1. Economics is the study of how scarce resources are allocated among competing uses. An economy aims to solve this problem of scarcity.
2. Resources can be allocated to produce different types of goods and answer questions like what, how, when and for whom to produce.
3. Microeconomics analyzes decisions of individual agents like households and firms, while macroeconomics analyzes economy-wide phenomena like GDP, inflation, and unemployment.
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CA NOTES ON NATURE AND SCOPE OF BUSINESS ECONOMICS
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Introduction to Managerial Economics, What is Business Economics, Definition,SCOPE OF ECONOMICS, Scope of BE in Managerial Decision Making, Role of business economics,Comparing Business Economics And Economics, Relevance of Business Economics, Factors of Production, CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF AN ECONOMY OR BASIC ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Maddali Laxmi Swetha, MBA (HR)
Email ID: Maddali_swetha@yahoo.com
My Twitter ID: https://twitter.com/maddali_swetha
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Static, Dynamic and Comparative Static EconomicsBikash Kumar
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Rabbi
Mehedi
Sadia
Rafia
Tuhin
𐫱 This file is especially for engineering students.
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I hope it will help you in your studies as well as university exams.😃
Definition Nature Scope and Significance of Economics, Business Economics - D...Divyansh Agrawal
Definition Nature Scope and Significance of Economics, Wealth Definition, Welfare Definition, Criticism, Scope of Economics, Economics a science or an artScience teaches us to know and an art teaches us to do. Science and art are complementary to each other, A Positive or a Normative Science, Business Economics,Methodology of Economics, Nature of Business Economics, Scope of Business Economics, Divyansh Agrawal, Divyansh Agrawal Shivpuri, PIMR, Prestige Institute of Management, Indore
Introduction to Managerial Economics, What is Business Economics, Definition,SCOPE OF ECONOMICS, Scope of BE in Managerial Decision Making, Role of business economics,Comparing Business Economics And Economics, Relevance of Business Economics, Factors of Production, CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF AN ECONOMY OR BASIC ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Maddali Laxmi Swetha, MBA (HR)
Email ID: Maddali_swetha@yahoo.com
My Twitter ID: https://twitter.com/maddali_swetha
My Quora: https://www.quora.com/profile/Maddali-Swetha
My LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/maddali-swetha-a0a424a6
My Blog (Maddali Swetha Blog): http://maddaliswetha.blogspot.com/
My Slideshare Papers: https://www.slideshare.net/MaddaliSwetha
Static, Dynamic and Comparative Static EconomicsBikash Kumar
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Rabbi
Mehedi
Sadia
Rafia
Tuhin
𐫱 This file is especially for engineering students.
This is 'economics for engineers'.
I hope it will help you in your studies as well as university exams.😃
Definition Nature Scope and Significance of Economics, Business Economics - D...Divyansh Agrawal
Definition Nature Scope and Significance of Economics, Wealth Definition, Welfare Definition, Criticism, Scope of Economics, Economics a science or an artScience teaches us to know and an art teaches us to do. Science and art are complementary to each other, A Positive or a Normative Science, Business Economics,Methodology of Economics, Nature of Business Economics, Scope of Business Economics, Divyansh Agrawal, Divyansh Agrawal Shivpuri, PIMR, Prestige Institute of Management, Indore
Economics is the study of this allocation of resources, the choices that are made by economic agents. An economy is a system which attempts to solve this basic economic problem. There are different types of economies; household economy, local economy, national economy and international economy but all economies face the same problem. The major economic problems are (i) what to produce? (ii) How to produce?
Economics is the study of how individuals and societies choose to use the scarce resources that nature and the previous generation have provided. The world‟s resources are limited and scarce. The resources which are not scarce are called free goods. Resources which are scarce are called economic goods.
Price elasticity is a crucial concept in economicsSAINATHYADAV11
Price elasticity is a crucial concept in economics that measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded or supplied to changes in price. Understanding price elasticity is vital for businesses, policymakers, and economists as it helps predict the impact of price changes on market behavior and revenue. Here's why price elasticity is important:
1. Determining Revenue Impact: Price elasticity helps businesses predict how changes in price will affect their total revenue. If demand is elastic (responsive to price changes), decreasing prices may lead to higher revenue. Conversely, if demand is inelastic (insensitive to price changes), increasing prices may result in higher revenue.
2. Optimizing Pricing Strategies: Businesses can use price elasticity to determine the optimal pricing strategy for their products or services. By understanding the price sensitivity of consumers, companies can set prices that maximize profitability and market share.
3. Forecasting Market Behavior: Price elasticity provides insights into consumer behavior and market dynamics. It helps forecast how changes in prices, incomes, or competitor actions will impact demand and market equilibrium.
4. Policy Decision Making: Policymakers use price elasticity to design and evaluate economic policies, such as taxation, subsidies, and regulations. Understanding the elasticity of supply and demand helps assess the effectiveness and unintended consequences of policy interventions.
There are five cases of price elasticity of demand
A. Perfectly elastic demand:
When small change in price leads to an infinitely large change is quantity demand, it is called perfectly or infinitely elastic demand. In this case E=∞. Sometimes, even there is no change in the price, the demand changes in huge quantity. In case of perfect elastic demand, the demand for a commodity changes even though there is no change in price. This elasticity is very rarely found in practice. We can see a straight line demand curve parallel to the X axis
Ep = ((Q2 − Q1)/Q1) /((P2 − P1)/P1)
𝐸𝑝 = (1000 − 100)/100 /(10 − 10)/10 = ∞
The demand curve is horizontal straight line. It shows the at Rs. 10 price any quantity is demanded and if price increases, the consumer will not purchase the commodity.
B. Perfectly Inelastic Demand
A commodity is said to have perfectly inelastic demand, when even a large change in price of the commodity causes no change in the quantity demanded. The elasticity coefficient of perfectly in elastic demand is Ep = 0.
The shape of the demand curve for perfectly inelastic is vertical as shown below.
Price Demand
10 100
20 100
Ep = ((Q2 − Q1)/Q1) /((P2 − P1)/P1)
𝐸𝑝 = (100 − 100)/100 /(20 − 10)/10 = 0
When price increases from Rs. 10 to Rs.20, the quantity demanded remains the same. In other words the response of demand to a change in Price is nil. In this case ‗E‘=0.
C. Relatively elastic demand:
Demand changes more than proportionately to a change in price. i.e. a small change in price leads to
how to sell pi coins at high rate quickly.DOT TECH
Where can I sell my pi coins at a high rate.
Pi is not launched yet on any exchange. But one can easily sell his or her pi coins to investors who want to hold pi till mainnet launch.
This means crypto whales want to hold pi. And you can get a good rate for selling pi to them. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor below.
A vendor is someone who buys from a miner and resell it to a holder or crypto whale.
Here is the telegram contact of my vendor:
@Pi_vendor_247
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
Exploring Abhay Bhutada’s Views After Poonawalla Fincorp’s Collaboration With...beulahfernandes8
The financial landscape in India has witnessed a significant development with the recent collaboration between Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank.
The launch of the co-branded credit card, the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card, marks a major milestone for both entities.
This strategic move aims to redefine and elevate the banking experience for customers.
Even tho Pi network is not listed on any exchange yet.
Buying/Selling or investing in pi network coins is highly possible through the help of vendors. You can buy from vendors[ buy directly from the pi network miners and resell it]. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal vendor.
@Pi_vendor_247
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
Currently pi network is not tradable on binance or any other exchange because we are still in the enclosed mainnet.
Right now the only way to sell pi coins is by trading with a verified merchant.
What is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone verified by pi network team and allowed to barter pi coins for goods and services.
Since pi network is not doing any pre-sale The only way exchanges like binance/huobi or crypto whales can get pi is by buying from miners. And a merchant stands in between the exchanges and the miners.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant. I and my friends has traded more than 6000pi coins successfully
Tele-gram
@Pi_vendor_247
Empowering the Unbanked: The Vital Role of NBFCs in Promoting Financial Inclu...Vighnesh Shashtri
In India, financial inclusion remains a critical challenge, with a significant portion of the population still unbanked. Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) have emerged as key players in bridging this gap by providing financial services to those often overlooked by traditional banking institutions. This article delves into how NBFCs are fostering financial inclusion and empowering the unbanked.
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024 - Ricerca sulle Startup e il Sistema dell'Innov...Quotidiano Piemontese
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024
Una ricerca de il Club degli Investitori, in collaborazione con ToTeM Torino Tech Map e con il supporto della ESCP Business School e di Growth Capital
Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank Introduce New Co-Branded Credit Cardnickysharmasucks
The unveiling of the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card marks a notable milestone in the Indian financial landscape, showcasing a successful partnership between two leading institutions, Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank. This co-branded credit card not only offers users a plethora of benefits but also reflects a commitment to innovation and adaptation. With a focus on providing value-driven and customer-centric solutions, this launch represents more than just a new product—it signifies a step towards redefining the banking experience for millions. Promising convenience, rewards, and a touch of luxury in everyday financial transactions, this collaboration aims to cater to the evolving needs of customers and set new standards in the industry.
Introduction to Indian Financial System ()Avanish Goel
The financial system of a country is an important tool for economic development of the country, as it helps in creation of wealth by linking savings with investments.
It facilitates the flow of funds form the households (savers) to business firms (investors) to aid in wealth creation and development of both the parties
BYD SWOT Analysis and In-Depth Insights 2024.pptxmikemetalprod
Indepth analysis of the BYD 2024
BYD (Build Your Dreams) is a Chinese automaker and battery manufacturer that has snowballed over the past two decades to become a significant player in electric vehicles and global clean energy technology.
This SWOT analysis examines BYD's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as it competes in the fast-changing automotive and energy storage industries.
Founded in 1995 and headquartered in Shenzhen, BYD started as a battery company before expanding into automobiles in the early 2000s.
Initially manufacturing gasoline-powered vehicles, BYD focused on plug-in hybrid and fully electric vehicles, leveraging its expertise in battery technology.
Today, BYD is the world’s largest electric vehicle manufacturer, delivering over 1.2 million electric cars globally. The company also produces electric buses, trucks, forklifts, and rail transit.
On the energy side, BYD is a major supplier of rechargeable batteries for cell phones, laptops, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems.
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. 👇 I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
The secret way to sell pi coins effortlessly.DOT TECH
Well as we all know pi isn't launched yet. But you can still sell your pi coins effortlessly because some whales in China are interested in holding massive pi coins. And they are willing to pay good money for it. If you are interested in selling I will leave a contact for you. Just telegram this number below. I sold about 3000 pi coins to him and he paid me immediately.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
5. Economics is the study of this allocation
of resources, the choices that are made
by economic agents. An economy is a
system which attempts to solve this
basic economic problem. There are
different types of economies; household
economy, local economy, national
economy and international economy but
all economies face the same problem.
The major economic problems are (i)
what to produce? (ii) How to produce?
(iii) When to produce and (iv) For whom
to produce?
6. Economics is the study of how
individuals and societies choose
to use the scarce resources that
nature and the previous
generation have provided. The
world’s resources are limited and
scarce. The resources which are
not scarce are called free goods.
Resources which are scarce are
called economic goods.
7. Vital for managerial decision making
For designing and understanding
public policy
Appreciate how an economy functions
Practical tool for decision making
9. It is a branch of economics that studies the
behaviour of how the individual household and
firms make decisions to allocate limited
resources
It applies to markets where goods and services
are being bought and sold
Microeconomics examines how these decisions
and behaviours affect the supply and demand
for goods and services.
10. It is a field of economics that studies the
behaviour of the economy as a whole and not
just one specific company, but entire
industries and economies.
Economy wide phenomena- GDP, NI, Price
levels, etc
11.
12.
13. BASIS OF
DIFFERENCES
MICRO ECONOMICS MACRO ECONOMICS
Meaning Microeconomics studies
economic relationships or
economic problems of a level of
economic units like specific
individual, specific firm,
specification industry, etc.
Macroeconomics studies
economic relationships or
economic problems of the level of
the economy as a whole like
national income, national
savings, total investments,
employments etc.
Subject Matter Price determination of goods and
services, their allocation for
various functions and
determination of the
remuneration of the resources
are its subject matter.
Whereas, its subject matter
includes level of national income,
its effective factors and results,
income, employment, savings,
investments, etc.
Basic Concern Microeconomics is basically
concerned with determination of
output and price for an individual
firm or industry.
Macroeconomics is basically
concerned with determination of
aggregate output and general
price level in the economy as a
whole.
14. BASIS OF
DIFFERENCES
MICRO ECONOMICS MACRO ECONOMICS
Scope Its scope is limited to the laws
based on marginal analysis.
Whereas, its scope is wide up
to the analysis related to the
problems of the whole
economy.
Assumptions Study of microeconomics
assumes that macro variables
remain constant; e.g. it is
assumed that aggregate output is
given while we are studying
determination of output and price
of an individual firm or industry.
Study of macroeconomics
assumes that micro variables
remain constant, e.g. it is
assumed that distribution of
income remains constant when
we are studying the level of
output in the economy.
Helpful Microeconomics is helpful for
individual units, firms and
industries to achieve the optimum
level.
Macroeconomics is helpful for
optimum situation of the whole
economy and bringing
economic stability.
Simple /
complicated
Microeconomics is simple, as
compared to macroeconomics.
Whereas, macroeconomics is
more complicated as compared
to microeconomics.
15. BASIS OF
DIFFERENCES
MICRO ECONOMICS MACRO ECONOMICS
Central Issue Macroeconomics is helpful for
optimum situation of the whole
economy and bringing
economic stability.
Level of output (and
employment) is the central
issue in macroeconomics.
Use Microeconomics is used for
determination of various policies
of a firm or industry and talking
decisions about them.
Whereas, macroeconomics is
used for solution of national
problems, taking of economic
decisions at the level,
determination of economic
policies and policy decisions at
international level.
Importance The importance of this
economics is getting reduced,
due to increasing complex
problems of the present age.
Whereas, macroeconomics is
more useful in solution of these
problems. Hence, importance
of macroeconomics is going on
increasing as compared to
microeconomics.
16.
17. ME is the integration of economic theory with
business practice for the purpose of facilitating
decision making and forward planning by
management
ME is the use of economic modes of thought to
analyse business situation
Managerial economics is a stream of
management studies that emphasizes primarily
solving business problems and decision-
making by applying the theories and principles
of microeconomics and macroeconomics.
18.
19. Business planning and forecasting
Assists in decision making
Optimization of resources
Creates good working environment
Relationship building
Coordination building
20. Managerial economics focus on management
analysis based on financial and cost accounting
data. Thus, the reliability of this data depends on
the accuracy of the financial accounting
information.
Such analysis is based on past information. But if a
new scheme is to be introduced, the
circumstances change and the conclusions cannot
be predicted using this past information.
Managerial economics is subjected to the personal
preferences of the individual manager which can
influence the final decision of the manager to a
certain extent.
21. It is an expensive process as a business firm
generally requires a certain number of
managers to ensure proper functioning.
The manager is required to have extensive
knowledge in a variety of fields in order to
ensure that he completely comprehends the
situation to be dealt with."
22. What to produce?- range of goods to be produced-
resources are limited- choose between
alternatives-allocation of resources- types of
goods; consumer, capital goods- this decision is
based on availability of raw materials, market
demand and technology
How to produce?- having decided on what to
produce- techniques of production- efficiency of
production using ltd resources yields maximum
profits
For whom to produce?- how national product
should be distributed-depends on ability to pay
principle- according to need principle
23. Any system that involves the
mechanism for production,
distribution, and exchange of
goods apart from consumption of
the goods and services within the
different entities can be classified
as an Economic System.
24. All these are characterized by the
ownership of the economic
resources and the allocation of the
same.
25. Capitalist System
In a Capitalist Economy, the capital is privately
owned and distributed with governmental
oversight and regulation. This is the predominant
economic system in the world today.
Capitalism is often thought of as an economic
system in which private actors own and control
property in accord with their interests, and demand
and supply freely set prices in markets in a way
that can serve the best interests of society. The
essential feature of capitalism is the motive to
make a profit.
Hong kong, UAE, New zealand
26. Communist System
In this kind of economic system, the state takes
upon itself the allocation and production functions
as well as distribution of the goods and services. In
this system, capital cannot be privately held and
there is communal ownership or what is known as
“Communism”
most property and economic resources are owned
and controlled by the state (rather than individual
citizens)
China, North Korea
27. Socialist and Mixed Economic Systems
under socialism, all citizens share equally in
economic resources as allocated by a
democratically-elected government.
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, and
Finland follow socialism strictly. They are
purely socialistic countries.
28. 1. Opportunity cost: decision implies making a
choice from the various alternatives
It is the sacrifice of the next best alternatives
course of action available
Defined as the revenue foregone or
opportunity lost by not using the resources
Also called as imputed cost
An imputed cost is an invisible cost that is
not incurred directly
29. 2. Marginal principle : Marginal generally refers
to small changes. Marginal revenue is change in
total revenue per unit change in output sold.
Marginal cost refers to change in total costs per
unit change in output produced (While
incremental cost refers to change in total costs
due to change in total output)
Ex: Keeping the bookstore open for one more
hour- equals to additional revenue
30. 3. Incremental principle: refers to change in total-
change in total cost due to specific decision,
similarly incremental revenue is the change in the
total revenue due to specific decision
Incremental revenue is more than incremental
cost –profit
Ex: increase in sales of a firm by online sales-
additional cost launching the online mechanism
31. 4. Equi- marginal principle
Equi-marginal principle is one of the widely used
concepts in managerial economics. This principle
is also known the principle of maximum
satisfaction - by allocating available resource to
get optimum benefit . This principle provides a
basis for maximum utilization of all the inputs of a
firm so as to maximize the profitability.
Value added by large input is same in all cases
Ex: Firm is involved in 3 activities; A, B,C- all these
activities require services of labour- the firm
should allocate equal labour to all activities
32. 5. Scarcity Principle: maybe defined excess
demand
If demand(requirement) exceeds
supply(availability) that is said to be scarce
Ex: unemployment- scarcity of jobs, Inflation-
scarcity of goods, unsold stock of inventory-
scarcity of buyers
33. 6.Principle of time perspective: ME is
concerned with short run and long run effects
of decisions on revenues as well as costs
Managers should maintain right balance
between long run and short run
Time is important factor in business decision
making
Trade cycles, seasonal fluctuations
Ex: Diwali seasons- fireworks
Raincoats , guide books during exam, flights
34. 7. Discounting principle: present gain is valued
more than future gain
According to this principle, if a decision affects
costs and revenues in long-run, all those costs
and revenues must be discounted to present
values before valid comparison of alternatives
is possible. This is essential because a rupee
worth of money at a future date is not worth a
rupee today
35. ME and statistics-used in collecting, processing
and analyzing data- business decisions is based
on probable economic events- probability,
forecasting techniques
ME and accounting- accounting is one of the
principal source for decision making- P/L
statement of the firm tells how well the firm has
done – whether it should improve or close down
ME and mathematics- major problem of
businessman is how to minimize cost or maximize
profit or how to optimize sales- logarithms,
exponentials, matrix etc are required in ME
36. ME and OR- ME depends on models and tools of
operation research- OR models used in solving
complex problems of planning and allocation of
scarce resources – in defence industries
ME and theory of decision making – dealing with
problems under uncertainty
ME and Economics: ME is nothing but economics
applied to decision making- micro and macro
37. In free market mechanism economy(prices of
goods and services are self regulated by buyers
and sellers negotiating in an open market without
market coercions), the public sector is responsible
to maintain law and order in a country, make
national defense stronger, and regulate money
supply. On the other hand the public sector of a
mixed economy is involved almost all economic
activities, such as production, distribution, and
consumption.
38. The government
(1) provides the legal and social framework within
which the economy operates
(2) maintains competition in the marketplace
(3) provides public goods and services
(4) redistributes income
(5) corrects for externalities(cost or benefit caused
by a producer that is not financially incurred; ex:
factory that pollutes the environment creates a cot
to society: but these costs are not priced in final
goods)
(6) takes certain actions to stabilize the economy.
39. Private sector contributes about three-forth of the
country's national income. Moreover, this sector
also plays a vital role to increase gross domestic
saving (GDS) and gross domestic capital
formation'(GDCF) within the economy.
GDS- GDP- final consumption expenditure;
consists of savings of household sector, private
corporate sector and public sector
GDCF- net increase in the physical asset by the
household, public and government sector
40. Industry development
Employment generation
Contribution to agriculture – farm to fork-
1990- promoting science based technology
High potentiality
Provides resources
Tax revenue- creates 90% of jobs, 60% of
investments, 80% to the govt revenues
Variety to consumer- technological
improvement
41. Since human wants are unlimited and
the means to satisfy them are limited ,
every society is faced with the
fundamental problem of choosing and
allocating its scarce resources among
alternatives
The PPF or PPC is an analytical tool
which is used to illustrate and explain
this problem of choice
42. It is the graph that shows the different
combinations of the quantities of two goods that
can be produced(or consumed) in an economy at
any point of time, subject to the availability of
resources
It also depicts the trade off between any two
items produced
In other words if one wants to have more of one
goods, he must have less of other goods due to
limited availability of resources
43. It can be used to demonstrate the point that any
nation's economy reaches its greatest level of
efficiency when it produces only what it is best
qualified to produce and trades with other
nations for the rest of what it needs.
44. PPC- if one wants to have more of one
goods, he must have less of other goods due
to limited availability of resources
This curve not only represents the
opportunity costs concept
It actually measures OC- OC of increasing
one item’s production in terms of units of the
other foregone(which is nothing but the
slope)
Another use of PPC is that it highlights the
significance of scarcity of resources and the
need to use them
45. It is the curve that illustrates the
production possibilities of an economy
The alternative combination of two
goods that an economy can produce
with given resources and technology
PPC represents the boundary of the
economy’s production capabilities
46. Lipsey: “PPC is that curve which shows the
possible combinations of two goods that can be
produced by an economy, given available
resources and technology”
Samuelson: “PPC is that curve which represents
the maximum amount of a pair of goods or
services that can both be produced with an
economy’s given resources and technique
assuming that all resources are fully employed”
47. Resources are used to produce one or both of only
two goods
The quantities of labour, capital, land and
entrepreneurship resources do not change
The information and knowledge that society has about
the production of goods and services is fixed
Resources are used in technically efficient way
Fixed technology
Short run is the time frame over which resources
cannot be improved or increased
48. Let us suppose that the economy can
produce two commodities, cotton and
wheat. We suppose that the productive
resources are being fully utilized and there
is no change in technology. The following
table gives the various production
possibilities
49.
50. It all available resources are employed for the
production of wheat, 15,000 quintals of it can be
produced. If, on the other hand, all available resources
are utilized for the production of cotton, 5000 quintals
are produced. These are the two extremes represented
by A and F and in between them are the situations
represented by B, C, D and E. At B, the economy can
produce 14,000 quintals of wheat and 1000 quintals
of cotton.
At C the production possibilities are 12,000 quintals
of wheat and 200u quintals of cotton, as we move
from A to F, we give up some units of wheat for some
units of cotton For instance, moving from A to B, we
sacrifice 1000 quintals of wheat to produce 1000
quintals of cotton, and so on. As we move from A to F,
we sacrifice increasing amounts of cotton.
51. This means that, in a full-employment
economy, more and more of one good can
be obtained only by reducing the
production of another good. This is due to
the basic fact that the economy’s resources
are limited
The following diagram illustrates the
production possibilities set out in the above
table
52.
53. In this diagram AF is the production
possibility curve, also called or the
production possibility frontier, which
shows the various combinations of the two
goods which the economy can produce
with a given amount of resources
The production possibility curve is also
called transformation curve, because when
we move from one position to another, we
are really transforming one good into
another by shifting resources from one use
to another
54. It is to be remembered that all the
points representing the various
reduction possibilities must lie on the
production possibility curve AF and not
inside or outside of it
This is so because at U the economy will
be under-employing its resources and
H is beyond the resources available
55. Point H outside
the production
possibility curve
represents the
unachievable
combination
Point U inside the
production
possibility curve
represents the
unproductive
combination from
available
resources
56. Hypothetical and static
No practical use
No analytical device
Environmental consequences
Downside effects
Short run phenomena
57. In the end, PPC teaches us that there are
always production limits, meaning in order to
be efficient, the economy must decide what
combination of goods and services should be
produced.
58. A managerial economist can play a
very important role by assisting the
management in using the increasingly
specialized skill and sophisticated
techniques which are required to solve
the difficult problems of successful
decision making and forward
planning.
59. Analysis of external factors- beyond the
control of management- business
environment- prices, NI, business cycle,
government policies, international trends
These are very important to the firm- ME by
studying these can contribute effectively to the
firm
Analysis of internal factors- also called as
business operations can well be operated by
the firm- ME can solve problems related to
price determination, use of installed
capacity, investment decisions, expansions
and diversifications,
60. Specific functions: sales forecasting,
market research, analysis of
competing firms, advice on foreign
exchange, environmental forecasting,
production and inventory schedule
etc.
61. To make reasonable profits on capital
employed
Successful forecasts
Knowledge of sources of economic
information
His status in the firm
Analysis of external factors
Analysis of internal factors
Specific functions
62. Cooperation- involves people working
together to reach a goal
Ex: individuals from around the world come
together during crisis
Competition- involves working toward a goal
while denying access to that goal to others. It
can be between individuals or group
Ex: election
However, co-operation may be coerced (forced)
or voluntary (freely chosen), and consequently
individuals and groups might co-operate even
although they have almost nothing in common
qua interests or goals.
63. Examples of that can be found in market trade,
military wars, families, workplaces, schools and
prisons, and more generally any institution or
organization of which individuals are part (out
of own choice, by law, or forced).
The need or desire to compete with others is a
common impetus that motivates individuals to
organize into a group and cooperate with each
other in order to form a stronger competitive
force.
64. Competition- varies from company to company
Benefits from competition- customer oriented,
productivity, innovation related benefits
Cooperation- trust, common goals and existence
of cooperation mechanisms
In india competition- product diversification, price
wars, reducing profit margins, limiting market
growth
Knowledge based competition
Cooperation is considered as a better tool for
growth and achievement
65. The contemporary concepts of economic
advancement are largely based on the concepts
of collaboration; cooperation and competition for
developed countries include an entire range of
governmental functions, including economic
integration, privatisation, public sector
enhancement, labour market competitiveness,
investment climate enhancement, e-government,
soft infrastructures for developing a knowledge
economy, macroeconomic management and
effective long-range planning
66. An externality is a cost or benefit associated with
the production or consumption of a product or
service. Externalities affect third parties who don't
take part in the production of a product and don't
consume the product or service.
If a product helps society, it's a positive
externality, but if the effect of production or
consumption does more harm than good for
society, it's a negative externality.
67. A positive externality is a benefit of producing or
consuming a product. For example, education is a
positive externality of school because people
learn and develop skills for careers and their lives.
In comparison, negative externalities are a cost of
production or consumption. For example,
pollution is a negative externality that results
from both producing and consuming certain
products.
68. When both businesses and consumers receive
a positive benefit as a by-product of the
production and consumption of a product or
service, economists consider this result to be
a positive externality. Here are examples of
how externalities can boast a positive effect
for society and industries:
69. 1. Education: Education provides a personal
and public benefit to people. Individuals
learn new skills and obtain knowledge by
consuming products or services, such as
workshops, college, tutorials and mobile
applications that provide training. This
makes education a positive externality of
consumption.
70. 2. Environment: The decisions businesses and
consumers make in manufacturing and
purchasing goods or services are externalities
that affect the environment. For example, buying
electric cars or recycling plastic, paper and glass
products are actions consumers can take to help
protect the environment, which provides social
benefit. Third parties can enjoy a clean
environment when businesses and customers
create and use products responsibly.
71. 3.Technology: Technology can be a positive
externality of production when product
creation leads to technological innovations. For
example, a company may engineer a new
machine in order to produce a product more
efficiently
The internet is also a good example of a
product that has many positive externalities,
including education, accessibility and social
interaction.
72. 4.Research and development: The work that
research and development teams do can create
benefits for society in ways such as providing
safety, promoting wellness and encouraging
education. For example, when they develop a
vaccine for an illness, even people who aren't
involved in producing or consuming the product
can receive protection from getting sick. The
research and development departments in
businesses create better ways to produce goods
that benefit people as well as the environment.
73. When the private gain of a manufacturer
outweighs the social benefits from a product
or service, this result is considered a negative
externality.
Here are some examples of negative
externalities:
74. 1.Environment: Pollution is the most common
externality of the production and
consumption of goods. Pollution such as
runoff waste into water and smoke from
manufacturing products negatively affects the
environment and third parties. Through the
enforcement of laws and policies, businesses
can regulate and reduce the negative
externalities associated with their products.
75. 2. Social actions: The social behaviors of
consumers as they use a product can negatively
affect others, resulting in a negative externality.
For example, smoking in public places can harm
others who inhale secondhand smoke.
To remedy this, there are restrictions on where
people can smoke, which help reduce the
negative externality of cigarettes. Another
example is traffic when it gets congested
because of driving behaviors, such as failure to
merge properly.
76. 3. Resource allocation: The allocation of
resources means to assign certain materials to
a location. This can make some materials
scarce when not dispersed. Both consumers
and businesses can cause this negative
externality when they use a resource
disproportionally, and it affects others. For
example, when products are priced too high
for some consumers, the product naturally
allocates to wealthier consumers.
77. Economic stability enables other macro-economic
objectives to be achieved, such as stable prices and
stable and sustainable growth. It also creates the right
environment for job creation and a balance of
payments. This is largely because stability creates
certainty and confidence and this
encourages investment in technology and human
capital.
Unfortunately, an unintended consequence of
globalisation is the increased likelihood of economic
shocks, including supply side shocks like oil and
commodity price shocks, and demand side shocks like
the credit crunch(sudden reduction in the availability
of money).
78. Fiscal stabilisers: spontaneous changes in
government spending and revenues that help
stabilise the economy after negative and positive
shocks without any discretionary policy -
automatic fiscal stabilisers, which include
progressive taxes and escalating welfare
payments, provide a shock absorber to stabilise
an economy following an economic shock.
79. Floating exchange rates: A floating exchange rate
is a regime where the currency price of a nation is
set by the forex market based on supply and
demand relative to other currencies. Floating
exchange rates are also seen as an automatic
stabiliser.
Flexible labour markets: Labor market flexibility
refers to how quickly a firm responds to changing
conditions in the market by making modifications
to its workforce. A flexible labor market allows
employers to make changes in response to supply
and demand issues, the economic cycle, and other
market conditions.
80. Monetary policy: Monetary policy is a set of
tools that a nation's central bank has
available to promote sustainable economic
growth by controlling the overall supply of
money that is available to the nation's banks,
its consumers, and its businesses.
81. Government plays four main functions in the
market economy
1. Efficiency: First, the government should attempt
to correct market failures like monopoly and
excessive pollution to ensure efficient functioning
of the economic system. Externalities (or social
costs) occur when firms or people impose costs
or benefits on others outside the marketplace.
82. 2. Infrastructure: Secondly, the government should
provide an integrated infrastructure.
Infrastructure (or social overhead capital) refers
to those activities that enhance, directly or
indirectly, output levels or efficiency in
production. Essential elements are systems of
transportation, power generation,
communication and banking, educational and
health facilities, and a well-ordered government
and political structure.
83. 2. Equity: Government programmes to promote
equity use taxes and spending to
redistribute income toward particular
groups.
3. Economic growth or stability: Fourthly,
governments rely upon taxes, expenditures
and monetary regulation to foster
macroeconomic growth and stability to
reduce unemployment and inflation while
encouraging economic growth.
84. Markets are places where buyers and sellers
can meet to sell and purchase goods and
services.
Markets provide places for firms to sell their
goods and gain revenue.
Markets provide places for consumers to buy
the goods and services that they need.
Markets are mostly self-regulated, relying on
the principles of supply and demand to
determine prices.
85. Ration scarcity : Suppose a good is becoming
scarce and close to running out, then the
supply of the good will fall. Causing the price
to rise.
Incentives. Markets create incentives for firms
to respond to shortages and surpluses.
Suppose a good becomes very popular,
market forces will push up prices However,
this higher price acts as a signal for firms to
increase supply
86. Invisible hand – determine prices: an invisible
hand of markets setting the price. The
advantage of markets is that they don’t need
any government or outer control to set
prices. Prices are set by market forces. This
means that most businesses can be run
without government bureaucracy which can
be inefficient and prone to corruption.
87. Efficiency: When a market is functioning
properly, then consumers will have a choice
about where to buy their goods and services.
If one firm allows costs to rise or provides
sub-standard services, then it will become
unprofitable and go out of business.
Therefore, in a market economy, there is a
strong incentive for firms to be efficient, cut
costs and offer a good service to consumer.
88. Consumer choice. Without markets,
consumers would struggle to get the goods
and services they need. Markets enable
consumers to choose the cheapest (or best)
product, leading to a greater range of
choices. New markets can continually spring
up offering consumers choices there were not
aware of.