The document provides an overview of anatomy in ancient Egypt. It discusses possible sources of anatomical knowledge for ancient Egyptian physicians, including observing injuries from battle or accidents. It describes evidence of anatomical knowledge found in medical papyri from the time, such as the Ebers Papyrus noting the heart as the source of blood vessels. The embalmers who performed mummification had extensive knowledge of the body's structures, which laid the foundation for later Greek anatomical study in Alexandria. Overall, the passage outlines how embalmers' practices and observations provided early insights into human anatomy, despite their purpose being religious preservation rather than scientific study.

1. MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

2. Page | 2
Contents
Chapter1 ................................................................................................................................................8
Ailment dissection.........................................................................................................................................9
Anatomy in Ancient Egypt...................................................................................................................10
Introduction: ...........................................................................................................................................10
Possible sources of anatomical knowledge: ...........................................................................................10
Evidence from medical papyri: ...............................................................................................................11
Ebres Papyrus: The Ebres papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that
the heart is the source of blood vessels. They were aware that the blood vessels were hollow, having a
mouth which opens to absorb medications, eliminate waste elements, distribute air and body secretions
and excretions, in confusion between bloovessels and other passages.......................................................12
Edwin smith papyrus: There are passages in the Edwin smith papyrus which offer quite remarkable
insight into knowledge of anatomy. These are mostly in the glosses that must have been added
subsequently to the original composition (1930) which was believed to have been written during the old
kingdom, since the only extant copy of the papyrus works systematically downwards from the head and
stops at the chest. These glimpses of anatomical knowledge are unfortunately limited to certain sections
of the upper part of the body.......................................................................................................................12
The vessels (metu) book .........................................................................................................................15
Diseases and Diagnosis .......................................................................................................................17
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................17
Causes of diseases...................................................................................................................................19
The human body was believed to be born in a healthy state, and could not fall ill or die except
through the influence of a foreign agent. In case of wounds or intestinal worms, that agent was
visible and the treatment prescribed was hence rational. As they were not aware of microbiology,
internal diseases were thought to be due to an occult force attributed to evil gods, a divine
punishment or magical procedures. The physician was obliged to neutralize this evil before turning
into actual treatment............................................................................................................................19
Hypoglycemia.....................................................................................................................................21
Diabetic Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome ............................................................................21

3. Page | 3
Diabetic Ketoacidosis .........................................................................................................................21
Bilharzias.................................................................................................................................................22
Bone disorders........................................................................................................................................22
Dwarfism ....................................................................... It was not a physical handicap in Ancient Egypt
....................................................................................................................................................................22
Tumors ....................................................................................................................................................23
Club foot..................................................................................................................................................23
Elephantiasis ...........................................................................................................................................24
Eye infections..........................................................................................................................................24
Wounds and injuries...............................................................................................................................24
Plague......................................................................................................................................................24
Poliomyelitis............................................................................................................................................24
DISEASES IN ANCIENT EGYPT: .............................................................................................................25
A) Congenital Disorders: .........................................................................................................................25
B) Acquired disorders:.............................................................................................................................27
Patients in ancient Egypt.....................................................................................................................41
The kings of New Kingdom .....................................................................................................................41
The kings of 18th
Dynasty:.......................................................................................................................41
Kings of 19th
Dynasty...............................................................................................................................47
The Twentieth Dynasty ...........................................................................................................................51
Priests in ancient Egypt...........................................................................................................................51
Now we will turn into another class of people who was the priest in ancient Egypt to know what is the
most disease affected them?....................................................................................................................51
A lot of studies made by many scholars concerning the famous diseases which attacked the ancient
Egyptians priests.....................................................................................................................................51
It can be notice that the ancient Egyptians priests considered to be an independent category because
they had their own traditions, customs and they also practiced a special way of treatment...................51
Priest’s famous diseases: .......................................................................................................................51
Commoners in ancient Egypt..................................................................................................................52
Women and children's diseases in ancient Egypt...................................................................................54
Ancient Egyptian diet..............................................................................................................................57
Chapter2 ..............................................................................................................................................60

4. Page | 4
Remedies in Ancient Egypt .........................................................................................................................61
The Health care practitioners in Ancient Egypt ..................................................................................62
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................62
The House of Life ....................................................................................................................................62
The house of life means in hieroglyphics pr ankh it is institution of learning attached to the temple where
priests were taught to read copy and compose sacred texts as well as being instructed in astronomy and
astrology geography medicine mathematics law theology and the interpretation of dreams. ....................62
The house of live would also have included scribal school for the children of the elite and it may have
played a role in supervising temple workshops a closely linked institution was the house of books (the
temple library).............................................................................................................................................62
House of life are known to have existed at many places such as................................................................62
1-Memphis 2-Akhmim 3-Coptos 4-Abydos 5 -Esna 6-Edfu ....................62
Per-ankh: The House of Life......................................................................................................................62
Location .................................................................................................................................................62
Functions................................................................................................................................................64
Library...............................................................................................................................................64
According to tradition, time and again people went to the House of Life to consult ancient writings,
when they needed answers to problems of their day. Thus Imhotep, the 3rd dynasty sage, did not
send an expedition to the sources of the Nile to find the causes for a great drought, but–according to
the Ptolemaic Famine Stele–rather studied the sacred texts, House of Life libraries were sizable
and encompassing, and it was also used as an Institute of higher learning .....................................64
School .................................................................................................................................................65
Literature...............................................................................................................................................66
The Practioners.......................................................................................................................................66
The specialists.........................................................................................................................................70
True and Less True Stories......................................................................................................................87
Egyptian physicians abroad.....................................................................................................................89
Medicine and pharmaceuticals...........................................................................................................95
Medicine .................................................................................................................................................95
Surgery in Ancient Egypt.......................................................................................................................127
Mummification .....................................................................................................................................138
Materials Used During the Mummification Process.............................................................................145
Chapter3.................................................................................................................................149
Religion in Medicine..................................................................................................................................150

5. Page | 5
'Anuqet..................................................................................................................................................151
MEDICAL PILGRIMAGE ............................................................................................................................177
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................177
Chapter4 ............................................................................................................................................182
Magic in Medicine.....................................................................................................................................183
Overview Of Ancient Egyptian Magic ...............................................................................................184
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................184
Ancient Egyptian Magic: “HEKA” ..........................................................................................................185
The Process of using magic...................................................................................................................187
Uses of Magic in Ancient Egypt.............................................................................................................188
Therapeutic Value of Magic “Heka”:.....................................................................................................194
Medical Amulets ...................................................................................................................................196
Medical Spells .......................................................................................................................................199
Magical Wands in Ancient Egypt: .........................................................................................................201
ApendixA...........................................................................................................................................203
Mummy Analysis...............................................................................................................................204
Introduction:.........................................................................................................................................204
Mummies: from collection to CAT scan:...............................................................................................204
First steps in analysis: ...........................................................................................................................205
X-ray: the new technology:...................................................................................................................206
The next steps in technology: ...............................................................................................................207
Methods for calculating the ages of the mummies:.............................................................................210
Skeletal examination:............................................................................................................................211
The royal mummies: .............................................................................................................................212
Injury and violence................................................................................................................................213
What do mummies reveal about heredity diseases? ...........................................................................214
Mummy Projects around the world......................................................................................................217
ApendixB ...........................................................................................................................................228
Medical Papyri in Ancient Egypt .......................................................................................................229
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................229
Kahun papyrus ......................................................................................................................................251

6. Page | 6
Hearst Papyrus......................................................................................................................................251
Ramesseum Papyrus.............................................................................................................................252
Chester beatty papyrus.........................................................................................................................252
AppendixC ........................................................................................................................................254
Farmed and Domesticated Animals......................................................................................................255
Ancient Egyptian domesticated animals. OK: Old Kingdom MK: Middle Kingdom NK: New Kingdom
..................................................................................................................................................................255
LP: Late Period Sheep [1]
, goats, cattle, pigs [2]
and geese were raised from earliest times and supplied
repectively milk, wool, meat, eggs, leather, skins, horn and fat. Even the dung had its uses [7]
. There is
little evidence that mutton was consumed, while domesticated pigs were eaten at least since the beginning
of the 4th millennium BCE [8]
, but pork had no place in religious ceremonies. Goat meat on the other hand
was acceptable even to upper class Egyptians. Goat skins served as water containers and floating devices.
The Egyptian farmers, in their early experimental phase, also tried to domesticate other animals such as
hyenas, gazelles and cranes, but abandoned these attempts after the Old Kingdom. The domestic
chicken didn't make its appearance until the New Kingdom, and then only in isolated places. It became
more common in the .................................................................................................................................255
Late Period. By then the Egyptians seem to have mastered artificial incubation. Diodorus Siculus (1st
century BCE) reports in his Historic Library ...........................................................................................255
Fattening...............................................................................................................................................255
Force feeding a goose Saqqara, 1st Intermediate Period Source: W.S.Smith, Country Life in Ancient
Egypt, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.....................................................................................................255
Cattle.....................................................................................................................................................255
Sheep and goats....................................................................................................................................256
Horses ...................................................................................................................................................257
Beasts of burden...................................................................................................................................257
Fish........................................................................................................................................................258
Sacrificial animals..................................................................................................................................258
Smaller animals and pets......................................................................................................................259
Veterinary medicine..............................................................................................................................260
The Tale of a Herdsman............................................................................................................................262
Animals divine, wild, domestic and imaginary......................................................................................262

7. Page | 7
Preface
Ancient Egyptian medicine had a very good reputation- as the Greek writer Homer remarked in
his epos Odyssey: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind". It
was not unusual that sovereigns from other countries asked the pharaoh to send his physicians to
cure them. A wall-painting found in a Theban grave depicts Neb-Amun, the royal physician
being rewarded for his work with gifts by a Syrian prince.
We can trace all this skill and proficiency in the field of medicine, to several factors that were
found in Ancient Egypt. Firstly, Egypt’s location; as Egypt was flooded every year with the Nile
making its land fertile and cultivable, inorder to keep the land good for crops the irrigation
channels had to be kept unblocked (From this came the idea that the body must have channels
(Metu) that shouldn’t be blocked otherwise an ailment occurs). Secondly, Trade; as Egypt used
to trade with Punt, Nubia and with cities in Asia from where they brought different spices that
helped them develop their medications and pharmaceuticals. Thirdly, Communications, as the
Ancient Egyptians used Hieroglyphics and Hieratic in writing that helped them transfer their
medical knowledge from one generation to the other; such evidence is found in the different
medical papyri such as the Ebres and the Edwin Smith papyrus. Fourthly, the Egyptian
government; because a settled community was in place that’s why different jobs were at place
(among which was the occupation of a Doctor or a “SWNW”, not to mention the presence of a
state law that organized the relation between doctors and patients. Fifthly, Religion; because of
the Ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife, they performed the process of mummification that
demanded the extraction of the deceased’s guts and that made the embalmers in Ancient Egypt
the first anatomists, not to mention that priests worked as physicians specially those of goddess
Sekhmet. Finally, technology; as due to the settled community technology in Ancient Egypt
relatively advanced faster than its neighboring civilizations, such development in technology led
to better and more precise tools to be used in medical surgeries.
Finally, it is well worth to mention that it is now more than 30 centuries since Egypt has been
under Mohammedan sway, and even longer since Christianity was introduced, the lower classes
still retain some of the beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians. They believe that the dead can feel, and
that ghosts of the murdered prowl about in the dusk. Innumerable remedies still exist to
counteract the dreadful effects of the “EVIL EYE”. Charms and amulets are but too common.
Superstitions with regard to pregnancy and child birth are numerous. They are in all probabilities
the outcome of ancient myths. All this has no explanation other than that the Ancient Egyptian
civilization used to be and obviously continues to influence and charm other cultures and
civilizations with its obscurity and overwhelming development.

8. Page | 8
Chapter 1

9. Page | 9
Ailment
dissection
1- Anatomy in Ancient
Egypt.
2- Diseases and diagnosis.
3- Medicine and
pharmaceuticals .

10. Page | 10
Anatomy in Ancient
Egypt
Introduction:
ANATOMY as a science came to
birth in Ancient Egypt. Though sired by the
Alexandrian Greek fathers of anatomy,
Egypt was its womb. The brilliancy of
Greek scientific enquiry in the later
centuries of the pre-Christian era achieved
nothing, so far as anatomy is concerned, in
its native land: for at home that enquiry
lacked the opportunity and material for its
legitimate exercise and was thus compelled
to seek the one possible theatre of operation,
Egypt. And hence Egypt, with her
immemorial, unchanging culture, stands
behind anatomical science (as behind so
much else), if not strictly as mother, at least
as foster-mother.
For Egypt, accidentally, but none the less
effectively, made possible the origin of
scientific anatomy. She provided the
materials, the opportunities and the
necessary philosophical atmosphere
essential to the questing Greek mind:
indeed, but for the fortuitous circumstance
that the Egyptians held uniquely distinctive
beliefs concerning existence beyond the
grave and that they gave concrete expression
to those beliefs in the mummification of
their dead, the beginnings of anatomical
science would not have been made (or so
adequately) when they were.
The precursor of the anatomist is the
Egyptian embalmer. Alone among the
peoples of antiquity the Egyptians, for
religious motives, submitted their dead to
extensive and elaborate techniques designed
to preserve permanently the frame and
lineaments of the deceased and which
necessitated a manipulation of the cadaver
unparalleled in intimacy elsewhere in time
or place, productive incidentally of at least a
quasi-scientific knowledge of human
structure.
It would be erroneous, in the light of present
knowledge, to regard the Egyptian
embalmer as an anatomist or indeed as a
scientist of any kind. He was a sacerdotal
technician concerned solely with preventing
the dissolution of the cadaver. His
procedures were purely ritual in origin and
intention and his techniques were strictly
utilitarian in purpose. That anatomical
knowledge resulted was accidental.
Nevertheless such fortuitous knowledge was
of the greatest importance, for it was
unrivalled elsewhere in the world. It was the
most extensive and the most detailed corpus
of ascertained anatomical data extant, one
denied to peoples who merely inhumed or
cremated their dead. It certainly led to some
speculation as to physiological function and,
imperfect as it was, it formed a basis upon
which, in due time, a truly scientific
understanding could be erected.
Possible sources of
anatomical knowledge:
Inspite of the obstacles placed in the
way of human dissection, The Egyptian
doctor must nevertheless have had the
opportunity to observe the human skeleton.
Although, there was a rich Egyptian
vocabulary for external parts of the body, we

11. Page | 11
know relatively few parts few names of
bones with the exception of the skull, lower
jaw, vertebrae, ribs and clavicles (collar-
bones). Battle casualties and industrial
accidents would provide an opportunity to
gain further anatomical insight. Sections of
the Edwin Smith papyrus, suggest that these
opportunities were not wasted. However,
Celsus rightly stressed the difficulties of
observing internal anatomical relationships
in the living subject.
The embalmers showed great technical
expertise, whether or not they understood
the details of the underlining anatomy. They
were able to remove those internal organs
most likely to putrefy through a relatively
small incision and transfer them, after
preservation, to canopic jars under the
protection of the four sons of Horus and the
corresponding protective goddesses.
Canopic jars with their contents and
protectors:
Content
s
Son of
Horus
Head
after
18th
dy
Protectiv
e goddess
Liver Imsety Human Isis
Lungs Hapy Baboo
n
Nephtys
Stomach Duamutef Jackal Neith
intestine Qebhsenue
f
hawk serqet
However, their most remarkable
achievement was the removal of the brain
through the nose. This required a perforation
through the ethmoid bone, seldom exceeding
2 cm (fig 3.2).
It is by no means clear to what extent the
anatomical skills of the embalmers were
passed to the doctors. Herodotus made it
very clear that in his time, the embalmers
were regarded as unclean, which might have
precluded dialogue with the doctors (swnw).
Evidence from medical
papyri:
Clement of Alexandria, born about
AD 150, was a convert to Christianity but
displayed an extensive knowledge of pagan
religion. He reported that the Egyptians
possessed a book which Manetho
improbably attributed to Djer. No such book
has been found, although fragments might
have survived in the Ebres and Berlin
papyri. It may also have been cited in some
of the glosses of the Edwin smith papyrus.
In all, we have tantalizingly little from
which to build a picture of the ancient
Egyptian knowledge of anatomy. There is
nevertheless a rich vocabulary for both
internal and external parts of the body, some
of which are shown in (fig3.3)

12. Page | 12
Ebres
Papyrus:
The Ebres papyrus (c. 1550 BCE)
features a treatise on the heart. It notes that
the heart is the source of blood vessels. They
were aware that the blood vessels were
hollow, having a mouth which opens to
absorb medications, eliminate waste
elements, distribute air and body secretions
and excretions, in confusion between
bloovessels and other passages.
The Egyptians seem to have known little
about the function of the kidneys and made
the heart the meeting point of a number of
vessels which carried all the fluids of the
body – blood, tears, urine and sperm. It also
describes the position of the heart precisely,
and illustrates some of its disorders, as
dropped beats.
Edwin
smith
papyrus:
There are passages in the Edwin
smith papyrus which offer quite remarkable
insight into knowledge of anatomy. These
are mostly in the glosses that must have
been added subsequently to the original
composition (1930) which was believed to
have been written during the old kingdom,
since the only extant copy of the papyrus
works systematically downwards from the
head and stops at the chest. These glimpses
of anatomical knowledge are unfortunately
limited to certain sections of the upper part
of the body.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus contains a
description of the brain and its pulsation.
Physicians were able to correlate it with
paralysis. That was affirmed 1200 years
before Hippocrates, the father of medicine,
who thought the brain was nothing but a
gland.
The physiology of blood circulation was
demonstrated in this Papyrus, together with
its relation to the heart, as well as awareness
of the importance of the pulse.
“It is there that the heart speaks”, and
“It is there that every physician and every
priest of Sekhmet places his fingers …….…
he feels something from the heart”.
They also knew that blood supply runs from
the heart to all organs of the body.

13. Page | 13
“There are vessels in him for every part of
the body”.
“It speaks forth in the vessels of every body
part”.
However, their inability to distinguish
between blood vessels, nerves, tendons and
channels has limited their full understanding
of the physiology of circulation.
It has the best anatomical detail related to
the skull. As a starting point for the skull
there can be little doubt that this is
represented by the Egyptian word
“djennet”.
Glosses in cases 4 &7 make it clear that the
paired parietal bones (forming the vault of
the skull) were known as “paqyt” a word
also used for the shell of turtle to which the
similarity is evident. In one instant the word
means the frontal bone of the skull.
There is a separate word for the back of the
head or occipital “ha” and a region of the
skull called the “gema” is defined in gloss b
of case 18. As for (gema) it is what is in
between the corner of his eye and the officer
of his ear to the back of his lower jaw.
There is further evidence that the bones of
the vault of the skull were recognized as
separate entities.
Gloss A of case 7 defines the term “tepu”:
As for (perforating the tepu of his skull) it is
what is between shell and (paqyt) of his
skull.
The tepu are of leather. There are
suggestions for the tepu:
The most obvious suggestion is that it refers
to the flax cerebra hemispheres and could
have been seen in a major head injury
exposing the brain.
It must also have been known to the
embalmers however breasted favored tepu
meaning the sutures which join the
individual bones of the cranium.
These are broad and conspicuous in infancy
but less obvious in the adult.
The ancient Egyptians were certainly aware
of the existence of the fontanel a fibrous
plate filling the gap between the parietal and
frontal bones in very young children.
Cases 6 and 8 both refer to ‘the weakness of
the crown of the head of the child before it
becomes whole “.
A new approach is by Chapman who made
the interesting suggestion that the two
(paqyt) refered to the inner and the outer
tables of the skull; these separate to form the
frontal sinus and he proposed that “tepau”
might refer to this structure.
The word tepau also appears as an unknown
disease of the head in Ebres 712.
The contents of the skull were known not
only to the embalmer but also as a result of
observation of head injuries.
It seems from case 6 of the Edwin smith
papyrus that the appearance of the brain was
recognized:
If you examine a man (having) a gaping
wound in his head reaching the bone
smashing his skull and breaking open his
brain you should feel (palpate) his wound

14. Page | 14
You find that smash which is his skull (like)
the corrugation which appear on (molten)
copper and something there in throbs and
flutes under your fingers like the weak place
in the crown of the head of the child when it
has not become whole.
The remarkable passage (duplicated in the
second examination of the case8) is the
earliest known description of the brain.
Gloss b in case 6 leaves no rooms for doubt
that the corrugations refer to the slag which
forms on molten and the copper and bears
some resemblance to the surface of the
brain.
The weak place in the crown of the head of
the child must refer to the anterior fontanels
which usually remains open until the second
year of life.
Iversen and the grundriss and Faulkner take
the word (ais)to mean viscera and therefore
the viscera of the skull would be the brain
however breasted took “ais”to mean the
brain and translated the phrase as “the brain
of the skull “.
The difference is largely academic and does
not alter our general conclusion that the
presence of the brain within the skull was
organized.
There is another word “amem” which
means brain but it only appeared in the
medical papyri as a remedy in the form of
the brain of the various animals.
Finally in this section we note that the
Egyptian recognized that the brain was
covered by a fibrous membrane “netnet”
probably the durable mater and was
surrounded by fluid.
We are left in no doubt by gloss A of case 6;
As for “a smash of his skull exposing the
brain” the smash is a large opening to the
interior of his skull to the membrane (netnet)
enclosing the brain it breaks into his in the
interior of his head.
The word “netnet” is very rare but its
determinative as the skin of the cow and the
meaning seems certain.
The fluid in the interior of the head would
appear to be the cerebrospinal fluid but it
would surely be difficult if not impossible to
recognize in the presence of the bleeding
which accompanies a head injury.
There are 2 words for the lower jaw “wegyt
&aret” which are used interchangeably and
sometimes in the same sentence.
The determinative is an excellent anatomical
drawing of the mandible. The vertical part of
the mandible has its own name “amat” and
the articulation with temporal bone is well
described in gloss A of case 22.
As for (the end of his ramus) it means the
end of the mandible.
The ramus, the end of it is in his temple
(gema) like the claw of the (ama)bird when
it grasps an object.
The particular process of the mandible does
vaguely resemble one claw of a two clawed
bird although unfortunately the ama bird has
never been identified.

15. Page | 15
Insight into this area is enhanced by a clear
description of the temporalis muscles in a
case of lockjaw (gloss B of case 7).
This gloss sets out to explain the unfamiliar
anatomical use of the old kingdom word for
cord.
As for “the cord of his mandible is
contracted” it means a stiffening of the
(metu) at the back of his ramie fastened into
the temple (gema) that is the back of his jaw
(wegyt) without moving to and from
It is not easy to open his mouth because of
the pain.
As for “a fracture of the chamber “shetyt” of
his nose “it means the middle of nose from
the bottom to the back extending to between
the eyebrows.
This gives a clear indication of the
conformation of the nasal cavity information
which must have been familiar to the
embalmers for the removal of the brain
through the nose.
These few examples are sufficient to show
that where we have documentary evidence
the anatomical knowledge of the swnw was
remarkably good for the second and the
third millennium B.C.
If this level of the knowledge was attained
for the skull & lower jaw &nose we can
surmise that it would probably have reached
a similar level for other parts which are not
covered by the Edwin papyrus
What we certainly accords with the
statement of clement that an anatomical
book was in existence and it highlights the
tragedy of its loss.
The vessels (metu) book
This refers to parts of paragraphs 854 and
856 of the Ebres papyrus and paragraph 163
of Berlin papyrus which parallels paragraph
856 of the Ebres.
Each is divided in to a number of sub
paragraphs designated by letters they
describe the connections of the” metu
vessels” which is the plural of “met” a word
having no direct equivalent in English.
Its meanings include blood vessels &various
ducts &and also tendons and muscles
particularly those which are long and thin
It may also include nerves but it is unclear
whether the ancient Egyptians had any
concept of the blood in two instances: air,
mucus and urine bearing entities and also
malign or benign spirits
It is hardly surprising that those metu which
would appear to be arteries were thought to
contain air.
This was the general belief until the time of
Galen who on the latter part of the second
century had opened a dog artery between
ligatures under water and showed
conclusively that it contained blood and not
air
Misconception arose because arteries
usually contract after death and contain little
if any blood when opened at postmortem or
dissection

16. Page | 16
Once pierced their natural elasticity causes
them to open giving the impression that they
originally contained air
The Latin word arteria means windpipe as
well as artery
gloss A of case 34 in Edwin smith papyrus
mentions two metu beneath the (collar
bones) one on the right and one on the left of
the throat which lead to the lung .
It is just possible that these refer to the
trachea dividing into two bronchi
There would appear to be two separate
systematic descriptions of the metu with
some overlap for the ears, arms and legs
The first listing is Ebres papyri 854 and
second ebres 856 with its parallel text Berlin
163.

17. Page | 17
Diseases and Diagnosis
Introduction
An alteration in the state of the body
or of some of its organs, interrupting or
disturbing the performance of the vital
functions, and causing or threatening pain
and weakness; malady; affection; illness;
sickness; disorder; -- applied figuratively to
the mind, to the moral character and habits,
to institutions, the state, etc .
Ancient Egyptians suffered from a variety of
diseases, both;
Congenital Disorders- Egypt is a major
source of skeletal evidence for
achondroplasia. One poignant specimen is
an achondroplastic woman with her
undeliverable fetus; in our day, a Caesarean
section is necessary for a live birth. Two
embalmed fetuses were recovered from
Tutankhamun's tomb in 1926. One had a
congenital defect-spinal bifida. Whether
they were children of his wife
Ankhesenamun is unknown. Club foot, cleft
palate, and hydrocephalus have also been
found.
Acquired Disorders- Ancient Egypt gives
us some of the earliest evidence for
tuberculosis from the ancient world. There
are several related types of the tubercle
bacilli. The bovine and human strain is what
threatened the health of the ancient
Egyptians. It is extremely contagious.
Overcrowding in many households provided
the ideal conditions for the spread of
disease. Tuberculosis is believed to have
been acquired by humans from livestock.
This developed as a result of their cultural
practices and environment. Although rare,
achondroplasia has been depicted in many
bas reliefs and ornaments. Two of the finest
examples were in the sarcophagus of Djehor
(late period) on which was depicted an
achondroplasiac dancer, and from
Tutankhamen's tomb an alabaster boat sailed
by an achondroplasiac. Such was the
fascination these individuals inspired that
their unique forms were defied as the god-
Bes who became the divine protector of
pregnant women from the New Kingdom
onwards.
The results of consanguineous mamrages
were often evident within the Pharaonic
household. Autopsy of Amenophis III's
mummy demonstrated gynaecomastia and
signs of feminization, including
hypogonadism probably as a result of
inbreeding, and although the father of six
daughters he would almost certainly have
suffered from a degree of infertility. Two of
his granddaughters, Meretatim and
Ankhsenpaatin, married close cousins, the
former Smenkhkare and the latter the now
familiar name of the future Pharaoh,
Tutankhaten. Noteworthy is Howard Carter's
excavation of Tutankhamen’s tomb that
revealed a mummified still born which
suffered from Sprengel's disease: a condition
most likely a result of the genetic stagnation
due to the consanguineous practices of the
Royal court. Acquired conditions were
numerous, and resulted in significant
morbidity among the population, although
ironically by the time of the Greek period
travel to Egypt to enjoy its dry sunny
climate was hailed as a remedy for a

18. Page | 18
multitude of ailments. Leprosy
(Mycobacterium leprae) is believed to have
arisen in China in the first millennium BC,
with the armies of Alexander the Great
bringing the disease, via India, to Egypt
around 350 BC27. In 1980, four skeletons
dating from the Greek period were
discovered with leprosy. A far more prolific
condition afflicting the Nile valley
inhabitants, also caused by a
mycobacterium, was prevalent as early as
3300BC during the initial herding period of
Fayium A, namely tuberculosis
(Mycobacterium tuberculosum). Many
statuettes demonstrate Potts disease and
tuberculosis has been isolated from many
mummies, notably that of Nesperhen (XXI
Dyn) whose death was most probably
attributable to that disease. Little else is
recorded in literature about the extent of
infectious diseases although it is thought that
Ramesses V suffered from smallpox, on the
basis of skin lesions found on the
mummified skin of his face and trunk.
Like modern day inhabitants of Egypt the
populous suffered greatly from parasitic
infections. In 1910 Sir Marc Ruffer, an
eminent Egyptologist, discovered mummies
dating to the XX dynasty which still
contained their kidneys, unusual considering
most mummies of this period were
eviscerated and from which were isolated
calcified Bilharzia eggs. Further
demonstration of Bilharzia infection and its
consequences were found at autopsy of the
mummy of Ramesses V who, apart from
skin damaged by smallpox, demonstrated
gynaecomastia, enlarged scrotal sac and an
umbilical hernia; all complications of long-
term Bilharzia infection.
The ancient Egyptians suffered numerous
epidemics and often tomb art described
pestilence and death in years when the Nile's
inundation failed. The use of genetic
techniques such as polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) has enabled medico-
Egyptologists to determine the types of
infection that afflicted this ancient
population and so build a picture of disease
migration and prevalence during almost the
entire Dynastic period33'34. Further
parasitic infestations have come to light;
Hydatid disease in the lung cavity of the
mummy of Asru and a space-occupying
cranial lesion, thought to be a tapeworm
cyst, in mummy 22940 of the Manchester
Museum Mummy collection. The mummy
of the XX Dynasty weaver Nakht, in the
reign of Smenkhkare, was shown to have
been infested with Taenia, Trichenella
spiralis and Bilharzia; a situation that must
have been commonplace other prevalent
afflictions in ancient Egypt were arthritis,
osteomyleitis and periostitis; of 133
mummies screened in 1961, 30% were
shown to have Harris's lines. A further study
of 185 Nubian skeletons dating from 1500-
1000 BC, showed that women were by far
the greatest sufferers from disease, probably
as a result of poorer nutrition and the
demands of childbirth. Unlike most Western
societies, ischaemic heart disease and cancer
were both rare as neither the diet nor the
relative shortness of their lives predisposed
to such conditions. However, the mummy of
Ramesses II was reported to have lived 90
years (after Manetho) and had calcified
temporal arteries and that of Lady Teye
(XXI Dyn), entombed at Deir el-Bahri, was
shown to have atheroma of the coronary
arteries and mitral valves. Perhaps the more
luxurious diet and sedentary lifestyle of the
Pharaohs and their court set them apart from
the average Egyptian and increased their risk
of ischaemic heart disease. Examples of
neoplasia are few but some cases of
osteochondroma have come to light as well
as a case, dated to 835 BC, of a female
mummy shown to have left breast
fibroadenoma41. Finally, an unusual case of
multiple basal cell naevus was diagnosed
after the discovery that two skeletons from

19. Page | 19
Asyut (approx 1000 BC) had multiple
cysticlesions of the jaw and bifid ribs. The
great diversity of disease provides some idea
as to the clinical problems faced by the
ancient Egyptian 'Swnw',
The management of which was often based
on remedies devised by the physician and
passed down from generation to generation
in papyri and by word of mouth.
Causes of diseases
The human body was believed to be
born in a healthy state, and could not fall ill
or die except through the influence of a
foreign agent. In case of wounds or
intestinal worms, that agent was visible and
the treatment prescribed was hence rational.
As they were not aware of microbiology,
internal diseases were thought to be due to
an occult force attributed to evil gods, a
divine punishment or magical procedures.
The physician was obliged to neutralize this
evil before turning into actual treatment.
Despite such limitation in their knowledge
of the causes of diseases, their study of
anatomy and physiology was so advanced.
No doubt, this was due to their embalming
of the dead, when other nations at that time
used to burn them. For instance, the process
of emptying the skull through the nostrils by
means of a long hook could have never been
devised without a good knowledge of the
anatomy of the head and brain. In our
modern medicine, many brain surgeries are
nowadays performed through this route.
They obtained a good knowledge of the
meanings, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the
twitches and pulsations, and were aware that
the brain was the seat of the body control.
"If thou examine a man having a gaping
wound in his head penetrating to the bone,
smashing his skull, and rending opens the
brain of his skull, thou should palpate his
wound. Should thou find that smash which
in his skull like those corrugations which
form in molten copper, and something
therein throbbing and fluttering under thy
fingers, like the weak place of an infant's
crown before it becomes whole- when it has
happened there is no throbbing and
fluttering under thy fingers until the brain of
his skull is sent open and he discharges
blood from both his nostrils, and he suffers
with stiffness in his neck."
The Ebers Papyrus describes the position of
the heart precisely, and illustrates some of
its disorders, as dropped beats. Egyptian
physicians recognized the heart as the source
of blood vessels. They were aware that the
blood vessels were hollow, having a mouth
which opens to absorb medications,
eliminate waste elements, distribute air and
body secretions and excretions, in confusion
between blood vessels and other passages.
The physiology of blood circulation was
demonstrated in the Edwin Smith Papyrus,
together with the relation to the heart, as
well as awareness of the importance of the
pulse.
“It is there that the heart speaks” and “It is
there that every physician and every priest
of Sekhmet places his fingers …….… he
feels something from the heart”.
They also knew that blood supply runs from
the heart to all organs of the body.
“There are vessels in him for every part of
the body”.

20. Page | 20
“It speaks forth in the vessels of every body
part”.
However, their inability to distinguish
between blood vessels, nerves, tendons and
channels has limited their full understanding
of the physiology of circulation.
Malaria
A bite from a parasite-infected
mosquito causes malaria. There are five
species of Plasmodium (P.) parasites that
infect people.
Infection with P. Falciparum:
 P. falciparum is
found mostly in
the tropics and
subtropics (near
the equator).
 Infection with P.
falciparum can
lead to life-
threatening
complications
after the first
few days.
 P. falciparum is
often resistant to
a popular anti
malarial
medicine
(chloroquine)
and needs
treatment with
other medicines.
Infection with P. vivax, P. malaria, P. ovale,
or P. knowlesi:
 P. vivax and P.
malaria occur all
over the tropical
regions of the
world. P. ovale
is found in
western Africa,
and P. knowlesi
is found in
Southeast Asia.
 Infection with P.
vivax, P.
malaria, or P.
ovale is usually
not life-
threatening, and
a person may
recover in a
month without
treatment. But
infection with P.
knowlesi may be
fatal.
 P. vivax, P.
malaria, P.
ovale, and P.
knowlesi are
generally not as
drug-resistant as
P. falciparum.
 P. vivax P.
ovale, and P.
knowlesi may
stay in the liver,
requiring further
treatment with
medicine to
prevent relapses.
How the disease spreads
Malaria is spread when an infected
Anopheles mosquito bites a person. This is
the only type of mosquito that can spread
malaria. The mosquito becomes infected by
biting an infected person and drawing blood
that contains the parasite. When that
mosquito bites another person, that person
becomes infected.

21. Page | 21
Diabetic Comas
A diabetic coma is a life-threatening
complication affecting people with type I or type
II diabetes. Diabetic comas are typically caused
by complications from either extremely high or
low blood sugar levels. Careful management of
blood glucose can prevent this problem from
occurring.
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia is a condition in which the
level of glucose in your bloodstream is
abnormally low. Among diabetics, this can
occur if you do not eat frequently enough or
skip meals, drink too much alcohol, engage
in intense exercise or take too much insulin.
Without enough sugar, your organs, tissues
and brain may not have the energy they need
to be able to function normally. Severe
hypoglycemia that comes on acutely can
cause blood sugar to drop by a large amount
so quickly that it causes loss of
consciousness. If you do not get treatment,
or if treatment is not able to raise your blood
sugar to normal before a significant amount
of time has passed, you may lapse into a
diabetic coma.
Diabetic Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar
Syndrome
Diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar
syndrome is a condition that occurs when
your blood sugar level rises to significantly
high levels--more than 600mg/dl. Common
among older people with type II diabetes,
diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar
syndrome causes a thickening of the blood,
increased urinary output of sugar and other
vital fluids from the body, severe
dehydration, nausea, weakness, fatigue,
diminished alertness, feelings of confusion
and convulsions. If the condition is not
treated promptly, it can lead to more severe
impairments in movement, sensation and
speech and life-threatening dehydration that
affects blood pressure and heart rate. Not
only can diabetic hyperglycemic
hyperosmolar syndrome lead to a diabetic
coma, it may also cause a swelling of the
brain, potentially fatal circulatory problems
and a buildup of acid in the bloodstream.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic Ketoacidosis occurs as a
complication of diabetes when the body
begins to break down fat for energy because
it has insufficient insulin to break down
glucose. Ketones are toxic byproducts that
are released when fat is broken down. As
high levels of ketones accumulate in the
body, they become poisonous, resulting in a
number of symptoms such as a fruity breath,
nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, rapid
breathing, dry skin, headache and frequent
thirst and urination. As the condition
progresses, it can cause increased difficulty
in breathing while lying down, muscle
stiffness and confusion that may quickly
progress to loss of consciousness or coma.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis is a potentially life-
threatening condition.
Other important causes include urolithiasis
with subsequent obstruction and infection,
long-term drug abuse, and possibly
environmental pollution. The magnitude of
pollution's contribution remains
questionable: an association has been
documented only for occupational exposure
to lead, cadmium, and mercury.

22. Page | 22
Bilharzias
The parasite was discovered in 1851
by Bilharz, so it is unlikely that the ancient
Egyptians ever identified it.
Larval forms of the worm strongyloides in
the intestines of the mummy ASRU
Hematuria was probably common in ancient
Egypt schistosomiasis has certainly been
very common in Egypt in twenty century.
The mummy of ROM II has been shown to
harbor the ova of schistosoma haematobium
and to display change in the liver that many
have resulted from the schistosomal
infestation
Evidence of schistosomiasis infection in
Egyptian mummies may now be adduced
from presence of specific antigens in their
tissues using immunological tests.
Infections with the worm strongyloides like
schistosomiasis , in acquired by immature
forms of the worm penetrating unprotected
parts of the body , so it's perhaps not
surprising that larval forms of this worm we
found in the intestines of the mummy of
ASRU.
To show the evidence of schistosomiasis ,
the mummy of ROM I was found to harbor a
tape worm of taenia species .
Hydatid cysts have been found in the brain
of one Egyptian mummy and in the lungs of
another... a common cause of anemia,
female infertility, a debilitating loss of
resistance to other diseases and subsequent
death. Example - Ramses II, and Pasmatik's
daughter Nitocris.
Bone disorders
The Non specific bone inflammation
isn't rare in human remains from older
societies.
The evidence of this is over whelming and
phenomenon is of interest in view of
opinions formerly phenomenon held by
same morbid anatomists that the
inflammatory processes are also seen in
fossil animals.
But their causes are likely to remain
obscure.
It has been suggested that many specific
infections were probably rare or absent.
Might have been caused by a wide range of
organisms such nonspecific changes are of
significant frequency in early cemeteries,
but are difficult to interpret.
It divided bone inflammation into;
periostitis , osteitis , ostesmyelitis .
Dwarfism
It was not a physical handicap in
Ancient Egypt
A team of Georgetown University studied
biological remains and remnants that
showed that dwarfism in ancient Egypt was
not seen as a handicap, but as respected
individuals in this society that Egypt morals
teachings and wisdom writings commanded
respect for dwarfs as well as others with
disabilities. Amenemope who wrote in a
book of moral teachings said, “Man is clay
and straw, the God is his builder. The Wise
Man should respect people affected by
reversal of fortune.”

23. Page | 23
Today, there are currently 100 medical
conditions that we know of today that cause
short stature. The most common cause is
called achondroplasia and causes severely
shortened limbs. Around 75% of dwarfs are
born from parents of normal height.
Some dwarfs were part of households with
high official and were respected enough to
be buried lavishly in royal cemeteries close
to the pyramids. There are numerous
artifacts of artwork of images of dwarfs
found on tomb walls and vases, among other
relics. The researchers say there were
numerous representations of dwarfs in at
least 50 tombs, which made them, believe
that dwarfs were well integrated into
society. The pictures showed dwarfs were
working as personal attendants; they raised
animals, were jewelers, dancers,
entertainers, and also managers of the
production of linen.
Tumors
Well differentiated. An aneurysm
was described as a hemispherical tumor of
the vessel, which increases in volume
beneath the fingers at each pulsation. It
ceases to throb if one exerts pressure with
the finger in the direction of the “current”. A
skill practiced nowadays by physicians.
An inguinal hernia was described as a tumor
above the genitalia, which appears on
coughing, and could be restored by heat
application.
“If thou examines a swelling of the covering
of his belly’s horns above his pudenda (sex
organs) then thou shalt place thy finger on it
and examine his belly and knock on the
fingers (percuss) if thou examinst his that
has come out and has arisen by his cough.
Then thou shalt say concerning it: it is a
swelling of the covering of his belly. It is a
disease which I will treat”.
That impulse on cough is the first
manifestation of a hernia in modern surgical
teachings. Heat application is one of the
methods to reduce a strangulated hernia. The
mummy of Meren-Ptah (19th
dynasty) shows
a sign of an open wound resulting from
surgical interference.
The ancient physician also knew percussion,
as the third step in examination modern
physicians practice.
“And examine his belly, and knock on the
finger” and “place thy hand on the patient
and tap”.
Following diagnosis, the decision was in one
of three forms: “An ailment which I will
treat”, “An ailment which I contend” or
“An ailment not to be treated”. In only 3 out
of 49 cases discussed in the Smith Papyrus
was the verdict hopeless.
Simple bed-side diagnostic tests were then
performed:
“Say to the patient: ‘Look at thy shoulder,
then thy breast, then look upwards and
downwards’. If he is not able to do this, he is
suffering from a dislocation of the vertebrae
of the neck”.
Club foot
There are different causes for
clubfoot depending on what classification it
is given. Structural TEV is caused by
genetic factors such as Edwards's syndrome,
a genetic defect with three copies of
chromosome 18. Growth arrests at roughly 9
weeks and compartment syndrome of the
affected limb are also causes of Structural
TEV. Genetic influences increase

24. Page | 24
dramatically with family history. It was
previously assumed that postural TEV could
be caused by external influences in the final
trimester such as intrauterine compression
from oligohydramnios or from amniotic
band syndrome. However, this is countered
by findings that TEV does not occur more
frequently than usual when the intrauterine
space is restricted. Breech presentation is
also another known cause. TEV occurs with
some frequency in Ehlers Danlos Syndrome
and some other connective tissue disorders.
TEV may be associated with other birth
defects such as spina bifida cystica.
Elephantiasis
Mosquitoes also spread filarial
worms which caused the disfiguring
elephantiasis. This disease was not very
prevalent but caused immense suffering to
its victims Smallpox, measles, and cholera
were easily propagated in the relatively
densely populated Nile valley, where
practically the whole population lived within
a narrow strip of land, sometimes only a few
hundred meters wide, along the river.
Eye infections
Their causes may have been
environmental, nutritional or social.
Inbreeding, not infrequent among the royals,
was probably also not rare among the
common people largely bound to the soil:
the occurrence of a sixth finger or toe in
mummies, interpreted by some as the result
of inbreeding, has been noted a number of
times; but there is no evidence that the union
of healthy close relatives would result in
defective offspring.
Wounds and injuries
Open wounds were often treated
with honey, but sepsis was one of the
commonest causes of death. When lockjaw
set in due to a tetanus infection, physicians
knew they were powerless against this
affliction: Thou should say regarding him:
"One having a gaping wound in his head
penetrating to the bone, perforating the
sutures of his skull; he has developed 'ty’,
his mouth is bound, (and) he suffers with
stiffness in his neck. An ailment not to be
treated."
Plague
History has been punctuated with
catastrophic epidemics of plague caused by
the organism pasteurella pesris, normally
carried by rats and transferred to humans by
the fleas with which the rats are usually
infested.
Pneumonic plague was rapidly fatal and one
would hardly expect evidence in mummies.
Bubonic plague was characterized by
inflammation and enlargement of lymph
glands, draining the area where the rat flea
had bitten the human host.
Poliomyelitis
Some favor the view that this is
poliomyelitis contracted in childhood,
before completion of growth of leg bones.
The equines would then be a compensation
for walking on the shortened leg.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that was
primarily an equines variety of club foot,
with secondary wasting and shortening of
the leg. Much depends on the accuracy with
which the artist portrayed the condition.

25. Page | 25
Since club foot does not usually cause such
extreme shortening of the leg.
It is interesting that Roma appears with the
stick which could be used as a crutch.
Despite his disability he was able to attain
high office, marry and have at least one
child.
DISEASES
IN
ANCIENT
EGYPT:
A) Congenital Disorders:
1- Dwarfism:
Some congenital abnormalities may be
inherited genetically or they may be caused
by factors adversely affecting the fetus
during pregnancy. Sometimes the
abnormality may be obvious immediately
after birth or the symptoms may present
themselves some time after birth during the
infants growing period. Achondroplasia is a
form of dwarfism which is easily
distinguished in skeletal remains and,
although a rare condition, has been
portrayed in Egyptian art more often than
any other congenital deformity. This
condition may be inherited or may occur as
the result of a gene mutation inhibiting the
growth of cartilage. The fastest growing
bones of the body are the most affected and
so the femur and humerus are most
noticeably squat and shortened; the forearms
and lower leg limbs also affected. The skull
is relatively large with a bulging forehead
and in many cases the nasal bridge is
depressed. Sometimes there may be some
curvature of the spine. The beautifully
sculpted dwarf steerswoman on the calcite
boat-shaped ‘center piece’ from the tomb of
Tutankhamen shows that the Egyptians were
aware that the condition affected women as
well as men.
One of the most famous statues of dwarfs is
the statue of the dwarf Seneb and his family
(which is now exhibited in the Cairo
museum).
God Bes had the stature of a dwarf. He
was depicted mustachioed with a lion’s
mane. The figure of god Bes was often
incorporated into furniture as it was
believed by the Egyptians that he
brought good luck to the home. Bes had
the stature of a dwarf.
2- Sprengel deform
In sprengel deformity, the shoulder
blade is pushed up or elevated and it may
affect one or both shoulder blades. It can
happen to the embryo during pregnancy
period. The condition can recur in several
generations of a family but most cases occur
sporadically. This case appeared in the fetus
in Tutankhamen’s tomb.

26. Page | 26
3- Osteogenesis imperfecta:
It is a condition arising from an
inadequate formation of bone tissue. This
results in brittle and delicate bones and is
often referred to in modern times as ‘brittle
bone’ disease.
In one of its forms, Osteogenesis imperfect
fetalis, the condition develops within the
womb and before the fetus is born it may
already have fractured many or all the bones
in its body. In ancient times many survived
the trauma of birth.
The second form of it, Osteogenesis
imperfecta tarda, appears during childhood
or adolescence and leads to many fractures.
4- Anencephaly:
It is a fatal malformation of the skull.
In this condition the skull does not develop
during fetal growth, and the neural canal
may not close so any rudimentary brain is
exposed and life after birth is not possible.
The cause of this condition is likely to be
genetic but other factors cannot be ruled.
Perhaps the best known example of
anencephaly comes from the catacomb of
Hermopolis in Egypt.
5- Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus ):
It is a condition where one or both
feet are congenitally formed into an inverted
position causing difficulty in walking.
Experts differ in opinion as to the frequency
of clubfoot in antiquity as the defect is
difficult to identify. It is often confused with
post-paralytic deformities such as those
associated with poliomyelitis.
Tomb paintings at Beni Hassan from the
eleventh and twelfth dynasties depict two
people with clubfeet. Drawing from tombs
at Deshasha also show figures with inverted
feet.
6- Cleft palate:
Cleft palate develops in the womb
when the two halves of the palate fail to
unite, leaving an opening (which may occur
unilaterally or bilaterally) connecting the
oral and the nasal cavities. This condition is
not genetic in origin and there are
a variety of environmental factors which
may lead to its occurrence. Unlike the cleft
palate, the combined occurrence of cleft
palate with cleft ( or hare ) lips is genetic in
origin in seventy-five percent of cases. The
cleft lip defect occurs between the literal
incisor and the canine tooth and has an
incidence of one in six hundred live births.
There is a skull exhibiting a deformed palate
was excavated by Brunton in a cemetery on
the east bank of the Nile, some thirty miles
south of Asyut.
7- Hydrocephalus:
Hydrocephalus occurs when the
fluid-containing spaces within the brain
expand, resulting in an abnormality large
head. This condition is commonly known as
‘water on the brain’. The vault increases in
all directions and takes on a globular shape.
In antiquity the enlarged head of an afflicted
infant would have obstructed labour and
both mother and child were likely to die in
childbirth.

27. Page | 27
B) Acquired disorders:
Not all diseases leave evidence of
their existence on human remains. Certain
types of illness, such as fever, resolve
themselves quickly, by subsiding or killing
the patient, and leave no identifiable traces
on the body. Chest infections, boils and
many serious skin problems which affect the
soft tissues of the body remain unrecorded,
it is important not to underestimate the
occurrence of such conditions in ancient
times.
1-Tuberculosis:
Ancient Egypt gives us some of the
earliest evidence for the tuberculosis from
the ancient world. People were vulnerable to
disease caught from domesticated animals,
and as the people of Near East were the first
to bring animals into domestic life, it is here
that we would expect to find the earliest
evidence of such diseases. One of the
earliest examples of spinal tuberculosis has
been found at excavations at the pre-
dynastic site of Adaima, 8 km south of Esna.
Bovine tuberculosis spreads secondarily to
humans through infected milk or meat. The
human strain of tuberculosis is extremely
contagious. The infected person coughs and
spreads bacilli from an active area of
infection, which are often the lungs. In the
body the bacilli can travel to other parts of
the system causing tuberculosis of the lymph
nodes, kidney, intentions and other organs,
but evidence of diseases soft tissue from the
past is rare. In some cases the bacilli enter
the growth centers of the bone, affecting its
development, and many archaeological
examples of this type of tuberculosis may be
found. The infection causes an
inflammatory reaction, bone is destroyed,
and between two and four vertebrae in the
lower throtic area can collapse producing an
angular hump. Several clay statues, thought
to be predynastic in date, show an emaciated
body, a drawn face and a humped back.
A nineteenth dynasty depiction of a gardener
raising water with a shaduf is considered to
be a case of spinal tuberculosis.
Probably the most famous case from Egypt
is that of Nespahera, an adult male
discovered by Grébaut amongst a group of
mummies found at Thebes in 1891. They
were the well-preserved bodies of priests
and priestesses of Amun from the 21st
dynasty.
2- Leprosy:
Leprosy is caused by a bacillus
closely related to tuberculosis. Leprosy is a
chronic infectious disease caused by the
spread of the leprosy bacillus. Leprosy and
tuberculosis are of the same genus but
unlike tuberculosis, leprosy attacks the body
in specific areas.
Leprosy is known as one of the most
terrifying diseases of the ancient world. It
causes tumors to grow beneath the skin,
fester, and then ulcerate. It also causes
neurological damage, leading to a loss of
feeling in the extremities of the body.
Mummified remains showing signs of
leprosy are rare. It is possible that lepers
seeking mummification were turned away
due to the fear of infection.
Characteristic symptoms are mutilated hands
and feet with the fingers and toes reduced to

28. Page | 28
stumps, collapse the nasal bridge, missing
upper central incisors and ulcerated eyes
which will eventually go blind.
It is known to be infectious, yet some
researchers now suggest that it is relatively
difficult to transmit the disease. The disease
can be contracted by inhaling droplets which
the sick person has sneezed out of his nose.
Once contracted, the bacilli travel along the
nervous system causing areas of anesthesia.
Then they invade the skin, nodules form and
as they invade the bloodstream the
circulation is inhibited.
3- Poliomyelitis:
It is also an infectious disease. It was
shown on a limestone funerary stele from
the 18th
dynasty in Copenhagen shows the
right leg of Roma, doorkeeper for the lady
Yamia, was atrophied after paralytic
poliomyelitis.
Polio is a viral infection of the central
nervous system which manifests itself in the
paralysis of one or more muscle groups.
Polio occurs more frequently during early
life and so it often known as infantile
paralysis. The paralysis of an upper or lower
limb results in muscle wasting and impaired
growth.
4- Tumors:
Modern opinions might suggest that tumor is
a disease of advanced industrial societies
only. Tumors are uncontrolled expansions of
tissue cells within the body. Usually these
tumors are not restricted to any particular
age or sex.
Sometimes a tumor may produce a reaction
in the bone which resembles a neoplasm.
Bone tumor types are either benign or
malignant. Benign tumors remain at the site
of origin and spread only locally, but can
sometimes look quite formidable as in a
famous fifth dynasty femur, where the
cartilage has developed in the growing
period of the skeleton into an irregular bony
mass with a dry-bone appearance.
The other type is the malignant bone tumors
which are usually fatal and are characterized
by an uncontrolled spread of a primary
lesion via the bloodstream into other areas
(or organs) of the body. P.Podzorski
mentions a possible case of malignant tumor
where destruction was seen on the left side
of skull of a woman from predynastic Naga-
ed-der. She may have been blind in her left
eye as a result of this lesion.
Textual evidence of the tumors may be
found in the Ebers papyrus, which include a
references to such symptoms ‘as eating
lesions’ and ‘a glandular swelling’. The
Hearst papyrus contains similar references.
Turning to artistic evidence several relief in
old kingdom mastaba tombs at Saqqara
show various types of ‘swelling’. The tomb
of the vizier Mehu has depictions of
umbilical hernias and gynaecomastia
(swellings of the breast area). Ptah Hetep’s
tomb chapel shows a similar range of
umbilical and genital hernias.
5- Endocrine and Metabolic disorders
(such as Graves’ disease):
Endocrine diseases result from abnormal
activity of the glands. There is a chemical
change in the hormones they secrete. An

29. Page | 29
iodine deficiency produces under-activity in
the thyroid gland resulting in cretinism and
dwarfism. Over activity of the thyroid
glands, however, leads to Graves’ disease,
also known as exophthalmia. The face of the
statue from the old kingdom, now in the
Cairo museum, seems to show the features
of the disease {a full thick neck, protruding
eyes and a strained expression}.
The dysfunction of the pituitary gland also
produces disorders, some of which can
damage the skeleton. The most famous and
most controversial example of a possible
pituitary disorder is that of Pharaoh
Akhenaton. There is a suggestion that he
suffered from acromegaly (an overgrowth of
the hands, feet and face), resulting from a
pituitary problem but without the king’s
body we can only speculate.
6- Joint diseases:
Joint diseases are a group of
abnormalities which are related but have
different causes, some of which are
unknown.
* Septic arthritis:
It is caused by blood-borne bacteria entering
the joint cavities (usuallthe hip or knee
joints) or through a wound. Infection sets in
and cartilage is destroyed and bone becomes
damaged.
* Rheumatoid arthritis:
The causes of rheumatoid arthritis are still
not fully understood. This disease is known
to inflame and disfigure joints and tends to
occur in the 4th
and 5th
decades of life.
Evidence for rheumatoid in antiquity is in
short supplies but a 5th
dynasty skeleton of a
middle-aged man excavated by Petrie at
Deshasha shows some arthritic changes to
the spine.
* Ankylosing spondylitis (Bamboo spine):
It is a severely crippling degenerative
disease whose cause is not known. Onset of
the disease is usually during the second or
third decade of life, and after the joints have
become inflamed, the spine becomes
progressively fixed until the whole vertebral
column becomes immobile. Sometimes even
the joints of the pelvis and ribs are affected,
resulting in severe disability, ever increasing
back pain and stiffness. It more commonly
affected men than women.
* Osteoarthritis:
It is mainly associated with ageing, but the
study of the joints commonly affected in
ancient times may provide insights into the
occupation of the sufferers. Like the
agricultural worker, for example who was
continually bending and lifting. But it
should be stressed that an association
between osteoarthritis and types of work is
difficult to prove.
* Osteophytosis:
Stress on vertebral column causes the discs
between them to rupture, stimulating the
growth of bone from the edges of the
vertebral body, allowing the load to be
redistributed over a wider area.

30. Page | 30
7- Malaria:
A variety of parasites can attack the
human body. There are internal parasites
and external parasites. One of the world’s
oldest external human parasites is the
mesquites, which infect man with malaria
when feeding on his blood. Malaria
infection is caused by the female Anopheles
mosquito transmitting the plasmodium
parasite when withdrawing human blood.
The usual pattern of the disease involves the
periodic destruction of thousands of red
blood cells which results in intermittent
fevers in the human host as a response to the
plasmodia moving through the bloodstream.
The most famous evidence of the existing of
malaria in ancient Egypt is King
Tutankhamen.
8- Vascular diseases:
With regard to vascular diseases, we
are on firm ground and have direct evidence.
Blood vessels are often well preserved in
Egyptian mummies and dried bodies.
The physiology of blood circulation was
demonstrated in the Edwin Smith Papyrus,
together with its relation to the heart, as well
as awareness of the importance of the pulse.
They also knew that blood supply runs from
the heart to all organs of the body. However,
their inability to distinguish between blood
vessels, nerves, tendons and channels has
limited their full understanding of the
physiology of circulation.
Elliot Smith in 1912 described calcification
of the temporal arteries in Ramsses II.
Sandison examined and photographed
mummy arteries using modern histological
method and he found that arteriosclerosis
and elastic lamina could readily be seen.
9- Kidney diseases:
Available studies on preserved
mummies indicate that kidney disease was
not uncommon. The kidneys and the heart
were the only organs not removed during the
process of mummification. In a 18th
to 20th
dynasty mummy, the kidney showed
multiple abscesses. In 1909, Shattock
analyzed renal calculi from a 2nd
dynasty
tomb.
10- Psychiatry and Mental diseases:
Egypt regarded mental illness as
magical or religious in nature. Egyptian
psychiatric theory was deeply rooted in the
Egyptian conception of the self - the Ghet
(the body), the Ka (the sole companion) and
the Ba (the soul), all playing their part in the
cyclical nature of life and death. The
obsession with death and life after death
meant that the health of the mind or soul
played an essential part in one’s overall
health.
Limited notes in an ancient Egyptian
document known as the Ebers papyrus
appear to describe disordered states of
concentration and attention, and emotional
distress in the heart or mind. Some of these
have been interpreted as indicating what
would later be termed hysteria and
melancholy. Somatic treatments typically
included applying bodily fluids while
reciting magical spells. Hallucinogens may
have been used as part of healing rituals.
Religious temples may have been used as

31. Page | 31
therapeutic retreats, possibly for the
induction of receptive states to facilitate
sleep and the interpreting of dreams.
In Ancient Egypt exists the first known
psychiatric text (written around 20th century
BC which explains the causes of "hysteria
"), the first known mental hospital (a temple
complex near modern Saqqara which is
thought to be meant for the treatment of the
mentally ill), and the known mental
physician are found in history. The Egyptian
focus on the well-being of the soul is
embodied in the Temple of Imhotep at
Memphis in the 29th century BC, a popular
center for the treatment of mental illness.
Methods used to attempt to cure the
mentally ill included using opium to induce
visions, performing rituals or delivering
prayers to specific gods, and "sleep
therapy," a method of interpreting dreams to
discover the source of the illness. Egyptian
society, with its fixation on the health of the
soul, is the first major example of mental
healthcare as a major priority for a society in
history.
Psychiatric diseases had their share in
ancient Egyptian medicine. Depression was
described as: “fever in the heart”, “dryness
of the heart”, “falling of the heart”, “debility
of the heart” and “kneeling of the mind”.
The heart and mind were synonymous.
Hysterical disorders were described in the
Kahun Papyrus.
11- Ears and nose diseases:
Viruses, not bacteria, cause the
common cold. Colds were known to man
even in ancient Egypt where they were
depicted in hieroglyphs.
Deafness was well understood. Unclear
diseases of the ears were also mentioned in
the Ebers Papyrus and in the Berlin Papyrus.
Remedies for the nose are offered in the
Ebers Papyrus; rš and ḥnt are thought to
mean “coryza” or “catarrh.” Paragraph 762
provides a remedy for the unknown nἰʒ-
disease of the nose.
Cough was treated by honey and milk. Some
treatment of is mentioned in the Ebers
Papyrus that is thought to be for asthma.
The common cold plagued the ancient
Egyptians, and their remedy (the milk of a
mother who has given birth to a boy) was
probably as effective. Moreover they had a
tried and true spell to go with it:
“May you flow out, catarrh, son of catarrh,
who breaks the bones, who destroys the
skull, who hacks in the marrow, who causes
the seven openings in the head to ache”.-
Ebers Papyrus
12- Diabetes:
Diabetes mellitus is a group of
diseases characterized by high levels of
glucose in the blood resulting from defects
in insulin production, insulin action (insulin
resistance), or both. Insulin is a hormone
produced by the pancreas. When eaten,
foods are converted to a type of sugar called
glucose that enters the bloodstream. Insulin
is needed to move glucose into the body
cells where it is used for energy. Insufficient
amounts of working insulin cause blood
sugar levels to rise and large amounts of
glucose are excreted in the urine.
Consistently high levels of glucose in the
bloodstream damage the nerves and blood

32. Page | 32
vessels, and can lead to heart disease, stroke,
high blood pressure, blindness, kidney
disease, amputations, and dental diseases.
The first reference to diabetes mellitus is
attributed to the Ebers Papyrus, which
mentions remedies for the treatment of
excessive urination (polyuria). The Ebers
Papyrus contains remedies “to eliminate
urine which is too plentiful”.
Urinary troubles in the adult were also
corrected with rectal injections.
The ancient Egyptians did not call it
diabetes in ancient Egypt but some suffered
from it. In 1552 BC Dr. Hesy-Ra tried to
treat a patient who had to go to the bathroom
a lot. He did not know what was wrong with
the man but he tried a special diet of honey,
grains and fruits. It helped but did not cure
the man. After this, most physicians have
known that diabetics have too much sugar in
the urine. So they started testing the urine
but they did not have the modern way we
now have, not until the 11th century. Instead
the assistants had to taste the urine and tell
the doctor if it was sweet.
Hatshepsut had diabetes which affected her
teeth and gum.
13- Trauma:
Trauma can include a variety of
conditions which provide a ‘shock’ to the
body. Internal violence, accidents and
surgical operations all have a profound
effect on an individual.
The ancient skull of Meryrahashetef at the
British museum is a clear case of trauma in
ancient Egypt. On the left side of the adult
male’s head is a severe injury and it is likely
that the injury contributed to his death.
Head (or cranial) injuries commonly
occurred in most ancient populations, but
not always as a result of intentional
violence.
In 1923, excavations at Dier el-Bahari near
the Valley of the Kings under earthed a
group of bodies. It was realized that the
bodies, about sixty in number, were the
remains of archers from the early middle
kingdom. Many of them, some with older,
healed wounds, had serios skulled injuries
consistent with being pierced by arrows
being hit by an axe or sword. Some of the
wounds had been caused by rocks and
stones being hurled down into the men from
above. Fifteen of the men had been clubbed
repeatedly about their head, neck and face,
and one archer had the weapon which
caused his injury still in place: the wooden
tip of the arrow was still embedded in his
left eye socket, penetrating deeply into his
skull.
A skull brought to England from Giza and
now in Cambridge has an extensive but
well-healed injury to the left side of the
head, running from the top of the skull down
through the mastoid area. It is highly
probable that as a result of his injury this
adult male suffered a hearing loss. He may
also have suffered bouts of dizziness due to
damage of the middle ear, were the organs
of balance are situated.
Probably the most famous case of head
injury is that of Seqenenre Ta, a king of the
seventeenth dynasty who took part in the
war to rid his country of the Hyksos. His

33. Page | 33
mummified body is now in the Cairo
museum has six wounds to the head, face
and neck which were all made by weapons
of a type used by the Hyksos. It was thought
that all six injuries were inflicted on the
battlefield and that the king died as a result
of them. However, X-ray analysis of
Seqenenre’s skull by E.Metzel has shown
that the bone around one of the wounds to
the forehead had partially re-grown
indicating that the king had sustained this
injury some months before the others which
killed him. It is possible that this first injury
caused the paralysis evident in one of the
king’s arms. As an infirm individual he
would surely not have returned to the
battlefield and so the second and fatal set of
injuries may have been sustained elsewhere.
It has led to the suggestion that Seqenenre
died as a result of a palace intrigue.
Fractures of the femur are common in
ancient Egypt human remains.
It is suggested that the relatively low
incidence of fractures to the tibia (shin bone)
may be due to people going barefoot,
especially when cultivating the land.
The recommended treatment for a fractured
(or broken) nose was to insert rigid rolls of
linen into the nostril like a splint. A number
of long bones with splints attached to them
have been found in graves, several from
which come from the Old kingdom. Some
splints were made from bark, others from
bundles of wooden sticks tied closer with
cloth. Some splints included padding of
linen and vegetable fibre. In a painting
from the tomb of Ipuy, Ramsess II’s
sculptor, a person is depicted setting the
shoulder of a prostrate workman which is
reminiscent of the Kocher
Method for reducing dislocated shoulder
(another form of Trauma).
14- Female disorders and Miscarriage:
Women's diseases occupy a fair proportion
of the medical writings. Healing substances
were introduced into the vagina by tampons
and also by fumigation, a technique whereby
a woman straddled hot stones on which a
medicated solution was poured to produce
vapors that could enter her vagina.
An exceptional method was offered for
diagnosing pregnancy. A woman would
urinate over a mixture of wheat and barley
seeds combined with dates and sand. If any
grains later sprouted, the woman was sure to
give birth. If only wheat grew, the child
would be a boy; if only the barley, a girl.
This fanciful-sounding ritual may have had
some success because of the hormonal
content of urine, a factor in contemporary
urine examination for pregnancy. Of course,
fantastic and magical means of diagnosing
pregnancy were also followed by the
Egyptians.
Although contraceptive methods were
described in the medical papyruses, fertility
was most desirable. In addition to prayers
and offerings to fertility deities, an infertile
woman might have symbolic intercourse
with a bull to open the pathway to
conception. The necessary contribution of
semen to fecundation was appreciated, but
the understanding of sexual physiology was
minimal. The people, and probably
physicians as well, believed that
impregnation could occur through the mouth
as well as the vagina. Dung, honey, and a
carbonate salt made up one contraceptive
combination. Vaginal insertion of acacia

34. Page | 34
leaf-tips was another method, and that plant
has been found to produce lactic acid—a
common ingredient of modern vaginal
douches.
Miscarriage is the loss of the embryo in the
pregnancy period or before the time of
delivery.
The Egyptians knew that infertility could be
due to the woman as well as the man.
Couples who did not get the child they
wished for tried to influence their fate with
prayers presented to a god or goddess, letters
to the dead, or prescriptions of medicines
and magic. When a woman became pregnant
she tried all types of medicine and magic to
prevent a miscarriage. Various mixtures
were poured into a woman's vagina to
prevent miscarriage.
Tutankhamen’s tomb contained two fetuses
embalmed and enclosed in miniature
anthropoid coffins. It is likely that these
were Tutankhamen’s own children by his
wife Ankhesenamun. The first fetus,
probably a female, was of no more than five
months’ gestation, the second, a female, was
of about eight or nine months’ gestation.
15- Cuts and burns:
The ancient Egyptians used honey
for burns and wounds. Honey has unique
ability to fight pathogens and aid healing.
Since honey has an acidic PH, it makes the
site unsuitable to pathogenic infections. It
also keeps the wound site moist, which helps
in early healing of the wounds. The high
sugar content pulls out water from the
wound sites by a process of osmosis thus
reducing swelling and pain.
16- Tetanus:
Tetanus is a rare but often fatal
disease that affects the central nervous
system by causing painful and often violent
muscular contractions. The earliest
descriptions of the disease can be found in
the medical papyri of ancient Egypt. The
disease begins when the tetanus bacterium
(Clostridium tetani) enters the body, usually
through a wound or cut that has come in
contact with the spores of the bacterium.
Tetanus spores are commonly found in soil,
dust, and animal manure. Tetanus is not a
communicable disease, meaning that it
cannot be passed directly from one person to
another.
Evidence of tetanus, a bacterial infection, is
not to be expected in human remains. Yet
Case 7 of the Edwin Smith Papyrus,
describes lockjaw and distortion of the face,
suggesting tetanus.
17- Sepsis and abscesses:
Sepsis (a toxic state of infection that enters
the bloodstream) must have been common in
ancient Egypt, but there is no convincing
evidence in mummies. There are, however,
highly suggestive descriptions of sepsis and
abscesses (pus-filled swellings) in the
medical papyri.
18- Skin diseases:
Mummies have shown a few
examples of skin diseases but paragraphs of
the Ebers Papyrus, paragraphs of the Hearst
Papyrus, and the verso of the Edwin Smith
Papyrus list remedies for skin complaints
that are difficult to identify and which may
belong to the realm of beauty care.

35. Page | 35
19- Smallpox:
Diagnosis of this viral infection rests
upon the appearance of the skin of well-
preserved mummies. If correct, the most
distinguished victim would be Ramesses V.
Nothing in the medical papyri can be related
to smallpox.
20- Gastrointestinal system
Pale pathology has shed little light
on ancient diseases of the stomach and
bowels. Although there remains uncertainty
in the translation of r-ἰb as “stomach” (as in
the Ebers Papyrus, paragraphs 188–208),
much attention was devoted to its
obstruction (šn). The ancient Greek historian
Herodotus noted that the Egyptians were
obsessed with their bowels, and much of
their pharmacopeia was devoted to
facilitating bowel movements, with
aperients “to drive out feces (ḥs)” and “to
evacuate (fgn or wsš)”.
There are also many remedies to “cool or
refresh (sḳb) the anus (pḥwt)” and to “drive
out heat (ṯʒw), suggesting an infection. The
Ebers Papyrus, paragraph 161, specifically
refers to “the vessels (mtw) of the anus,”
which may mean hemorrhoids.
Diarrhea was stopped by (Green onions,
freshly cooked Gruel, oil and honey, wax,
water, cook and take for four days).
21- Eye diseases:
Due to the constant exposure to the
sun, ancient Egyptians suffered from eye
disease and damage to a high degree. This
issue was quite pronounced as it was often a
cause of blindness amongst Egyptians in
ancient times. It led to the evolution of an
ancient Egyptian remedy which comprised
of using bad blood due to their power of
night vision. A remedy was created and
injected into the ears of the blind person,
however the physician was not to be blamed
if he followed the remedy accurately and the
treatment failed.
There are many representations of blindness
in ancient Egypt, particularly of harpists
(example- tomb of Ramesses III. The best
source of information is from the Ebers
Papyrus. The Egyptian word for “blindness”
(špt) is well attested, but most of the causes
remain unclear. The šʒrw disease of the eyes
was treated with liver, suggesting the
possibility of night blindness. Although
cooked or even raw liver, applied locally,
would be ineffective for a condition caused
by vitamin A deficiency, the Kahun
Papyrus, Case 1, recommends raw liver by
mouth for “a woman who cannot see”.
The Ebers Papyrus refers to a wide range of
eye diseases that cannot be identified with
any certainty, but kkw (“darkness”) and ḥʒty
(“cloudiness”) might refer either to opacities
in the cornea or in the lens (cataract); ḏfḏft
(“drip”) may well mean excessive tearing
(lacrymation), from a variety of causes.
Cataract (loss of eye lens transparency) was
so named as the Latins thought it was due to
a liquid flowing from the brain into the eyes.
The Egyptians called it “rise of water”, it
was treated by a mixture of tortoise brain
and honey. Perhaps nḥʒt (in paragraphs 350,
383, and 407) is “trachoma,” since the
adjective nḥʒ has various meanings,
including “uneven” and “terrible”. Night

36. Page | 36
blindness was cured by roasted and crushed
ox liver.
Paragraph 424, in the papyrus, describes
troublesome eyelashes, growing inward to
irritate the cornea.
22- Bilharzias:
While some Egyptians lived to a ripe
old age like Ramesses II or Psmatik I's
daughter, Nitocris, who reigned as God's
Wife for more than sixty years. The age at
death was rarely above thirty-five years,
with bilharzias is a common cause of
anemia, female infertility, a debilitating loss
of resistance to other diseases and
subsequent death. The Ebres Papyrus
addresses some of the symptoms of the
disease and in two columns discusses
treatment and prevention of bleeding in the
urinal tract.
23- Snake bites:
Snakes were found throughout
ancient Egypt, including the desert sands, in
old walls, in fields, by the Nile and in its
swamps. Poisonous snakes would have
posed a threat to humans and domestic
animals alike. Hence, the Egyptians had
somewhat of a love/hate relationship with
snakes. While they were dangerous, they
were also viewed, for example, as a
protector to the King and he was depicting
the ureas on his foreheads (in royal statues).
A papyrus in the Brooklyn Museum that
served as a manual for a doctor treating
snakebite reveals that the Egyptians had an
intimate knowledge of snakes. Although the
beginning of the papyrus is lost, it would
have listed the names of some thirty-seven
types of snakes. At least thirty-six species
have been identified in modern Egypt, but
the ancient typology most likely did not
correspond exactly to the modern ones. The
papyrus gives a physical description of each
snake and its habitat, along with precise
descriptions of the symptoms produced by
each snake's venom, whether or not the bite
is mortal, and the name of the god or
goddess of which the snake is considered to
be a manifestation. Following the list of
snakes is a list of remedies to cure bite
victims. Some of the remedies are specific
for certain types of snakes, while others
were for specific symptoms. These remedies
included emetics, compresses, unctions,
massages, incision of wounds and
fumigations. There were also magical
incantations that were spoken over the
remedies. The ingredients in the remedies
include liquids and substances of mineral,
animal and vegetable origin. The most
common ingredient is onion, still used
frequently in Egyptian folk medicine today
to treat snakebite.
One of the poisonous snakes the Egyptians
feared most was the horned viper (also
known as the sand viper). When the horned
viper attacks, it rasps its coils together
before springing forward. The rasping
sounds like the letter f, and (fy is the
Egyptian word for "viper" as well).
24- Dentistry and Teeth diseases:
Teeth are the hardest and the most
indestructible of human tissues. Their shape
is determined genetically, and in their
calcification, they record important
nutritional information. Wear patterns and

37. Page | 37
dental caries ('cavities') tell much about
ancient living and eating habits.
In ancient Egypt, the greatest single problem
was attrition (wear). The teeth were rapidly
worn down throughout life by the
consumption of a course diet. This is true of
both pharaohs and common farmers. In time,
the wear becomes so extensive that the
enamel and dentin are worn away, exposing
the pulp. Painful chronic infection is the
result. Dental surgeons of that time would
drain the abscesses through a hollow reed.
The second greatest problem of both ancient
and modern Egyptians is periodontal (gum)
disease. Calculus (tartar) deposits on teeth
were often so extensive that they held the
teeth in place after death for 2,000 years.
The result of these deposits is early bone
loss, loose teeth, infection, and tooth loss.
Dental caries (cavities were far less
frequently seen amongst ancient Egyptians
and Nubians than in today's populations. We
can cite two reasons. First, rapid wear
literally wore away the sites of pit and
fissure cavities. Second, is the absence the
of refined carbohydrates.
Some orthodontic observations are of
interest here. Ancient Egyptians and
Nubians rarely had the dental crowding and
abnormal molar relationships that are
observed in Western cultures today. Many
anthropologists and some dentists tell us that
vigorous chewing encourages development
of robust, full sized lower jaws and some
degree of tooth wear minimized joint pain
and tooth crowding that are prevalent today.
Some restorative dentistry from that period
has been seen. In one mummy with missing
teeth, three substitute teeth were in place
skillfully threaded together to the abutment
teeth with fine gold wire.
Why so much dental wear? Sand infiltrated
their diet, especially by way of corn ground
bread. Modern experiments have shown that
a single grinding of corn produces a course
of flour. The more desired finely ground
floor is produced by adding sand to the
course flour which exacerbates the tooth
wear process.
As their diet included much abrasive
material (sand and small stone particles from
grinding the corn) the teeth of elderly
ancient Egyptians were often in a very poor
state.
Caries and the destruction of the enamel
caused the loss of teeth at an early age and
often killed as well. Mutnodjmed, pharaoh
Horemheb's second wife and sister of
Nefertiti, had lost all her teeth when she died
in her forties. Djedmaatesankh, a Theban
musician who lived around 850 BCE
suffered from 13 abscesses, extensive dental
disease and a huge infected cyst, which
probably killed her aged about 35 [4]
.
On the other hand, if there was no
abrasion due to lucky circumstances, a
person of the people would have a minimal
incidence of caries and thus a perfect set of
teeth, [61][73]
thanks to the paucity of sugar in
the diet of the ancient Egyptians. The well-
to-do, whose food was more refined, seem
to have suffered more from caries than the
poor.
The Ebers Papyrus lists a number of
remedies dealing with teeth, though the
complaint at times is a bit obscure.
Another remedy for treating an itching tooth
until the opening of the flesh: cumin, 1 part;
resin of incense, 1 part; DAr.t-fruit, 1 part;
crush and apply to the tooth.