodian
a. Prepare evidence recovery log.
b. Coordinate evidence packaging and preservation. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with
Sketch Preparer and Evidence Recovery Personnel.
c. Receive and record all evidence.
d. Maintain custody and control of evidence.
e. Maintain chain of custody.
f. Coordinate transmittal of evidence to case investigator, or to the crime laboratory,
per agency guidelines.
5. Evidence Recovery Personnel
a. Have significant evidence photographed before it is collected.
b. Keep Team Leader apprised of significant evidence located.
c. Initial and date all evidence and turn it over to the evidence and turn it over to the
evidence recorder/custodian, after noting where the item was located. d. Coordinate
evidence nomenclature with Evidence Recorder/Custodian and Sketch Preparer.
e. Ensure that appropriate safety measures are adhered to, especially with respect to
proper protective clothing including gloves.
6. Specialists
It is sometimes necessary to bring in expertise from an outside agency. The field of
forensic science is so broad today that no agency has every form of specialty service
available from among its ranks.
“If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science: you have no victim to
avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear testimony within the
limits of science.” (Brouardel)
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Module
In
FORC 101
Course Code
Education BS-Crim
Module No. 8
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
2nd Semester 2022

Sheila Lou G. Pili
Aika S. Lunado
Instructor I
media platforms.
distancing.
Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your
WPU Mascot.
University!

experience.
Chapter 8
Learning Outcomes:
1. Integrate matters of consideration in the crime scenes, apply preparation
in courts exhibits.
2. Explain the admissibility of evidence.
3. Make your own crime scene scenario in your home area.
Specific Topics
a) Crime Scene Photography
Chapter 8
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
MODULE OVERVIEW
of photographs as evidence in the court.
INTRODUCTION TO CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography has been an integral part of processing a crime scene. It is not an
exaggeration to say that without photography, everything that is found in connection
with a crime scene may be placed into scratches or a piece of mess for their
evidentiary value in court would always be found questionable.
There are varieties of crime scene appearances. crime scene varies in nature,
location, and extent. It must be noted that to be there are important things to be
established at every crime scene. One significant factor that must always be
established is the presence of a corpus delicti (body of the crime) for it will establish
the probability of whether or not a crime was truly committed. Its existence plus all
other relevant and credible evidence to establish proof is of vital importance.
A record of the initial condition of the crime scene and everything found in
connection to it is indispensable in presenting the case in court, thus precaution

should be made in properly photographing the scene of the crime and its details. A
complete, sequential, and accurate recording of all aspects of the scene before any
objects of evidence is removed or otherwise disturbed must be made. Photographing
after each and every piece of evidence/object has been removed is also necessary.
Taking more shots is better than having less.
What are the Objectives of the Photography in the Crime Scene
Investigation?
1. To record the condition of the scene before alterations occur.
2. To record the location of the scene.
3. To record the position and condition of evidence.
4. To document the point of view of the persons involved and witnesses.
5. To document the spatial relationships of pertinent items.
6. To convey the look of the scene to investigators, attorneys, and jurors who will
not have the opportunity to view the scene firsthand.
7. To be used as a tool for crime scene reconstruction efforts.
8. To assist in portraying an accurate picture of the crime scene during the
courtroom testimony.
9. To refresh the memory of those involved in the investigation.
What is the Basic Importance of Crime Scene Photography?
• Refresh memory
• Preserve time and event
• Save money and effort
Matters to be taken into consideration:
1. Since one of the purposes of crime scene photography is to provide the court
and the investigator a view of the area based on the usual and normal
observation of an observer, the procedure in taking photographs at the
crime scene should be at eye level and straight forward;
2. A set of four (4) shots is the usual minimum takes to adequately show an
area such as room although taking more is better;
3. Taking a general view of the crime scene in all angles should be made to
show the location, to include the streets (if possible);
4. Medium view and close up photographs of the important places and objects
in the crime scene should always be taken into consideration such as the
object used in the commission of a crime, wounds sustained by the victim
and others;
5. It would be better if the photographer is equipped with two types of lenses (a
short-focus lens and a normal angle lens) to be used depending on their
necessity. Usually, a short focus or wide-angle lens is used for interior
photographing especially in short shots and the normal angle is used on
outdoor views and others;
6. Flash units and other artificial lights, filters in Some cases may occasionally
Serve their purposes;
7. Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks, or tape measures will serve
their purpose of showing relationships in distances and location of objects
in the crime as well as their original size before enlargement is made for
presentation in court;
8. All useful information should be to help in the order photographed
investigator establish the issue of what was the crime committed; where,

when, and how it was committed; and to a certain extent who committed
the crime;
9. The term crime scene should be understood to mean not only the
immediate place of the crime but it may and usually extended to the
adjacent areas or even at a far distance which may be important in
establishing the location and the surrounding circumstances of the crime;
10. The nature of the crime and the elements constituting such crime should
always be taken into account; and
11. Field noting should have been made. This is usually the investigator
whether he is always being the job of the on his work or assisted by the
SOCO team. Also, take note of the general statement of the photograph,
the camera and film used, exposure setting, and the lighting conditions.
PREPARING COURT EXHIBITS
A photograph to be admissible in evidence should be a faithful representation
of the subject or object under consideration. Make sure that the photograph will not
mislead whosoever will view it. It must be as much as possible free from any
distortion both in shapes and lines. Important objects/subject matter should always
be in sharp focus.
Photograph as evidence in court can be of two kinds: (1) Those which
represents objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or a verbal
description of it; (2) Those which are designed to prove a point bearing on an issue in
the case such as a comparison photograph of evidence fingerprints, bullets,
handwriting, and others.
ADMISSIBILITY OF PHOTOGRAPH AS EVIDENCE IN COURT
Just like any other evidence, the requisites of relevancy, competency, and
materiality are the basic requirements for the admissibility of photographic evidence.
Photographs to be relevant should be able to show its relation to the facts in the issue
especially its value at assisting both the court in understanding the case and the
witness/es in testifying in court. To be competent, it has to be a faithful reproduction
of the original and that its presentation is allowed by the court.
Audio, photographic, and video evidence of events, acts, or transactions shall
be admissible provided it shall be shown, presented, or displayed to the court and
shall be identified, explained, or authenticated by the person who made the recording
or by some other person competent to testify on the accuracy thereof. (Section 1, Rule
11, Rules on electronic evidence, Rules of Court, 2005).
REFERENCES
Agas, Juan L. (2009). Criminalistics. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon,
City
Bulan, Ma. Elixabeth C, Magadia, Ma. Elena P. (2017) Workbook on Police
Photography. Chapterhouse Publishing Incorporated Novaliches
Quezon City.
Marsh N. (2014). Forensic Photography: A Practitioner’s Guide. Wiley
Blackwell ISBN: 9781119975823

Manluosc, Ariel C., Bolante, Raul B., Yang, Bryan T.,(2012) Forensic
Photography Hunts Publishing Center Sampaloc Manila
Villarba, Waynefred H. (2011). Laboratory Manual in Criminalistics 2 (Police
Photography). Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon City
Villarba, Waynefred H.(2006). Forensic Photography for Criminology student
and Practitioners. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon City
Wankey, Marlon M., Miguel, May V., (2020) Forensic Photography
MindShaper Publishing House Nueva Ecija Central Luzon
Philippines.
For this Module, we collect your name, program, year and section, contact number,
email address, Facebook and messenger account when you submit your printed
module for purposes of coordination and communication.
Name:

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Module
In
FORC 101
Course Code
Education BS-Crim
Module No. 7

MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSING
2nd Semester 2022
Sheila Lou G. Pili
Aika S. Lunado
Instructor I

media platforms.
distancing.
Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU
Mascot.
University!
experience.
Chapter 7
Learning Outcomes:
1. Discover the developing process of a film to negative;
2. Sketch the developing process of a photographic paper to a photograph.

Specific Topics
a) Mechanical and Chemical Processing
Chapter 7
MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSING
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module will cover all the processes needed in developing a photograph, this
includes also the mechanical and chemical processes. Also, this module discusses the
different methods in developing the photographic images; the steps in processing
plates and sheet films by inspection; the time and temperature technique; the stages
in development; other techniques in the use of enlarger; and the digital darkroom.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module the students will be able to:
3. Discover the developing process of a film to negative;
4. Sketch the developing process of a photographic paper to a photograph.
Developing photographic images can be divided into two methods, (1) the
conventional process and (2) the digital process. This chapter provides readers with
the methodology in developing photographic images.
I. Conventional process
The conventional process is also referred to as the traditional method of
developing photographic images which requires a more complex process than the
digital process.
A. Processing the Film
When a film is exposed inside the camera, an invisible image is formed in the
film (latent image). To process this exposed film into a negative, a series of chemical
processing should be done in total darkness or under safelight conditions. There are
two conventional techniques: (1) The inspection and (2) The time and temperature.
STEPS IN PROCESSING PLATES AND SHEET FILMS BY INSPECTIONS
1. Immerse the plate or film, face-up, in the dish of a developer, making sure that the
solution covers the whole surface at one;
2. Dislodge any air bells from the surface of the emulsion;
3. Rock the dish gently, but not too evenly, all the time;
4. Inspect the negative from time to lifting it out to see the time, image from the
back, if necessary. Keep the dish covered with a card at all other times, and do not
prolong the inspection, especially with fast panchromatic plates; 5. When the
development has reached the transfer the film required a point or plate to a dish of
clean water (or with dilute acetic acid) for 1 minute; 6. Transfer the negative to the

fixer solution;
7. Rock the fixing dish occasionally, and leave the negative in it for about twice as
to long as the time required to discharge all traces of milkiness from the emulsion
layer;
8. Wash the negatives in running water for at least thirty minutes, or in eight changes
of water of three to five minutes each; and
9. Lift the plates out of the washing water, drain, and stand up on edge in a dust-free
place to dry. Alternatively, stand the plates in a drying rack. sheet film should be
hung up on a line by means of small film clips.
10. Roll films can be developed in a similar way by see-sawing the film through the
developing dish.
TIME AND TEMPERATURE TECHNIQUE
This system is the basis of all modern tank procedures. With amateur tanks,
neither darkroom nor safelights are needed since the tank is light tight and all
operations—except for loading the film--- can be carried out broad in daylight.
Various manufacturers recommend development time and temperature for certain
materials using certain standard developers. This time and temperature are merely
guides or references rather than absolutely correct values. It would be advisable to
follow such instructions, if it would result in low or high contrast, adjustments can be
made to obtain the desired results.
Steps in Using the Developing Tank (The operation should be made in the dark
or using a photographing changing bag.)
1. Prepare the film ends;
2. Feed the film into the beginning of the groove;
3. Gradually push the film into the reel;
4. Detach from backing paper or cassette spool;
5. Put the reel into the tank;
6. Pour the developer into the tank;
7. Agitate as soon as the developer is put into the tank;
8. Develop for the required time;
9. Pour in rinse;
10. Pour in first fixing bath;
11. Pour in second fixing bath (if used);
12. Wash;
13. Remove from the tank; and
14. Hung up the film to dry in a dust-free place.
B. PROCESSING/DEVELOPING PRINTS
Process of making the latent image visible and permanent:
1. Preparation of the darkroom, the chemicals, and the enlargers; 2. Sort the
negatives and place the selected negative to the film carrier of the enlarger with the
dull side of the negative facing down;
3. Turn off the white light, switch on the red light;
4. Switch the light of the on enlarger;
5. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph and also adjust the dodging
board (if there is) to frame the object to be developed;
6. Focus the lens of the enlarger. It should be done by first setting the lens opening to
its maximum opening (biggest and opening) start adjusting the focus and
magnification of the object. Once the object is set to focus, make some reduction to

the intensity of the light by reducing the lens opening;
7. Switch off the light of the enlarger and make a test strip to establish the correct
exposure;
8. Place the photographic paper on the baseboard and expose for the time suggested
by the test strip after development; and
9. Process the exposed enlargement rinse, following the developer, fixing, washing,
and drying.
STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT:
1. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol, or Universal solution) It is the
process necessary for silver halides to reduce the metallic silver. Factors such as
agitation, temperature, concentration, chemicals, and exposure are considered.
Its usual compositions are:
• Elon, Hydroquinone - used as main developing agents
• Sodium Sulfite — as the preservative
• Sodium Carbonate - as an accelerator
• Potassium Bromide - as restrainer or fog preventer
2. Stop bath - It is an intermediate bath between the developer and the acid
fixer which is normally composed of water with a little amount of diluted
acetic acid that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the
developer and the acid fixer.
3. Fixation - It is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved
or removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more
permanent. The usual composition of an acid fixing solution is the solvent
silver halide known as hypo (sodium an anti-staining agent thiosulfate), like
acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfite, and a hardening agent like
potassium alum.
OTHER TECHNIQUES IN THE USE OF PHOTOGRAPHING ENLARGER:
Dodging- is the process of eliminating an unwanted portion of the negative during
enlarging.
Cropping- is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging
and printing.
Vignetting - is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful
adjustment on the dodging board.
Dye toning - is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-ln - refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used
for purposes of making a balanced exposure.
Remedial process in cases of defects in the development of a negative:
1. Underdevelopment - intensifier
2. Overdevelopment - reducer
3. Stains - stain remover
II. THE DIGITAL DARKROOM
Different from conventional processing is the concept of Digital processing

where the usual Darkroom process is now in the computer. There are four (4) basic
steps in the processing of digital images through computer and computer software:
(1) capture, (2) downloading, (3) image editing, and (4) printing.
1. Capture — this is the process by which an image is recorded first by a digital
device such as a camera,
scanners or similar gadgets in order to have a digital file of the electronic image. 2.
Downloading - Electronic image file is then sent to a computer using a cable, a
dock, or a card reader or itself if it is the scanner attached to the computer. 3. Image
editing – this is the process of modifying the picture with the aid of image-editing
software, the picture can be made in a different presentation, a person may crop, add
effects, and do other things before finally deciding to print it. 4. Printing - this is
done with the aid of a printer and the use of photographic paper for printers. An
image that was already edited can easily be made visible through the Usual printing
process done in the computer printer.
REFERENCES
City
Photography. ChapterHouse Publishing Incorporated Novaliches
Quezon City.
Villarba, Waynefred H.(2006). Forensic Photography for Criminology student
and Practitioners. Wiseman’s Book Trading,Inc. Quezon City
Philippines.

For this Module, we collect your name, program, year and section, contact number,
email address, Facebook and messenger account when you submit your printed
module for purposes of coordination and communication.
Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:
Vision 2020

Mission
Core Values (3CT)
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

Module
In
FORC 101
Course Code
Education BS-Crim
Module No. 6
LENS

2nd Semester 2022
Sheila Lou G. Pili
Assistant Professor
IV Aika S. Lunado
Instructor I
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges.
It covers the topic about Forensic Photography.
media platforms.
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort
were spent in the preparation in order that learning will still
continue amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue
Bee, your
WPU Mascot.
University!
experience.
Chapter 6
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the meaning of lens;
2. Identify the different classification of the lens as well as its inherent
defects;
3. Categorize the characteristics of the lens; and
4. Determining the accurate needs of exposure.
Specific Topics
a) Lens
Chapter 6

LENS
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module discusses the lens, it also includes the classification of lenses, the
inherent lens defects, lens characteristics, its exposure, and different filters.
The lens is the image-forming device of the camera that actually has a greater
effect on the quality of the image to be formed. It is a medium or converges or
diverges light rays passing through it to form an image. It can be a glass or
transparent material, which permits light to pass through and change the direction
of light.
Daniel Barbaro is credited as the first to introduce the use of a lens in the camera.
II. CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
A. According to the type of image to be produced
1. Positive or Convex Lens (converging Lens) characterized by the fact
that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of
bending the light together and forming the image inversely.
2. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) is characterized by the
fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the
virtual image on the same side of the lens.
B. According to Degree of Corrections
1. Meniscus Lens – a lens that has no correction
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens -lens corrected of distortion
3. Anastigmat Lens- correcting astigmatism
4. Achromatic Lens – lens correcting chromatic aberration
5. Apochromatic Lens – lens correcting both astigmatism and aberration
III. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS
1. Spherical Aberration— Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side
of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at
the side.
2. Coma (Also known as lateral aberration) - Inability of the lens to
focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the
light reaching the lens oblique is the one that is transmitted sharply.
3. Curvature of Field - the relation of the images of the are different
points incorrect with respect to one another.
4. Distortion - Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be
Pincushion distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration - Inability of the lens to focus light of varying
wavelengths. The lens refracts rays of short wavelength stronger than those
of longer wavelengths and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus
than the red.

6. Astigmatism - is a form of lens defect in which the horizontal and
vertical axis are not equally magnified. It is the lens to focus on both
inabilities horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification.
8. Flares – a condition of the lens producing multiple reflexes of light.
Parts of Lenses

1.
Filter Thread- The Filter Thread or Filter Ring is a threaded section inside the
front of a lens to allow accessories such as filters and lens hoods to be attached.
What is a Drop-in Filter?
Drop-in filters or square filters are a type of filter that fits into a holder. The
holder screws into the lens bezel at the front.
What is Rear Filter?
Some lenses do not accept filters at the front of the lens. This is especially true
for specialty lenses, such as extreme wide-angle/fisheye lenses.
What is Lens Hood?
A piece of plastic or metal that attaches to the front of your camera lens and makes
it look more professional. A lens hood, also known as a lens shade, attaches to the
front of your lens and blocks stray light from causing flares in your photographs. It
also helps protect the lenses from damage if you bump into something. The lens
hood stops the ambient direct light from running your images.
2. Focusing Ring- This is a ring on the lens body, which moves the lens elements
inside the lens. By adjusting the position of the glass elements, the image produced
by the lens can be brought into clear focus.
3. Manual/Auto Focus Lens- Autofocusing is just one way to gain a sharp focus.
With this mode, the camera sends a signal to the lens forcing it to change its focal
placement.
a. Using Autofocus with Manual- Manual lenses have a special
feature, allowing you to autofocus the camera, then tweak the result
manually. b. Internal and External Focusing- There are two different
types of focusing: internal and external.
4. Distance Indicator- Many focusing rings have markings or a window
indicating a distance. This shows the approximate distance of objects in the focus
for the current settings, measured from the front of the lens to the object. Its main
use is for close-up photography.
5. Lens Specifications Markings- The number you’ll find on a lens is all very
important. The first number you’ll come across is usually the lens focal length.
This number is represented in millimeters.
A focal length range will have two numbers separated by a dash. 24-70 mm
is a good example and means you are holding a zoom lens.
The second number you’ll find on a lens is the maximum aperture. If you
have one number, it means your zoom lens has a fixed maximum aperture.
6. Distance Indicator- Lenses, especially those for film and analog, have a built-
in distance indicator. These are for the purpose of focusing, especially when you

need to focus on infinity.
7. Depth of Field Indicator- The lenses that have distance indicators usually
have Depth of Field indicators too. These are marked as ‘22’, ‘11’ and ‘8’. The
number may differ, depending on the lens, its design, and its properties.
8. Aperture Ring- The word aperture means opening and describes the size of
the hole lens.
9. Zoom Ring- Whether wide-angle, standard, or telephoto- every lens falls
into one category; zoom or prime. The first lenses only had a fixed focal length.
IV. LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length - is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to
an infinite position. Accordingly, focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus - with focal length not longer than
the diagonal half of the negative. It is useful in taking photographs at
short distances with wider area coverage. (less than 35 mm)
b. Normal or Medium Focus – with focal length approximately
equal but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
(More than 35 less than 70)
c. Long or Telephoto Lens – with a focal length longer than twice
the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long-distance
photographing but with narrow area coverage. (More than 70 mm) d.
ZOOM Lens – a lens with variable focal length or that which can be
adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more elements in
the lens system.
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in
F number.
The lens of the camera plays an important role in capturing the quality of
photographs. The size of the lens opening on the other hand controls how much
light reaches the film at a given time. The lens opening is derived as the ratio
between the
focal length of the lens and the diameter of the whole lens. The different sizes of the
lens opening are expressed in f- numbers.
The smallest f-number represents the largest opening and the highest f

number refers to the smallest lens opening. In short, the smaller the f-number, the
bigger the lens opening, and the bigger the f- number the smaller the lens opening.
These lens openings may vary from f- 2.8, f-4, f- 5.6, f-8, f-11, and f-16. In some
lenses, there could be f-1.4, f- 1.7, f-1.9 to f- 22. In a camera with f-2.8 to f-16, it only
shows that f-2.8 would have the highest lens opening and f-16 would have the
smallest opening.
Changing the lens opening from f- 2.8 to f-4 will cut the light by half as much
light as the f-2.8 admits. Therefore, f-2.8 will admit two (2) times lighter than that
of f-4 setting.
The lens opening plays an important role in the depth of field. The depth of
field is the distance from the nearest object to the farthest object that would be
sharp once the camera is focused at a given distance. The lens opening helps the
photographer select the depth of field he wanted. Using a larger lens opening such
as
f-2.8 will make the camera in focus only a few feet in front of or behind the sharpest
center portion. It would make the foreground and the background blurred and the
image at the middle will stand out sharply.
Using a smaller lens opening, such as f-8 or f-16, the camera will have a
larger such as 10 feet in the front range of focus, and 15 feet to the back. Any object
within this range will be sharp and those too near and too far will be out of focus.
So if the objective of the photographer is to get a smaller lens wider depth of field,
opening would be advisable.
Hyperfocal distance - is the nearest distance at which when a lens is
focused with a given particular diaphragm opening will give the maximum depth of
field.
3. Focusing - Another feature of an adjustable lens is the ability of its lens to be set

at a proper camera-to-subject distance in order to obtain the desired degree of
sharpness. Focusing is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp
image.
On some cameras, the photographer has to estimate the distance between the
camera lens and the subject and set the scale accordingly. with more precise
cameras, rangefinders were set in order to get the necessary distance (focus). The
proximate distance or scale of focus is indicated around the camera lens. These
numbers indicate that within such feet distance the object to be from the
camera, the object to be photographed will be at its sharp focus.
Types of Focusing Device
1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence is otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this
type of focusing, a single object will appear double once the object is not in focus;
but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or will be
superimposed to form a single object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or
two parts once the object is not in focus. once the two parts of the image have
been united, then the object will become focused.
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is
not in focus, the object will be viewed as blurred and will turn sharp and clear once
adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control
based on the photographer's estimation.
V. EXPOSURE
Exposure is the product of the intensity of light and the time during which
the light practical acts. In photography, in particular, is the combination of lens
aperture and the shutter speed that must be chosen to give a good negative. Good
quality is desired by the photographer in order to: (1) to get a print of the best
possible quality by giving the actual value of the exposure low; (2) to keep the
duration of exposure to arrest movement; and (3) by keeping the lens aperture
small, to give the greatest possible depth of field.
Methods of Computing Exposure
1. Use of light meter or Exposure meter - an instrument that measures the light
intensity by the effect of light on the electric photocells. It is usually composed of (a)
photo-electric cell, (b) micro-ammeter, and (c) kind some calculator. Exposure
meters can either be: (1) reflected light meters, the most common type of
photoelectric cell which measures the total amount of light which comes from the
scene to be photographed; (2) Incident light meters, an alternative type of light
meter which measures the light incident on a scene instead of that reflected from it;
and (3) built-in meter, usually a highly compact version of a normal separate meter

(cadmium sulphide cell system permit particularly compact design. It is usually a
reflected light meter.
2. By taking into consideration factors such as emulsion speed or the film speed,
light condition, kind of subject.
Example: when photographing a normal subject using a film rating of
ASAIOO in combination with a shutter speed of 1/125 of a second, the
following lens opening or aperture according to the following light condition
are considered:
Bright Sunlight - f-11
Hazy Sunlight - f-8
Dull sunlight - f-5.6
Wrong exposures may affect details, tone production, and contrast of the
photograph of the image. An underexposed photograph lacks details of the areas
corresponding to the shadows while overexposure causes the highlights to become
flat and "burnt-out".
Factors to be considered in obtaining good exposure.
1. Lighting condition
Lighting condition is of great importance since the amount of light the reach
sensitized that would greatly depend on the material available source of light. This
will also serve as a basis in determining the need to make additional lighting in
order to achieve the desired exposure.
2. Type of object to be photographed
The type of object/ subject to be photographed is also a factor in as subjects
different may as reflect/absorb or transmit light in varying intensities.
3. The Film sensitivity/Emulsion speed
The ASA, DIN, or ISO rating is also a factor to be considered since the quality
of the film varies on their sensitivity to light. A film with a higher rating is more
sensitive and it is more appropriate when the light source is not sufficient. On the
other hand, too high a film sensitivity rating is not so good for a very strong source
of lighting. In order to produce good photographs, the film must be exposed to the
right amount of light; otherwise, the film would either be overexposed or
underexposed to light. A film that is exposed to a small quantity of light would
produce too dark an image. On the contrary, if the amount of light that would
expose the film will be too
much, the image would be too light or washed out. Thus, factors such as film speed
or emulsion speed should be taken into relation to the consideration in available
lighting conditions, types of cameras, distance, and controls shutter.
4. Shutter speed
Shutter speed is also a factor to be considered for it can fasten or delay the
opening and closing of the shutter, thus adjusting the time of exposure. This is also
very important when objects are either moving or not. In order to freeze a moving
object, a faster shutter speed is required.

5. Len Aperture/Lens opening
The lens opening greatly affects the depth of field of a given thus it should
also be a photograph, considered especially in photographing a group of people or
objects. It also affects exposure. Depending on the size of the lens opening, the
amount of light that will pass through and will reach the sensitized material will
vary.
Illustration:
On bright sunlight using ASAIOO and shutter speed of 1/125, the lens
aperture is that of F-11 ideal based on experiments and experience of the learned
photographer. If the photographer would take a photograph under the same light
condition but with an object that is moving, adjustment with the shutter would be
necessary. But this would require an adjustment in the lens aperture in order to
achieve the same exposure.
f- 5.6 will allow four times more light to pass through than f-11 since f-
5.6 is twice wider than f-11.
BS-ASAIOO,1/125, f- 11= ASA 100/500, F-5.6
1/125 will allow four times more light than 1/500 since 1/125 is twice
slower than 1/500.
VI. FILTERS
These are transparent glasses or plastics placed over the lens which has an
effect on the quality of light that would enter the lens and reach the sensitized
material. It is a homogenous medium that absorbs and transmits different light rays
passing through it.
Filter Factor - It is the number of times that the normal exposure must be
multiplied so as to obtain the normal exposure with the use of a filter. This is
necessary since the filter may subtract some light that would pass through the lens,
thus an increase in exposure or lens opening will be required to obtain the same
exposure when the filter is not in use.
In black and white photography, the use of a filter will change the tone of
gray. In color photography, it will have the effect of actually changing the color. The
color filter works in such a way that it will block other colors and allow its own color
to pass through the lens.
Types of Filter
1. Correction filter - used to change the response of the film so that all colors are '
recorded at approximately the relative brightness values seen by the eye. 2.
Contrast filter- used to change the relative brightness values so that two colors
will have a better contrast or of different degrees of brightness.
3. Haze filter- used to illuminate or reduce the effect of aerial haze. 4. Neutral
density filter- used for reducing the amount of light transmitted without
changing the color value.
5. Polarizing filter – used to reduce or illuminate reflections on highly glossy or

reflective surfaces.
REFERENCES
City
Photography. ChapterHouse Publishing Incorporated Novaliches
Quezon City.
Villarba, Waynefred H.(2006). Forensic Photography for Criminology
student and Practitioners. Wiseman’s Book Trading,Inc. Quezon City
Philippines.
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=parts+of+camera+lens&fr=yf
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