Mdg and development

INDICATORS for Monitoring the Millennium Development Goals

Definitions

Rationale
Concepts

and Sources

United Nations

ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/95

United Nations Development Group
Led by

United Nations Population Fund

United Nations Development Programme

Department of Economic and
Social Affairs–Statistics Division

Indicators for Monitoring the
Millennium Development Goals
Definitions Rationale Concepts and Sources

United Nations

New York

2003

Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium Development Goals

NOTE

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The term “country” as
used in the text of this report refers, as appropriate, to territories or areas. The des-
ignations of “developed”. “developing” and “least developed” countries are intended
for convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached
by a particular country or area in the development process. Reference to “dollars” ($)
indicates United States dollars, unless otherwise stated.

ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/95
United Nations Publication
Sales No. E.03.XVII. 18
ISBN 92-1-161467-8
Copyright © United Nations 2003
All rights reserved

Graphic design and Desktop composition Andy Musilli

ii

Definitions, Rationale, Concepts and Sources

FOREWORD
Building on the United Nations global conferences of the 1990s, the United Nations
Millennium Declaration of 2000 marked a strong commitment to the right to devel-
opment, to peace and security, to gender equality, to the eradication of the many
dimensions of poverty and to sustainable human development. Embedded in that
Declaration, which was adopted by 147 heads of State and 189 states, were what
have become known as the eight Millennium Development Goals, including 18 time-
bound targets.

To monitor progress towards the goals and targets, the United Nations system,
including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as well as the
Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, came together under the Office of the Secretary-General and
agreed on 48 quantitative indicators. The indicators built upon an intergovernmen-
tal process to identify relevant indicators in response to global conferences. The
Secretary-General presented the goals, targets and indicators to the General
Assembly in September 2001 in his report entitled “Road map towards the imple-
mentation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration”.

The present handbook provides guidance on the definitions, rationale, concepts and
sources of data for each of the indicators that are being used to monitor the goals and
targets. It expands on an earlier exercise to provide the metadata for the socio-eco-
nomic indicators that make up the United Nations Common Country Assessment
Indicator Framework. The indicators for goals 1–7 are a subset of that framework.

Preparation of the handbook was directed by an inter-agency working group of the
United Nations Development Group, including the World Bank, chaired by the United
Nations Population Fund and co-chaired by the United Nations Statistics Division and
the United Nations Development Programme. On behalf of the United Nations
Development Group, I would like to thank all the agencies and individuals (see below)
who contributed to this handbook, including the Department for International
Development of the Government of the United Kingdom, which funded the services
of a short-term consultant who contributed to the handbook.

I believe that this tangible example of interagency collaboration will prove useful to
the international community by strengthening national statistical capacity and
improving monitoring. And I sincerely hope that this will be sustained through future
revisions in the same spirit.

Mark Malloch Brown
Chairman
United Nations Development Group

September 2003

iii


CONTENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
iii
.
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
vii
.
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
viii
.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
1
.
Goals, targets and indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
3
.
1. . Proportion. of population below $1 purchasing power. parity (PPP) per day . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
.
1A. . Poverty headcount ratio (percentage .of population below the national poverty line) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
.
2. . Poverty gap ratio .(incidence multiplied by depth .of poverty) . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
.
3. . Share .of poorest quintile in national consumption . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
.
4. . Prevalence of .underweight children under 5 years of. age. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
.
5. . Proportion. of population below minimum. level of. dietary. energy. consumption . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
.
6. . Net enrolment. ratio in. primary education. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
16
.
7. . Proportion. of pupils starting grade 1 .who. reach grade 5 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
.
7A. . Primary completion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
20
.
8. . Literacy rate of 15–24 year-olds . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
22
.
9. . Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
.
10. . Ratio of literate women to men, 15–24 years. old. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
.
11. . Share .of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural. sector . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
.
12. . Proportion. of seats held by women in. national parliaments . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
.
13. . Under-five mortality rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
30
.
14. . Infant .mortality rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
32
.
15. . Proportion. of 1-year-old children .immunized .against. measles . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
.
16. . Maternal mortality ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
36
.
17. . Proportion. of births attended. by skilled health personnel. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
.
18. . HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15–24. years . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
.
19. . Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
19A. Condom use at last high-risk sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
19B. Percentage of population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge
. . .
of .HIV/AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
45
.
19C. . Contraceptive. prevalence .rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
46
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans
. . .
aged 10–14 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
48
.
21. . Prevalence and death. rates associated with malaria . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria
. . .
prevention and treatment. measures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
51
.
23. . Prevalence and death. rates associated with tuberculosis. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS 54
. 25. . Proportion. of land. area covered by forest. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 56
. 26. . Ratio of area protected to. maintain biological diversity to surface area . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
. 27. . Energy use (kilogram oil equivalent) per $1 gross. domestic product (PPP) . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
. 28. . Carbon dioxide emissions .per. capita and .consumption of. ozone-depleting . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chlorofluorocarbons (ODP tons) 61
. 29. . Proportion. of the population using solid fuels. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
. 30. . Proportion. of population with. sustainable access. to an improved water . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
source, urban and rural . . . . . .
64
. 31. . Proportion. of population with. access .to improved sanitation,. urban and .rural . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v


. .
32. . Proportion of households with access to secure. tenure . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
. .
33. . Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as. a percentage of OECD/DAC donors’ gross
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
national income. 70
. .
34. . Proportion of total bilateral,. sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to. basic social . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation) 71
. .
35. . Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
. .
36. . ODA .received in .landlocked .countries as a proportion of their gross national incomes . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
. .
37. . ODA .received in .small island. developing. States .as a. proportion. of their. gross national .incomes 75
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
38. . Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding. arms) from. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
developing countries and from the least developed countries, admitted free of duty 76
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
39. . Average .tariffs imposed . by developed countries on. agricultural. products and . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
clothing from developing countries 78
. .
40. . Agricultural support . estimate for OECD .countries as a percentage .of their .gross domestic. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
79
. .
41. . Proportion of ODA provided .to help .build trade .capacity . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
81
42. Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points
. . .
and number .that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative) . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
. .
43. . Debt. relief committed under. HIPC Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
84
. .
44. . Debt. service. as a percentage of. exports of .goods and services. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
85
. .
45. . Unemployment rate .of young people aged 15–24 years, each sex and .total . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
46. Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a
. . .
sustainable basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
88
. .
47. . Telephone lines and .cellular .subscribers. per. 100 population . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
89
. .
48. . Personal. computers .in use per 100 .population . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
90
. . .
Internet .users per 100 population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
91
. .
Annex 1. Additional socio-economic common. country assessment indicators . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
. .
CCA.19. . Proportion of children under. age 15. who are working . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
93
. .
CCA.30. . Employment. to population of working age ratio. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
94
. .
CCA.31. . Unemployment rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
95
. .
CCA.32. . Informal .sector employment. as .a percentage of. employment . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
96
. .
CCA.41. . Number of persons per room, or average floor area. per. person. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
. .
CCA.43. . Number of intentional homicides per 100,000 inhabitants . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
. .
Annex 2. Household surveys and other national data .sources. . . . . . . . . . . 100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Annex 3. Web .sites (see also references in the metadata .sheets). . . . . . . . . . 105
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Annex 4. World summits and conferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . . . . . . . . .

vi


A B B R E V I AT I O N S
A, C, E, F, R, S Translated publications available in Arabic, Chinese, English,
French, Russian and Spanish, at http://unstats.un.org.unsd/pubs/
CCA common country assessment
CFCS chlorofluorocarbons
c.i.f. cost, insurance and freight
CWIQ Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire in Africa
DAC Development Assistance Committee of the OECD
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
DOTS internationally recommended tuberculosis control strategy
DPT diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus vaccine
EPI Expanded Programme on Immunization
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
f.o.b. free on board
GDP gross domestic product
GNI gross national income
GNP gross national product
HBS household budget survey
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
ICES income, consumption and expenditure survey
ILO Internatonal Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union
ISCED 97 International Standard Classification of Education, 1997 version
ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic
Activities
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources–The World Conservation Union
Kg kilogram
LDCs least developed countries
LFS labour force surveys
LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
NCHS National Center for Health Statistics
ODA official development assistance
ODP ozone-depleting potential
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PCs personal computers
PPP purchasing power parity
TCBDB trade capacity-building database
TRAINS Trade Analysis and Information System
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

vii


MEMBERS AND CONTRIBUTORS TO THE UNITED NATIONS
DEVELOPMENT GROUP WORKING GROUP ON INDICATORS
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
Laura Licchi
United Nations Population Fund
Richard Leete, Chair World Food Programme
Iqbal Alam Patricia Kennedy
Kourtoum Nacro
Mickie Schoch Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Jorge Mernies
Affairs Statistics Division
Toshiko Murata
Stefan Schweinfest, Vice Chair
Robert Johnston International Labour Organization
Giselle Kamanou Sophia Lawrence
Francesca Perucci
International Telecommunication Union
United Nations Development Programme Esperanza Magpantay
Diana Alarcon, Vice Chair
Jan Vandemoortele United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Haishan Fu Cultural Organization
Denise Lievesley
United Nations Development Group Office José Pessoa
Gerton van den Akker
Alain Nickels World Bank
Heidi Swindells Neil Fantom
Tom Griffin (consultant) Makiko Harrison
Eric Swanson
Executive Office of the Secretary-General
Madhushree Dasgupta World Health Organization
Christopher Murray
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Carla AbouZahr
Andrea Treso
World Trade Organization
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Guy Karsenty
Human Rights
Goro Onojima United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS James Grabert
Peter Ghys
Inter-Parliamentary Union
United Nations Children’s Fund Kareen Jabre
Gareth Jones
Tessa Wardlaw Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development
United Nations Development Fund for Women Brian Hammond
Suzette Mitchell Simon Scott

United Nations Environment Programme
Stuart Chape
Marion Cheatle
Volodymyr Demkine
Eugene Fosnight
Phillip Fox
Gerald Mutisya

viii


INTRODUCTION
Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium Development Goals: Definitions, Rationale,
Concepts and Sources contains basic metadata on the agreed list of quantitative
indicators for monitoring progress towards the eight goals and 18 targets derived
from the United Nations Millennium Declaration (table). The list of indicators, devel-
oped using several criteria, is not intended to be prescriptive but to take into
account the country setting and the views of various stakeholders in preparing
country-level reports.

Five main criteria guided the selection of indicators. Indicators should:
I Provide relevant and robust measures of progress towards the targets of the

Millennium Development Goals
I Be clear and straightforward to interpret and provide a basis for international

comparison
I Be broadly consistent with other global lists and avoid imposing an unnecessary

burden on country teams, Governments and other partners
I Be based to the greatest extent possible on international standards, recommen-

dations and best practices
I Be constructed from well-established data sources, be quantifiable and be con-

sistent to enable measurement over time

The present handbook is designed to provide United Nations country teams and
national and international stakeholders with guidance on the definitions, rationale,
concepts and sources of the data for the indicators that are being used to monitor
the Millennium Development Goals. Just as the indicator list is dynamic and will nec-
essarily evolve in response to changing national situations, so will the metadata
change over time as concepts, definitions and methodologies change.

A consultation process, generally involving the national statistical office or other
national authority, should be initiated in the selection and compilation of country-
specific indicators. The consultation should take into account national development
priorities, the suggested list of indicators and the availability of data. The United
Nations country team should work collaboratively to help build ownership and con-
sensus on the selected indicators.

NATIONAL SOURCES
Country data should be used for compiling the indicators where such data are avail-
able and of reasonable quality. The data source for each indicator and the quantita-
tive value of the indicator should be decided by consensus among the key stake-
holders, especially the national statistical system. The national statistical system
should own the data and related indicators.

For any given indicator, a wide range of data sources may be available within the
country, and each source should be critically reviewed. Existing data sources and
reporting systems should be used where possible, particularly where line ministries
have their own statistical systems. International data sources should be consulted

1


for validation and in the absence of national sources.

METADATA SHEETS
For each indicator used to measure progress towards the targets and goals, the
handbook provides all or some of the following information:
I A simple operational definition

I The goal and target it addresses

I The rationale for use of the indicator

I The method of computation

I Sources of data

I References, including relevant international Web sites

I Periodicity of measurement

I Gender and disaggregation issues

I Limitations of the indicator

I National and international agencies involved in the collection, compilation or

dissemination of the data

The intention is not to provide an exhaustive amount of information for each item,
but to provide a reference point and guidance for country teams and national stake-
holders. The amount of information varies by indicator and tends to reflect the
extent of national and international debate on its relevance. Limited information is
available for some of the less well-established indicators. With further use of the
indicators and greater recognition of the need for such data, fuller information is
expected to become available.

Monitoring of the Millennium Development Goals is taking place globally, through
annual reports of the United Nations Secretary-General to the General Assembly and
through periodic country reporting. For global reporting, use is made of indicators
compiled by international organizations. Internationally compiled indicators, based
on standard concepts, definitions and methodologies, more readily facilitate cross-
country comparisons. For country reporting, use is generally made of indicators com-
piled from national sources, generally by the national statistical system. The meta-
data sheets for the indicators reflect national and international standards.

ANNEX 1 provides metadata for some additional indicators included in the common
country assessment indicator framework; the indicators for Millennium Development
Goals 1–7 are a subset of that framework. ANNEX 2 supplies information on the house-
hold surveys and national sources mentioned in the metadata for constructing the
indicators. ANNEX 3 gives the World Wide Web addresses of the agencies involved. ANNEX
4 lists the major world summits and conferences that have helped to shape the
Millennium Development Goals and indicators.

2


Goals, targets and indicators
GOALS AND TARGETS INDICATORS FOR MONITORING PROGRESS
FROM THE MILLENNIUM DECLARATION

GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER
a
TARGET 1: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is 1. Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day
less than one dollar a day 1A. Poverty headcount ratio (percentage of population below the national poverty
line)
2. Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty]
3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
TARGET 2: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from 4. Prevalence of underweight children under 5 years of age
hunger 5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption

GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION

TARGET 3: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able 6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education
b
to complete a full course of primary schooling 7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5
8. Literacy rate of 15–24 year-olds

GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN

TARGET 4 : Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably 9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015 10. Ratio of literate women to men, 15–24 years old
11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament

GOAL 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY

TARGET 5 : Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate 13. Under-five mortality rate
14. Infant mortality rate
15. Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles

GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH

TARGET 6 : Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal 16. Maternal mortality ratio
mortality ratio 17. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel

GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES

TARGET 7 : Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS 18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15–24 years
c
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate
19A. Condom use at last high-risk sex
19B. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowl-
d
edge of HIV/AIDS
19C. Contraceptive prevalence rate
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans
aged 10–14years

TARGET 8 : Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and 21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria
other major diseases 22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention
e
and treatment measures
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS

GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

TARGET 9 : Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies 25. Proportion of land area covered by forest
and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources 26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area
27. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP)
28. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs
(ODP tons)
29. Proportion of population using solid fuels
TARGET 10 : Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe 30. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water
drinking water and basic sanitation source, urban and rural
31. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural
TARGET 11 : By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 32. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure
100 million slum dwellers

3


GOAL 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least developed
countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked countries and small island developing States.

TARGET 12 : Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trad- Official development assistance
ing and financial system 33. Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as a percentage of OECD/DAC
donors’ gross national income
Includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty
34. Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic
reduction – both nationally and internationally
social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and
sanitation)
TARGET 13 : Address the special needs of the least developed countries
35. Proportion of bilateral official development assistance of OECD/DAC donors that is
Includes: tariff and quota free access for the least developed countries’ untied
exports; enhanced programme of debt relief for heavily indebted poor 36. ODA received in landlocked countries as a proportion of their gross national
countries (HIPC) and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more gen- incomes
erous ODA for countries committed to poverty reduction 37. ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their gross nation-
al incomes
TARGET 14 : Address the special needs of landlocked countries and small island devel-
Market access
oping States (through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable
38. Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from
Development of Small Island Developing States and the outcome of the
developing countries and and from the least developed countries, admitted free of
twenty-second special session of the General Assembly)
duty
39. Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and tex-
TARGET 15 : Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries
tiles and clothing from developing countries
through national and international measures in order to make debt sus-
40. Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of their gross
tainable in the long term
domestic product
41. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity

Debt sustainability
42. Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and num-
ber that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)
43. Debt relief committed under HIPC Initiative
44. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services
f
TARGET 16 : In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strate- 45. Unemployment rate of young people aged 15-24 years, each sex and total
gies for decent and productive work for youth

TARGET 17 : In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to afford- 46. Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable
able essential drugs in developing countries basis

TARGET 18 : In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits 47. Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population
of new technologies, especially information and communications 48A. Personal computers in use per 100 population and Internet users per 100 population
48B. Internet users per 100 population

THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS and targets come from the Millennium Declaration, signed by 189 countries,
including 147 heads of State and Government, in September 2000 (http://www.un.org.millennium/declaration/
ares552e.htm). The goals and targets are interrelated and should be seen as a whole. They represent a partnership
between the developed countries and the developing countries “to create an environment – at the national and global
levels alike – which is conducive to development and the elimination of poverty”.

Note: Goals, targets and indicators effective 8 September 2003.
a For monitoring country poverty trends, indicators based on nation- healthy-looking person can transmit HIV. However, since there are
al poverty lines should be used, where available. currently not a sufficient number of surveys to be able to calculate
the indicator as defined above, UNICEF, in collaboration with
b An alternative indicator under development is “primary completion UNAIDS and WHO, produced two proxy indicators that represent
rate”. two components of the actual indicator. They are the following: (a)
c Among contraceptive methods, only condoms are effective in pre- percentage of women and men 15-24 who know that a person can
venting HIV transmission. Since the condom use rate is only meas- protect herself from HIV infection by “consistent use of condom”;
ured among women in union, it is supplemented by an indicator on (b) percentage of women and men 15-24 who know a healthy-
condom use in high-risk situations (indicator 19a) and an indicator looking person can transmit HIV.
on HIV/AIDS knowledge (indicator 19b). Indicator 19c (contracep- e Prevention to be measured by the percentage of children under 5
tive prevalence rate) is also useful in tracking progress in other sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets; treatment to be meas-
health, gender and poverty goals. ured by percentage of children under 5 who are appropriately
d This indicator is defined as the percentage of population aged 15- treated.
24 who correctly identify the two major ways of preventing the f An improved measure of the target for future years is under devel-
sexual transmission of HIV (using condoms and limiting sex to one opment by the International Labour Organization.
faithful, uninfected partner), who reject the two most common
local misconceptions about HIV transmission, and who know that a

4


1 PROPORTION OF POPULATION tion) curves weighted by household size. In all
BELOW $1 PURCHASING POWER cases measures of poverty to obtain Lorenz
PARITY(PPP) PER DAY curves are calculated from primary data
sources rather than existing estimates.
DEFINITION
Proportion of population below $1 per day is Poverty in a country is estimated by converting
the percentage of the population living on less the one dollar a day poverty line to local curren-
than $1.08 a day at 1993 international prices. cy using the latest purchasing power parity
The one dollar a day poverty line is compared (PPP) exchange rates for consumption taken
to consumption or income per person and from World Bank estimates. Local consumer
includes consumption from own production price indices are then used to adjust the inter-
and income in kind. This poverty line has national poverty line in local currency to prices
fixed purchasing power across countries or prevailing around the time of the surveys. This
areas and is often called an “absolute poverty international poverty line is used to identify how
line” or measure of extreme poverty. many people are below the one dollar a day
threshold.
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger The PPP-based international poverty line is
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the required only to allow comparisons across
proportion of people whose income is less countries and to produce estimates of pover-
than one dollar a day ty at the aggregate level. Most countries also
set their own poverty lines (SEE INDICATOR 1A).
RATIONALE
The indicator allows for comparing and aggre- DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
gating progress across countries in reducing the The indicator is produced by the World Bank
number of people living under extreme poverty Development Research Group based on data
and for monitoring trends at the global level. obtained from government statistical offices
and World Bank country departments. It is not
METHOD OF COMPUTATION normally calculated by national agencies.
The World Bank regularly estimates poverty
based on the one dollar a day poverty line. Data on household income, consumption and
Estimates are based on incomes or consump- expenditure, including income in kind, are
tion levels derived from household surveys. generally collected through household budget
Whenever possible, consumption is preferred surveys or other surveys covering income and
to income for measuring poverty. When con- expenditure.
sumption data are not available, income is
used. When available, household consumption data
are preferred to income data. National statis-
Consumption, which includes consumption tical offices, sometimes in conjunction with
for own production, or income per person, and other national or international agencies, usu-
its distribution are estimated from household ally undertake such surveys.
surveys. Household consumption or income is
divided by the number of people in the house- Only surveys that meet the following criteria are
hold to establish the income per person. used: they are nationally representative, include
a sufficiently comprehensive consumption or
The distribution of consumption or income is income aggregate (including consumption or
estimated using empirical Lorenz (distribu- income from own production), and they allow for

5


the construction of a correctly weighted distri- The one dollar a day poverty measure is used
bution of consumption or income per person. to assess and monitor poverty at the global
level, but like other indicators it is not equally
The most recent estimates of PPP for devel- relevant in all regions because countries have
oping countries are based on data collected different definitions of poverty.
between 1993 and 1996, standardized to Measurements of poverty in countries are
1993 international prices. Global price com- generally based on national poverty lines.
parisons are carried out by the International
Comparison Programme of the World Bank PPP exchange rates are used because they
and others. New estimates of PPPs are take into account the local prices of goods
expected in 2006. and services that are not traded internation-
ally. Although PPP rates were designed for
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT comparing aggregates from national
Household budget or income surveys are accounts, they may not fully reflect the com-
undertaken at different intervals in different parative cost of goods typically consumed by
countries. In developing countries they typi- the very poor.
cally take place every three to five years.
There are also problems in comparing poverty
PPP surveys are conducted at infrequent measures within countries, especially for urban-
intervals. The last price survey through the rural differences. The cost of living is typically
International Comparison Programme was higher in urban than in rural areas, so the urban
completed in 1996, and the next will begin in monetary poverty line should be higher than the
2003. It is, however, possible to extrapolate rural monetary poverty line. However, it is not
from PPP surveys, and the World Bank con- always clear that the difference between the
version factors are calculated in this way. two poverty lines found in practice properly
reflects the difference in the cost of living.
GENDER ISSUES
Households headed by women tend to have In considering whether to use income or con-
lower incomes and are therefore more likely sumption as a welfare indicator, income is
to have incomes per person lower than one generally more difficult to measure accurate-
dollar. However, this relationship should be ly, and consumption accords better with the
carefully studied to take into account nation- idea of the standard of living than income,
al circumstances and the definition of head of which can vary over time even if the standard
household adopted in data collection, which is of living does not. Nevertheless, consumption
not necessarily related to being the chief data are not always available, and when they
source of economic support. Whether house- are not there is little choice but to use income.
holds are headed by women or men, gender
relations affect intrahousehold resource allo- There is also a problem with comparability
cation and use. It is not possible to estimate across surveys: household survey question-
sex-disaggregated poverty rates from avail- naires can differ widely, and even similar sur-
able data. veys may not be strictly comparable because
of differences in quality.
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
It is sometimes possible to disaggregate this Even if surveys are entirely accurate, the
indicator by urban-rural location. measure of poverty can miss some important
aspects of individual welfare. First, using
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS household consumption ignores inequalities

6


within households. Second, the measure does http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/library
not reflect people’s feeling about relative /progr/2000-01/execsum.htm.
deprivation or their concerns about uninsured WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
risks to their income and health. Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
Table 2.6. Washington, D.C. Available in
Comparisons across countries at different levels part from http://www.worldbank.org/data.
of development may also pose a problem, owing WORLD BANK (2003). Data and Statistics.
to differences in the relative importance of con- Internet site http://www.worldbank.org/
sumption of non-market goods. data . Washington, D.C.
WORLD BANK (2003). Poverty Reduction
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Strategy Sourcebook, vol. 1, Core tech-
COMPARISONS niques: Poverty Measurement and Analysis.
CHEN, SHAOCHUA, and MARTIN RAVALLION Washington, D.C. Available from http://
(2002). How Did the World’s Poorest Fare in www. worldbank.org/poverty/strategies/
the 1990s?, Working Paper No. 2409, pp.1-5. sourcons.htm .
Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Available
from http://www.worldbank.org/research/ AGENCY
povmonitor/publications.htm. World Bank
HESTON, ALAN, ROBERT SUMMERS and BETTINA
ATEN (2002). Penn World Tables 6.1. Internet
site http://datacentre2.chass.utoronto.ca/pwt .
UNITED NATIONS (1992). Handbook of the
1-A POVERTY HEADCOUNT RATIOBELOW
CENTAGE OF POPULATION
(PER-

International Comparison Programme. THE NATIONAL POVERTY LINE)
Series F, No. 62 (United Nations publica-
tion, Sales No. E.92.XVII.12). Available from DEFINITION
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs. (A, C, E, The poverty headcount ratio is the proportion
F, R, S) of the national population whose incomes are
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators below the official threshold (or thresholds) set
Database. Statistics Division Internet site by the national Government. National poverty
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. lines are usually set for households of various
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME compositions to allow for different family
(2003 and annual). Human Development sizes. Where there are no official poverty
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. lines, they may be defined as the level of
Available from http://hdr.undp.org. income required to have only sufficient food
UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN or food plus other necessities for survival.
COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND,
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
DEVELOPMENT AND WORLD BANK (1994). Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
1993), Series F, No. 2, Rev. 4 (United Nations proportion of people whose income is less
publication, Sales No. E.94.XVII.4), paras. than one dollar a day
9.45, 16.80-16.83. Available with updates
from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993. RATIONALE
WORLD BANK (2001). Poverty Reduction and The indicator allows for monitoring the pro-
the World Bank: Progress in Operationaliz- portion of the national population that is con-
ing the World Development Report sidered poor by a national standard. Most
2000/01. Washington, D.C. Available from poverty analysis work for countries is based

7


on national poverty lines. National poverty cally take place every three to five years.
lines tend to increase in purchasing power GENDER ISSUES
with the average level of income of a country. Households headed by women tend to have
lower incomes and are therefore more likely
METHOD OF COMPUTATION to have incomes per person below the pover-
Household income (or consumption) and its ty line. However, this relationship should be
distribution are estimated from household carefully studied to take into account nation-
surveys (SEE INDICATOR 1). The incomes of various al circumstances and the definition of head of
household types, by composition, may then household adopted in data collection, which is
be compared with the poverty lines for those not necessarily related to being the chief
types of household. If the poverty lines are source of economic support. Whether house-
expressed in terms of income per adult equiv- holds are headed by women or men, gender
alent or some similar measure, the incomes of relations affect intrahousehold resource allo-
the households must be measured on a simi- cation and use.
lar basis. Household income may be convert-
ed to income per adult equivalent by using DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
the modified equivalence scale of the Disaggregation of the poverty headcount
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and index is normally limited by the size of the
Development (OECD)—in which the first household survey. It is common, however, for
household member over 16 equals 1, all others indices to be produced for urban and rural
over 16 equal 0.5, all under 16 equal 0.3 —or areas and for some subnational levels as the
some other equivalence scale. Household sample allows. Estimates at low levels of dis-
incomes are then divided by the “equivalized” aggregation may be made using “poverty
number of people in the household (two adults mapping” techniques, which use the lower
would equal 1.5 according to the OECD scale) levels of disaggregation available from popu-
to establish income per person. lation censuses, particularly where the timing
of the population census and household sur-
Once the number of households that are vey is relatively close. Wherever household
below the poverty line has been estimated, surveys provide income or consumption data
the number of people in those households is disaggregated by sex of household heads,
aggregated to estimate the percentage of the these data should be used.
population below the line.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE The advantage of this indicator is that it is
Data on household income, consumption and specific to the country in which the data are
expenditure, including income in kind, are collected and where the poverty line is estab-
generally collected through household budget lished. While the one dollar a day poverty line
surveys or other surveys covering income and helps in making international comparisons,
expenditure. national poverty lines are used to make more
accurate estimates of poverty consistent with
National statistical offices, sometimes in con- the characteristics and level of development
junction with other national or international of each country. The disadvantage is that
agencies, usually undertake such surveys. there is no universally agreed poverty line,
even in principle, and international compar-
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT isons are not feasible.
Household budget or income surveys are
undertaken at different intervals in different There are also problems in comparing poverty
countries. In developing countries they typi- measures within countries, especially for

8


urban and rural differences. The cost of living
is typically higher in urban than in rural areas,
2 POVERTY GAP RATIO (INCIDENCE
MULTIPLIED BY DEPTH OF POVER-
so the urban monetary poverty line should be TY)
higher than the rural monetary poverty line.
But it is not always clear that the difference DEFINITION
between the two poverty lines found in prac- Poverty gap ratio is the mean distance sepa-
tice properly reflects the difference in the rating the population from the poverty line
cost of living. (with the non-poor being given a distance of
zero), expressed as a percentage of the
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA poverty line.
COMPARISONS
CANBERRA GROUP ON HOUSEHOLD INCOME GOALAND TARGET ADDRESSED
STATISTICS (2001). Expert Group on Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Household Income Statistics: Final Report Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
and Recommendations. Ottawa. Available proportion of people whose income is less
from http://www.lisproject.org/links/canb than one dollar a day
access.htm.
SWEDEN, STATISTICS SWEDEN (1996). Engendering RATIONALE
Statistics: A Tool for Change. Stockholm. The indicator measures the “poverty deficit”
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators of the entire population, where the poverty
Database. Statistics Division Internet site deficit is the per capita amount of resources
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. that would be needed to bring all poor people
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME above the poverty line through perfectly tar-
(2003 and annual). Human Development geted cash transfers.
Report. New York, Oxford University Press.
Available from http://hdr.undp.org. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World The poverty gap ratio is the sum of the
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. income gap ratios for the population below
Notes to table 2.6. Washington, D.C. the poverty line, divided by the total popula-
Available in part from http://www.world tion, which can be expressed as follows:
bank.org/data.
WORLD BANK (2003). Poverty Reduction 1 q  z − yi 
Strategy Sourcebook, vol. 1, Core Techniques: PG = ∑
n i =1  z 
Poverty Measurement and Analysis.
 
Washington, D.C. Available from where z is the poverty line, Yi is the income of
http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/ individual i, q is the number of poor people and
strategies/sourcons.htm. n is the size of the population. The poverty
gap can also be expressed (and thus calculated)
AGENCIES as the product of the average income gap
National statistical offices ratio of poor people and the headcount ratio,
World Bank that is,

where

PG = I * H
where
q z − yq
H= I=
n z

9


, the distance is meaningful. For example, the
where poverty gap in education could be the number
1 q of years of education missing to reach the
yq = ∑ yi
q i =1
defined threshold.

All the formulas are calculated based on data REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
on individuals ( yi as individual income or con- COMPARISONS
sumption). If household-level data are used, CHEN, SHAOCHUA, and MARTIN RAVALLION (2002).
the formulas have to be adjusted by the How Did the World’s Poorest Fare in the
weight wi, which is the household size times 1990s? Working Paper No. 2409, pp.1-5.
sampling expansion factor for every house- World Bank, Washington, D.C. Available
hold i. from http://www.worldbank.org/research/
povmonitor/publications.htm .
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
When based on the $1 a day poverty line, this Database. Statistics Division Internet site
indicator is calculated by the World Bank. http://millenniumindicators.un.org .
When based on national poverty lines, the WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
indicator is commonly calculated by national Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
agencies. Washington, D.C. Available in part from
http://www.worldbank.org/data .
The data required are the same as those for WORLD BANK (2003). Poverty Reduction
indicator 1. Strategy Sourcebook, vol. 1, Core Techniques:
Poverty Measurement and Analysis.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Washington, D.C. Available from
Household budget or income surveys are http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/
undertaken at different intervals in different strategies/sourcons.htm.
countries. In developing countries, they typi-
cally take place every three to five years. AGENCIES
National statistical offices
GENDER ISSUES World Bank
Households headed by women may be con-
centrated in the bottom fifth. However, this
relationship should be carefully studied to
take into account national circumstances and
3 SHARE OFCONSUMPTION
NATIONAL
POOREST QUINTILE IN

the definition of head of household adopted
in data collection, which is not necessarily DEFINITION
related to being the chief source of economic Share of the poorest quintile in national con-
support. Whether households are headed by sumption is the income that accrues to the
women or men, gender relations affect intra- poorest fifth of the population.
household resource allocation and use.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
The comments under indicators 1 and 1A also Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
apply here. proportion of people whose income is less
than one dollar a day
This measure can also be used for non-mone-
tary indicators, provided that the measure of

10


RATIONALE World Bank tries to produce comparable data
The indicator provides information about the for international comparisons and for analysis
distribution of consumption or income of the at the aggregated level (regional or global).
poorest fifth of the population. Because the Survey data provide either per capita income
consumption of the poorest fifth is expressed or consumption. Whenever possible, con-
as a percentage of total household consump- sumption data are used rather than income
tion (or income), this indicator is a “relative data. Where the original household survey
inequality” measure. Therefore, while the data are not available, shares are estimated
absolute consumption of the poorest fifth from the best available grouped data.
may increase, its share of total consumption
may remain the same (if the total goes up by PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
the same proportion), decline (if the total Household budget or income surveys are
goes up by a larger proportion) or increase (if undertaken at different intervals in different
the total goes up by a smaller proportion). countries. In developing countries, they typi-
cally take place every three to five years.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Household income and its distribution are GENDER ISSUES
estimated from household surveys. Household Households headed by women may be con-
income is adjusted for household size to pro- centrated in the bottom fifth. However, this
vide a more consistent measure of per capita relationship should be carefully studied to
income for consumption. Household income is take into account national circumstances and
divided by the number of people in the house- the definition of head of household adopted
hold to establish income per person. The pop- in data collection, which is not necessarily
ulation is then ranked by income. The income related to the chief source of economic sup-
of the bottom fifth is expressed as a percent- port. Whether households are headed by
age of aggregate household income. The cal- women or men, gender relations affect intra-
culations are made in local currency, without household resource allocation and use.
adjustment for price changes or exchange
rates or for spatial differences in cost of living INTERNATIONAL DATA COMPARISONS
within countries, because the data needed for Since the underlying household surveys differ
such calculations are generally unavailable. in method and type of data collected, the dis-
tribution indicators are not easily comparable
across countries. These problems are dimin-
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE ishing as survey methods improve and
For international purposes, this indicator is become more standardized, but achieving
calculated by the World Bank, but it may also strict comparability is still impossible (see
be calculated by national agencies. The “COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS” for INDICATOR 1).
Development Research Group of the World
Bank Group produces the indicator based on COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
primary household survey data obtained from Two sources of non-comparability should be
government statistical agencies and World noted. First, the surveys can differ in many
Bank country departments. respects, including whether they use income
or consumption as the indicator of living stan-
Data on household income or consumption dards. The distribution of income is typically
come from household surveys. Since underly- more unequal than the distribution of con-
ing household surveys differ across countries sumption. In addition, the definitions of
in methods and type of data collected, the income usually differ among surveys. Con-

11


sumption is normally a better welfare indica-
tor, particularly in developing countries (see
4 PREVALENCE OF YEARS OF AGE CHIL-
DREN UNDER 5
UNDERWEIGHT

“COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS” for INDICATOR 1).
DEFINITION
Second, households differ in size (number of Prevalence of (moderately or severely) under-
members), extent of income sharing among weight children is the percentage of children
members, age of members and consumption under five years old whose weight for age is
needs. Differences among countries in these less than minus two standard deviations from
respects may bias comparisons of distribution. the median for the international reference
population ages 0–59 months. The interna-
The percentile chosen here is the bottom fifth tional reference population was formulated
(quintile). The proportionate share of national by the National Center for Health Statistics
household income of this group may go up (NCHS) as a reference for the United States
while the proportionate share of some other and later adopted by the World Health
percentile, such as the bottom tenth (decile), Organization (WHO) for international use
may go down, and vice versa. (often referred to as the NCHS/WHO refer-
ence population).
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
COMPARISONS GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
RAVALLION, MARTIN, and SHAOHUA CHEN (1996). Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
What Can New Survey Data Tell Us about Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
Recent Change in Distribution and Poverty? proportion of people who suffer from hunger
World Bank Economic Review. Washington,
D.C. 11/2:357-82. RATIONALE
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of Child malnutrition, as reflected in body
Sustainable Development: Guidelines and weight, is selected as an indicator for several
Methodologies. Department of Economic reasons. Child malnutrition is linked to poverty,
and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable low levels of education and poor access to
Development. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6. health services. Malnourishment in children,
Available from http:// www.un.org/esa/ even moderate, increases their risk of death,
sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm . inhibits their cognitive development, and
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators affects health status later in life. Sufficient
Database. Statistics Division Internet site and good quality nutrition is the cornerstone
http://millenniumindicators.un.org . for development, health and survival of cur-
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World rent and succeeding generations. Healthy
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. nutrition is particularly important for women
Washington, D.C. Available in part from during pregnancy and lactation so that their
http://www.worldbank.org/data . children set off on sound developmental
paths, both physically and mentally. Only
AGENCIES when optimal child growth is ensured for the
National statistical offices majority of their people will Governments be
World Bank successful in their efforts to accelerate eco-
nomic development in a sustained way.

The under-five underweight prevalence is an
internationally recognized public health indi-
cator for monitoring nutritional status and

12


health in populations. Child malnutrition is may be a sensitive issue in the country.
also monitored more closely than adult mal- Gender differences may also be more pro-
nutrition. nounced in some social and ethnic groups.

METHOD OF COMPUTATION COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
The weights of the under-five child population The weight-for-age indicator reflects body
in a country are compared with the weights mass relative to chronological age and is influ-
given in the NCHS/WHO table of child weights enced by both the height of the child (height
for each age group. The percentages of chil- for age) and weight-for-height. Its composite
dren in each age group whose weights are nature makes interpretation complex. For
more than 2 standard deviations less than the example, weight for age fails to distinguish
median are then aggregated to form the total between short children of adequate body
percentage of children under age 5 who are weight and tall, thin children.
underweight.
Low height for age or stunting, defined as minus
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE two standard deviations from the median
At the national level, data are generally avail- height for the age of the reference population,
able from national household surveys, includ- measures the cumulative deficient growth
ing Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple asociated with long-term factors, including
Indicator Cluster Surveys and national nutri- chronic insufficient daily protein intake.
tion surveys.
Low weight for height, or wasting, defined as
For international comparisons and global or below minus 2 standard deviations from the
regional monitoring, the United Nations median weight for height of the reference pop-
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and WHO compile ulation, indicates in most cases a recent and
international data series and estimate region- severe process of weight loss, often associat-
al and global figures based on data from ed with acute starvation or severe disease.
national surveys.
When possible, all three indicators should be
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT analysed and presented since they measure and
Household surveys are generally conducted reflect different aspects of child malnutrition.
every three to five years.
GENDER ISSUES COMPARISONS
The data from national household surveys gen- UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003).
erally show no significant differences in under- Progress since the World Summit for
weight prevalence between boys and girls. Children. New York. Available from
However, those trends should continue to be http://www.childinfo.org.
monitored, particularly at the subnational UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
level and within subgroups of the population. The State of the World’s Children. New York.
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
Indicators of malnutrition generally show dif- Methodologies. Department of Economic
ferentials between rural and urban settings. In and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable
some countries, child nutrition may vary Development. Sales No. E.01.II.A. Available
across geographical areas, socio-economic from http:// www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
groups or ethnic groups. However, showing natlinfo/indicitors/isd.htm.
and analysing data on specific ethnic groups UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators

13


Database. Statistics Division Internet site RATIONALE
http://millenniumindicators.un.org . The indicator measures an important aspect
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World of the food insecurity of a population.
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. Sustainable development demands a concert-
Washington, D.C. Available in part from ed effort to reduce poverty, including finding
http://www.worldbank.org/data . solutions to hunger and malnutrition.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1986). The Alleviating hunger is a prerequisite for sus-
Growth Chart: A Tool for Use in Infant and tainable poverty reduction since undernour-
Child Health Care. Geneva. ishment seriously affects labour productivity
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and and earning capacity. Malnutrition can be the
annual). World Health Report. Geneva. outcome of a range of circumstances. In order
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/ to work, poverty reduction strategies must
en. address food access, availability (physical and
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). Global economic) and safety.
Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition.
Internet site http://www.who.int/nut- METHOD OF COMPUTATION
growthdb/. Geneva. Estimation of the proportion of people with
insufficient food (undernourishment) involves
UNICEF and WHO produce international data specification of the distribution of dietary
sets based on survey data. In some countries, energy consumption, considering the total
ages may have to be estimated. food availability (from national global statis-
tics) and inequality in access to food (from
AGENCIES national household surveys). The distribution
Ministries of health is assumed to be unimodal and skewed. The
United Nations Children’s Fund log-normal function is used in estimating the
World Health Organization proportion of the population below a mini-
mum energy requirement level or cut-off
point. The cut-off point is estimated as a pop-
5 PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION
BELOW MINIMUM LEVEL OF
ulation per capita average value, based on
dietary energy needed by different age and
DIETARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION gender groups and the proportion of the pop-
ulation represented by each age group.
DEFINITION
Proportion of the population below the mini- The estimates are not normally available in
mum level of dietary energy consumption is countries. The Food and Agriculture
the percentage of the population whose food Organization of the United Nations (FAO) pre-
intake falls below the minimum level of pares the estimates at the national level. They
dietary energy requirements. This is also are then aggregated to obtain regional and
referred to as the prevalence of under-nour- global estimates.
ishment, which is the percentage of the pop-
ulation that is undernourished. DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
The main data sources are country statistics
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED on local food production, trade, stocks and
Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger non-food uses; food consumption data from
Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the national household surveys; country anthro-
proportion of people who suffer from hunger pometric data by sex and age and United
Nations country population estimates, in total
and by sex and age.

14


PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT nificance of resulting estimates for assess-
Estimates for the most recent period and for ment and policy-making. First, the estimates
selected benchmark periods (expressed as are based on food acquired by (or available
three-year averages) are reported every year. to) the households rather than the actual
food intake of individual household members.
GENDER ISSUES Second, any inequity in intrahousehold access
Intrahousehold access to food may show dis- to food is not taken into account. Third,
parities by gender. Also, cultural patterns of changes in relative inequality of food distribu-
distribution and nutritional taboos may affect tion through the assessed periods are not
women’s nutrition. Women’s higher require- considered. However, FAO is monitoring any
ments for iron during pregnancy and breast- evidence of significant changes over time that
feeding may result in iron deficiency anemia, would require adjustment to the current esti-
which affects the result of pregnancy and mation procedure.
may increase women’s susceptibility to dis-
eases. Although food consumption data do Indicators should not be used in isolation.
not allow for disaggregation by sex, whenev- Monitoring of the hunger reduction target
er household survey data are available by sex, addresses two related problems: food depri-
efforts should be made to conduct a gender- vation and child malnutrition. Analysis of food
based analysis. deprivation is based on estimates of the
prevalence of undernourishment in the whole
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES population. Analysis of child malnutrition is
In assessing food insecurity, it is important to based on estimates of underweight prevalence
consider geographical areas that may be par- in the child population. This is an indicator of
ticularly vulnerable (such as areas with a high nutritional status of individual children (ade-
probability of major variations in production quate weight for a given age), and the final
or supply or areas subject to natural disas- outcome depends not only on food adequacy
ters) and the population groups whose access but also on other multiple factors such as
to food is precarious or sporadic (due to struc- infections, environmental conditions and care.
tural or economic vulnerability), such as eth- Therefore, the combined use of both indica-
nic or social groups. However, showing and tors would enhance the understanding of the
analysing data on specific ethnic groups may changes in the food and nutrition situation.
be a sensitive issue in the country. Gender dif-
ferences may also be more pronounced in REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
some social and ethnic groups. COMPARISONS
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE
Considering the need for disaggregated esti- UNITED NATIONS (2002). FAO Methodology
mates, the FAO methodology has been expand- for Estimating the Prevalence of
ed to measure the extent of food deprivation at Undernourishment. In Proceedings of the
subnational levels, making appropriate use of International Scientific Symposium on
available household survey data. To support Measurement and Assessment of Food
countries in preparing disaggregated esti- Deprivation and Undernutrition. Rome.
mates, FAO is conducting capacity-building FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE
activities for national statistical offices. UNITED NATIONS (annual). The State of Food
Insecurity in the World. Rome. Available
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS from http://www.fao.org/sof/sofi/index_en.
The methods and data used by FAO have htm .
implications for the precise meaning and sig- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1985). Energy

15


and Protein Requirements: Report of a Joint dren might be enrolled at other levels of edu-
FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. World cation.
Health Organization Technical Report 724.
Geneva. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The indicator is calculated as the number of
AGENCY enrolled students within the appropriate age
Food and Agriculture Organization of the cohort according to school records as report-
United Nations ed to ministries of education, divided by the
number of children of primary school age.

6 NET ENROLMENT RATIO IN PRI-
MARY EDUCATION
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Data on school enrolment are usually record-
ed by the country ministry of education or
DEFINITION compiled from surveys and censuses. Data on
Net primary enrolment ratio is the ratio of the the population in the official age group for the
number of children of official school age (as primary level are available from national sta-
defined by the national education system) tistical offices, based on population censuses
who are enrolled in primary school to the total and vital statistics registration. Nationally
population of children of official school age. reported values will be the same as interna-
Primary education provides children with tionally reported values only if the same
basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills methods and population estimates are used.
along with an elementary understanding of
such subjects as history, geography, natural For international comparisons and estimates
science, social science, art and music of regional and global aggregates, the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics regularly pro-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED duces data series on school enrolment based
Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education on data reported by education ministries or
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children every- national statistical offices and United Nations
where, boys and girls alike, will be able to population estimates.
complete a full course of primary schooling
For countries for which administrative data are
RATIONALE not available, household survey data may be
The indicator is used to monitor progress used to assess school attendance rather than
towards the goal of achieving universal pri- enrolment. Among international surveys, the
mary education, identified in both the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey and
Millennium Development Goals and the Demographic and Health Surveys (and some-
Education for All initiative. It shows the pro- times Living Standards Measurement Surveys
portion of children of primary school age who and the Core Welfare Indicators
are enrolled in primary school. Net enrolment Questionnaires in Africa) provide school
refers only to children of official primary attendance data.
school age. (Gross enrolment includes children
of any age.) Net enrolment rates below 100 PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
per cent provide a measure of the proportion Enrolment data are recorded regularly by min-
of school age children who are not enrolled at istries of education and are available on a yearly
the primary level. This difference does not basis. Data derived from surveys and census-
necessarily indicate the percentage of stu- es, when administrative records on enrolment
dents who are not enrolled, since some chil- by age and sex are not available, are less fre-

16


quent. Net enrolment rates produced by repeat years may mistakenly be included in
UNESCO are available on an annual basis for the net figures. Children’s ages may be inac-
two thirds of countries, but usually one year curately estimated or misstated. Census data
after the reference year. The United Nations may be out of date or unreliable. There may
Population Division estimates population by also be insufficient data on school enrolment
individual years of age biannually, although by sex, but existing measurement problems
estimates may be based on population cen- make it difficult to assess the situation cor-
suses conducted every 10 years in most rectly.
countries. Household survey data, such as
those from the Multiple Indicator Cluster The indicator attempts to capture the educa-
Survey and Demographic and Health Surveys, tion system’s coverage and efficiency, but it
are available for many developing countries at does not solve the problem completely. Some
regular intervals of three to five years. children fall outside the official school age
because of late or early entry rather than
GENDER ISSUES because of grade repetition.
In situations of limited resources, families make
difficult choices about sending their children Enrolment data compiled by UNESCO are
to school. They may perceive the value of ed- adjusted to be consistent with the
ucation differently for boys and girls. Girls are International Standard Classification of
more likely than boys to suffer from limited Education, 1997 (ICSCED) and are therefore
access to education, especially in rural areas. comparable across countries. National data
Nevertheless, where basic education is widely derived from administrative records are not
accepted and overall enrolment is high, girls necessarily based on the same classification
tend to equal or outnumber boys at primary over time and may not be comparable with
and secondary levels. data for other countries, unless exactly the
same classification is used. Similarly, the con-
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES cepts and terms in household surveys and
Rural and urban differences are particularly censuses do not necessarily remain constant
important in the analysis of enrolment data over time.
owing to significant differences in school
facilities, available resources, demand on chil- REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
dren’s time for work and dropout patterns. It COMPARISONS
is also important to consider disaggregation ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK. Gender Issues in
by geographical areas and social or ethnic Basic and Primary Education. In Gender
groups. However, showing and analysing data Checklist:Education. Manila. Available from
on specific ethnic groups may be a sensitive http://www.adb.org/documents/Manuals/
issue in the country. Gender differences may Gender_checklists/Education.
also be more pronounced in some social and UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and
ethnic groups. Recommendations for Population and
Housing Censuses, Revision 1. Series M, No.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS 67, Rev. 1, para. 2.156 Sales No.
School enrolments may be overreported for E.98.XVII.1. Available from http://unstats.
various reasons. Survey data may not reflect un.org/unsd/pubs (A, E, F, S).
actual rates of attendance or dropout during UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
the school year. Administrators may report Database. Statistics Division Internet site
exaggerated enrolments, especially if there is http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
a financial incentive to do so. Children who UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003).

17


Monitoring Methods. New York. Internet site
http:// unicef.org/reseval/methodr. html. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education
The State of the World’s Children. New York. Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children every-
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME where, boys and girls alike, will be able to
(2003 and annual). Human Development complete a full course of primary schooling
Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
Available from http://hdr.undp.org . RATIONALE
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND The indicator measures an education sys-
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1978). Revised tem’s success in retaining students from one
Recommendations Concerning the Inter- grade to the next as well as its internal effi-
national Standardization of Educational ciency. Various factors account for poor per-
Statistics. Paris. See also UNESCO Statistical formance on this indicator, including low qual-
Yearbook, 1998, chap.2. ity of schooling, discouragement over poor per-
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND formance and the direct and indirect costs of
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1997). International schooling. Students’ progress to higher grades
Standard Classification of Education, 1997 may also be limited by the availability of
(ISCED). Montreal. Available from teachers, classrooms and educational materials.
http://www.uis.unesco.org. Path: Core
Theme Education, Technical Guides. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World The indicator is typically estimated from data
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. on enrolment and repetition by grade for two
Washington, D.C. Available in part from consecutive years, in a procedure called the
http://www.worldbank.org/data . reconstructed cohort method. This method
makes three assumptions: dropouts never
UNESCO data since 1998 follow the 1997 return to school; promotion, repetition and
version of the International Standard dropout rates remain constant over the entire
Classification of Education, 1997 ISCED, which period in which the cohort is enrolled in
enables international comparability between school; and the same rates apply to all pupils
countries. The time series data before 1998 enrolled in a given grade, regardless of
are not consistent with data for 1998 and after. whether they previously repeated a grade.

AGENCIES The calculation is made by dividing the total
Ministries of education number of pupils belonging to a school cohort
UNESCO Institute for Statistics who reach each successive grade of the spec-
ified level of education by the number of
pupils in the school cohort (in this case stu-
7 PROPORTION OF PUPILS STARTING
GRADE 1 WHO REACH GRADE 5
dents originally enrolled in grade 1 of primary
education) and multiplying the result by 100.

DEFINITION When estimated from household survey data,
The proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who the proportion is estimated as the product of
reach grade 5, known as the survival rate to the proportions of transition for each grade
grade 5, is the percentage of a cohort of up to grade 5. The estimation follows the
pupils enrolled in grade 1 of the primary level method of the United Nations Educational,
of education in a given school year who are Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
expected to reach grade 5.

18


The method of computation has limits in
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE measuring the degree to which school
The indicator proposed by the UNESCO entrants survive through primary education
Institute for Statistics is based on grade-specif- because flows caused by new entrants, re-
ic enrolment data for two successive years for a entrants, grade skipping, migration or transfers
country and on grade repeater data. during the school year are not considered.

Household survey data are obtained from Wherever possible, the indicator should be
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and complemented by the grade 1 intake rate, be-
Demographic and Health Surveys in a standard cause together the indicators give a much
way and include information on current and last better sense of the proportion of children in the
year school grade and level of attendance. population who complete primary education.

PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
Where the data are available, they are pub- COMPARISONS
lished annually about two years after the ref- UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and
erence year. Household surveys, such as Recommendations for Population and
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No.
Demographic and Health Surveys, are gener- 67, Rev. 1, para. 2.156. Sales No.
ally conducted every three to five years. E.98.XVII.1. Available from http://unstats.
un.org/unsd/pubs . (A, E, F, S)
GENDER ISSUES UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
Frequency and dropout patterns vary Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
between girls and boys. Reasons for leaving Methodologies. Department of Economic
school also differ for girls and boys and by and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable
age. Families’ demand on children’s time to Development. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
help in household-based work is an important Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
factor and is often greater for girls. Also impor- sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm .
tant for girls are security, the proximity of UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
school facilities and the availability of ade- Database. Statistics Division Internet site
quate sanitation and other services in schools. http://millenniumindicators. un.org.
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2000).
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES Monitoring Progress toward the Goals of the
Rural and urban differences are particularly World Summit for Children: The End-
important in the analysis of education data, Decade Multiple Indicator Survey Manual.
owing to significant differences in school New York. Available at http://www.unicef.
facilities, available resources, demand on chil- org/reseval/methodr.html.
dren’s time for work, and dropout patterns. It UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
is also important to consider disaggregation The State of the World’s Children. New York.
by geographical area and social or ethnic UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
groups. However, showing and analysing data (2003 and annual). Human Development
on specific ethnic groups may be a sensitive Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
issue in the country. Gender differences may Available at http://hdr.undp.org .
also be more pronounced in some social and UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
ethnic groups. CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1978). Revised
Recommendations concerning the
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS International Standardization of Educational

19


Statistics. Paris. Also contained in UNESCO
Statistical Yearbook 1998, chap.2.
7-A PRIMARY COMPLETION RATE
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1997). International DEFINITION
Standard Classification of Education, 1997 Primary completion rate is the ratio of the
(ISCED). Montreal. Available at http://www. total number of students successfully com-
uis.unesco.org. Select: Core Themes/ pleting (or graduating from) the last year of
Education/Technical Guides. primary school in a given year to the total
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND number of children of official graduation age
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). Education for in the population.
All: Year 2000 Assessment, Technical
Guidelines. Paris. Available at http://www. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
unescobkk.org/infores/efa2000/tech.htm. Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children every-
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). World where, boys and girls alike, will be able to
Education Indicators. Internet site complete a full course of primary schooling
http://www.uis.unesco.org/en/stats/sta-
tistics/indicators/indic0.htm. Montreal. RATIONALE
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World The indicator, which monitors education sys-
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. tem coverage and student progression, is
Washington, D.C. Available in part from intended to measure human capital formation
http://www.worldbank.org/data. and school system quality and efficiency.

Comparable survival rates are produced by The indicator focuses on the share of children
UNESCO for about 40 per cent of countries who ever complete the cycle; it is not a meas-
based on data from national administrative ure of “on-time” primary completion. Various
records. The number of countries reporting factors may lead to poor performance on this
data for this indicator has increased over time indicator, including low quality of schooling,
in part because of recent inclusion of esti- discouragement over poor performance and
mates obtained from household surveys such the direct and indirect costs of schooling.
as Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Students’ progress to higher grades may also
Demographic and Health Surveys. be limited by the availability of teachers,
classrooms and educational materials.
AGENCIES
Ministries of education METHOD OF COMPUTATION
UNESCO Institute for Statistics The numerator may include over-age children
who have repeated one or more grades of
primary school but are now graduating suc-
cessfully. For countries where the number of
primary graduates is not reported, a proxy
primary completion rate is calculated as the
ratio of the total number of students in the
final year of primary school, minus the num-
ber of students who repeat the grade in a
typical year, to the total number of children of
official graduation age in the population.

20


DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE obvious anomalies and estimates that are
The indicator is compiled by staff in the suspect. The current database is a mixture of
Education Group of the World Bank’s Human enrolment data and data based on different
Development Network based on two basic data systems of graduation (examinations, diplo-
sources used to compute gross and net enrol- mas, automatic promotion), limiting interna-
ment ratios: enrolment data from national tional comparability.
ministries of education and population data
from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. The The indicator captures the final output of the
World Bank and the UNESCO Institute for primary education system, so responses to
Statistics are committed to monitoring this policy changes will register only with time.
indicator annually in the future.
The age-specific estimates are less reliable
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT than overall population estimates. This is
Annual. particularly an issue in countries with rela-
tively rapid changes in population and its age
GENDER ISSUES and sex distribution resulting from such caus-
More understanding is needed on the pat- es as internal and international migration,
terns of completion by gender. civil unrest and displacement. When age-spe-
cific population breakdowns are not available,
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES the primary completion rate cannot be esti-
Rural and urban differences are particularly mated.
important in the analysis of education data
owing to significant differences in school Primary completion rates based on primary
facilities, available resources, demand on chil- enrolment have an upward bias, since they do
dren’s time for work and dropout patterns. It not capture those who drop out during the
is also important to consider disaggregation final grade. This implies that once the data on
by geographical area and social or ethnic actual graduates become available for a
groups. However, showing and analysing data country, the completion rate of the country
on specific ethnic groups may be a sensitive would appear to decline.
issue in the country. Gender differences may
also be more pronounced in some social and REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
ethnic groups. COMPARISONS
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1997). International
The indicator reflects the primary school Standard Classification of Education, 1997
cycle as nationally defined according to the (ISCED). Montreal. Available at http://www.
International Standard Classification of uis.unesco.org. Select: Core Themes/
Education, as is the case for gross and net Education/Technical Guides.
enrolment ratios. WORLD BANK (2003). Millennium Development
Goals: Achieve universal primary education.
While the World Bank and the UNESCO Internet site http://www.development
Institute for Statistics are committed to mon- goals.org/Education.htm. Washington, D.C.
itoring this indicator annually, systems for
collecting and standardizing the data from AGENCIES
155 developing countries are not yet in place. Ministries of education
As a result, the current database has many UNESCO Institute for Statistics
gaps, particularly for small countries, earlier World Bank
years and gender breakdowns, as well as

21


8 LITERACY RATE OF 15–24 YEAR-OLDS DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Literacy data may be derived from population
censuses, household surveys and literacy sur-
DEFINITION veys, and total population is derived from
Literacy rate of 15–24 year-olds, or the youth national censuses or sample surveys. However,
literacy rate, is the percentage of the popula- not all censuses or surveys include specific
tion 15–24 years old who can both read and questions for assessing literacy. In some
write with understanding a short simple countries where literacy questions are not
statement on everyday life. The definition of included, a person’s educational attainment
literacy sometimes extends to basic arith- (years of schooling completed) is used to
metic and other life skills. assess literacy status. A common practice is
to consider those with no schooling as illiter-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED ate and those who have attended grade 5 of
Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education primary school as literate.
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children every-
where, boys and girls alike, will be able to Many household surveys, including the Multiple
complete a full course of primary schooling Indicator Cluster Surveys, Demographic and
Health Surveys, Core Welfare Indicators
RATIONALE Questionnaires in Africa and Living Standards
The youth literacy rate reflects the outcomes Measurement Studies, collect literacy data,
of primary education over the previous 10 which can provide complementary data for
years or so. As a measure of the effectiveness countries without a recent census. However,
of the primary education system, it is often definitions are not necessarily standardized
seen as a proxy measure of social progress (see “COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS”).
and economic achievement. The literacy rate
for this analysis is simply the complement of Most of the available data on literacy are
the illiteracy rate. It is not a measure of the based on reported literacy rather than on
quality and adequacy of the literacy level tested literacy and in some cases are derived
needed for individuals to function in a society. from other proxy information.
Reasons for failing to achieve the literacy
standard may include low quality of school- PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
ing, difficulties in attending school or drop- Youth literacy rates may change more quickly
ping out before reaching grade 5. than adult literacy rates and therefore need to
be measured more often. Since population
METHOD OF COMPUTATION censuses normally occur only every 10 years,
The usual method of computation is to divide input from more frequently administered
the number of people ages 15–24 who are lit- labour force and household surveys are used
erate by the total population in the same age for annual estimates. Data are available for
group and to multiply the total by 100. Since consecutive five-year age cohorts starting at
literacy data are not always available for all 15–19 years old. Household surveys are gen-
countries and all censuses, the UNESCO erally conducted every three to five years in
Institute for Statistics uses modeling tech- most developing countries.
niques to produce annual estimates based on
literacy information obtained from national GENDER ISSUES
censuses and surveys. Higher illiteracy rates for women are the result
of lower school enrolment and early drop-
outs. Moreover, because women generally

22


have less access to information and training REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
COMPARISONS
and literacy programmes, estimates based on
enrolments may overestimate literacy for girls. UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and
Recommendations for Population and
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No.
Rural and urban differences are particularly 67, Rev. 1. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available
important in the analysis of education data from http://unstats. un.org/unsd/pubs (A,
because of significant differences in school E, F, S).
facilities, available resources, demand on chil- UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
dren’s time for work and dropout patterns. It Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
is also important to consider disaggregation Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
by geographical area and social or ethnic Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
groups. However, showing and analysing data sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
on specific ethnic groups may be a sensitive UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
issue in the country. Gender differences may Database. Statistics Division Internet site
also be more pronounced in some social and http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
ethnic groups. UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
The State of the World’s Children. New York.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
Measurements of literacy can vary from sim- (2003 and annual). Human Development
ply asking “Are you literate or not?” to testing Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
to assess literacy skills. In some cases, literacy Available at http://hdr.undp.org.
is measured crudely in population censuses, UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
either through self-declaration or by assuming CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1978). Revised Rec-
that people with no schooling are illiterate. ommendations concerning the International
This causes difficulty for international com- Standardization of Educational Statistics.
parisons. Comparability over time, even for Paris. See also UNESCO Statistical
the same survey, may also be a problem Yearbook, 1998, chap. 2.
because definitions of literacy used in the UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
surveys are not standardized. The latest revi- CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). Education for
sion of Principles and Recommendations for All: The Year 2000 Assessment: Technical
Population and Housing Censuses advises Guidelines. Paris. Available from
countries against adopting a proxy measure- http://www.unescobkk.org/infores/
ment based on educational attainment. It rec- efa2000/tech.htm .
ommends that literacy questions be adminis- UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
tered as part of national censuses and house- CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). UNESCO
hold surveys, or as part of a post-census sam- Institute for Statistics. Internet site
ple enumeration. http://www.uis.unesco.org. Montreal.
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
Shortcomings in the definition of literacy, Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
measurement problems and infrequency of Washington, D.C. Available in part from
censuses and literacy surveys weaken this http://www.worldbank.org/data.
indicator as a means of monitoring education
outcomes related to the goal of achieving uni- The main international source of data is the
versal primary education. UNESCO international data series of annual
and projected estimates based on informa-
tion from national population censuses and

23


labour force, household and other surveys. data are not available, household survey data
The estimates are available for approximately may be used, although household surveys
130 countries. usually measure self-reported attendance
rather than enrolment as reported by schools.
AGENCIES Among international surveys, Multiple Indicator
Ministries of education Cluster Surveys and Demographic and Health
National statistical offices Surveys (and sometimes also Living Standards
UNESCO Institute for Statistics Measurement Studies and Core Welfare
Indicators Questionnaires in Africa) provide
school attendance data.
9 RATIO OF GIRLS TO AND TERTIARY
MARY, SECONDARY
BOYS IN PRI-
For international comparison and estimation of
EDUCATION regional and global aggregates, the UNESCO
Institute for Statistics data series on school
DEFINITION enrolment can be used. The series is based on
Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and data reported by education ministries or
tertiary education is the ratio of the number national agencies for enrolment.
of female students enrolled at primary, sec-
ondary and tertiary levels in public and pri- UNESCO produces ratios of girls to boys at
vate schools to the number of male students. country, regional and global levels for use in
monitoring the Millennium Development Goals.
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED They are available at the Millennium Indicators
Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower web site http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
women
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
and secondary education preferably by 2005, Where official enrolment data are available,
and in all levels of education no later than 2015 estimates from UNESCO are normally available
annually about one year after the reference
RATIONALE year. Data from household surveys may be
The indicator of equality of educational oppor- available for selected countries at various
tunity, measured in terms of school enrolment, intervals.
is a measure of both fairness and efficiency.
Education is one of the most important aspects Official data on higher education are not as
of human development. Eliminating gender frequently reported as data on primary and
disparity at all levels of education would help secondary enrolment.
to increase the status and capabilities of
women. Female education is also an impor- GENDER ISSUES
tant determinant of economic development. In situations of limited resources, families
make difficult choices about sending their
METHOD OF COMPUTATION children to school. They may perceive the
The indicator is a ratio of the number of en- value of education differently for boys and
rolled girls to enrolled boys, regardless of ages. girls. Girls are more likely than boys to suffer
from limited access to education, especially in
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE rural areas. However, where basic education is
Data on school enrolment are usually record- widely accepted and overall enrolment is high,
ed by the ministry of education or derived girls tend to equal or outnumber boys at the
from surveys and censuses. If administrative primary and secondary levels. The pattern is

24


similar in higher education, but with larger UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
differences between the two genders. The State of the World’s Children. New York.
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS (2003 and annual). Human Development
Some 50 countries have no system of higher Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
education. Private education tends to be Available at http://hdr.undp.org .
underreported, but international coverage UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
has improved over the last four cycles of the CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1978). Revised
UNESCO Institute for Statistics survey. Recommendations concerning the Inter-
Household survey data may include higher national Standardization of Educational
and private education, but may not be com- Statistics. Paris. See also UNESCO
parable between surveys. Statistical Yearbook, 1998, chap. 2.
The indicator is an imperfect measure of the CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1997). International
accessibility of schooling for girls because it Standard Classification of Education, 1997
does not allow a determination of whether (ISCED). Montreal. Available at http://www.
improvements in the ratio reflect increases in uis.unesco.org. Select: Core Themes/
girls’ school attendance (desirable) or decreases Education/Technical Guides.
in boys’ attendance (undesirable). It also does UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
not show whether those enrolled in school CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). Education for
complete the relevant education cycles. All: The Year 2000 Assessment, Technical
Guidelines. Paris. Available at http://www.
Another limitation of the indicator is that the unescobkk.org/infores/efa2000/tech.htm.
ratio reflects the sex structure of the school- UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
age population. When the sex ratio in the CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). World
school age population deviates significantly Education Indicators. Internet site http://
from 1, the indicator will not adequately reflect www.uis.unesco.org/en/stats/statistics/in
the actual differences between girls’ and dicators/indic0.htm. Montreal.
boys’ enrolment. This happens in countries WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
where boys outnumber girls at younger ages. Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
Washington, D.C. Available in part from
A ratio based on net enrolment (indicator 6) http://www.worldbank.org/data.
or gross enrolment is a better measure for
this indicator as it takes into account the pop- AGENCIES
ulation structure of the country. Ministries of education
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
COMPARISONS
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
Database. Statistics Division Internet site
http://millenniumindicators.un.org .
Monitoring Progress towards the Goals of
the World Summit for Children: The End-
Decade Multiple Indicator Survey Manual.
New York. Available at http://www.unicef.
org/reseval/methodr.html.

25


10 RATIO15–24LITERATE WOMEN TO
MEN,
OF
YEARS OLD
Health Surveys, Core Welfare Indicators
Questionnaires in Africa and Living Standards
Measurement Surveys, collect literacy data,
DEFINITION which can provide complementary data for
The ratio of literate women to men, 15–24 countries without a recent census. However,
years old (literacy gender parity index) is the definitions are not necessarily standardized
ratio of the female literacy rate to the male (see “COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS”).
literacy rate for the age group 15–24.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED Since population censuses normally occur
Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower every 10 years, input from more frequently
women administered labour force, household and
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary other surveys are used for annual estimates.
and secondary education preferably by 2005, Household surveys are generally conducted
and in all levels of education no later than 2015 every three to five years in most developing
countries.
RATIONALE
The indicator measures progress towards GENDER ISSUES
gender equity in literacy and learning oppor- Higher illiteracy rates for women are the
tunities for women in relation to those for result of lower school enrolment and early
men. It also measures a presumed outcome of dropouts. Moreover, since women generally
attending school and a key indicator of have less access to information, training and
empowerment of women in society. Literacy literacy programmes, estimates based on
is a fundamental skill to empower women to enrolments may overestimate literacy for girls.
take control of their lives, to engage directly
with authority and to gain access to the wider COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
world of learning. Measurements of literacy can vary from simply
asking “Are you literate or not?” to testing to
METHOD OF COMPUTATION assess literacy skills. In some cases, literacy is
The indicator is derived by dividing the litera- measured crudely in population censuses,
cy rate of women ages 15–24 by the literacy either through self-declaration or by assuming
rate of men ages 15–24. that people with no schooling are illiterate. This
causes difficulty for international comparisons.
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE Comparability over time, even for the same
Literacy data may be derived from population survey, may also be a problem because defini-
censuses, household surveys and literacy sur- tions of literacy used in the surveys are not
veys. However, not all censuses or surveys standardized. The latest revision of Principles
include specific questions for assessing literacy. and Recommendations for Population and
In some countries where literacy questions Housing Censuses advises countries against
are not included, a person’s educational adopting a proxy measurement based on edu-
attainment (years of schooling completed) is cational attainment. It recommends that litera-
used to assess literacy status. A common cy questions be administered as part of nation-
practice is to consider those with no schooling al censuses and household surveys or as part
as illiterate and defining those who have of a post-census sample enumeration.
attended grade 5 of primary school as literate.
Many household surveys, including the Multiple Shortcomings in the definition of literacy,
Indicator Cluster Surveys, Demographic and measurement problems and infrequency of

26


censuses and literacy surveys weaken this tion censuses and labour force, household
indicator as a means of monitoring education and other surveys. These estimates are avail-
outcomes related to the goal of achieving uni- able for some 130 countries.
versal primary education.
AGENCIES
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Ministries of education
COMPARISONS National statistical offices
UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and UNESCO Institute for Statistics
Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No.
67, Rev. 1, Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available
at http://unstats. un.org/unsd/pubs. (A, E,
11 SHARE IN WOMEN IN WAGE EMPLOY-
MENT
OF
THE NON-AGRICULTURAL
F, S) SECTOR
Database. Statistics Division Internet site DEFINITION
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. The share of women in wage employment in
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). the non-agricultural sector is the share of
The State of the World’s Children. New York. female workers in the non-agricultural sector
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME expressed as a percentage of total employ-
(2003 and annual). Human Development ment in the sector.
Report. New York, Oxford University Press.
Available at http://hdr.undp.org. The non-agricultural sector includes industry
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND and services. Following the International
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1978). Revised Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) of All
Recommendations concerning the Inter- Economic Activities, industry includes mining
national Standardization of Educational and quarrying (including oil production), man-
Statistics. Paris. See also UNESCO Statistical ufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and
Yearbook, 1998, chap. 2. water. Services includes wholesale and retail
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND trade; restaurants and hotels; transport, stor-
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). Education for age and communications; financing, insurance,
All: The Year 2000 Assessment: Technical real estate and business services; and com-
Guidelines. Paris. Available at http://www. munity, social and personal services.
unescobkk.org/infores/efa2000/tech.htm .
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND Employment refers to people above a certain
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). UNESCO age who worked or held a job during a refer-
Institute for Statistics Internet site ence period. Employment data include both
http://www.uis.unesco.org. Montreal. full-time and part-time workers whose remu-
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World neration is determined on the basis of hours
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. worked or number of items produced and is
Washington, D.C. Available in part from independent of profits or expectation of profits.
http://www.worldbank.org/data.
The main source of international data is the Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower
United Nations Educational, Scientific and women
Cultural Organization’s international data Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary
series of annual and projected estimates and secondary education preferably by 2005,
based on information from national popula- and in all levels of education no later than 2015

27


RATIONALE on other sources may be available annually or
The indicator measures the degree to which less frequently in some developing countries.
labour markets are open to women in industry
and service sectors, which affects not only GENDER ISSUES
equal employment opportunity for women There are large differences between women and
but also economic efficiency through flexibili- men in non-agricultural employment, in particu-
ty of the labour market and, therefore, the lar in developing countries. This is the result of
economy’s ability to adapt to change. differences between rates of participation in
employment for women and men as well as the
A significant global increase over the last kind of employment in which they participate. In
decade in women’s share in paid employment many regions, women are more likely than men
in the non-agricultural sector indicates that to be engaged in informal sector activities and
working women have become more integrat- subsistence or unpaid work in the household.
ed into the monetary economy through par-
ticipation in the formal and informal sectors. Wage employment in most of Africa and much
However, labour markets remain strongly of Asia and the Pacific is a middle-class, urban
segregated. In many countries, productive phenomenon. Outside of urban areas, most
work under conditions of freedom, equity and employment is agricultural, often for family
human dignity is in short supply, and this dis- subsistence. However, where non-agricultural
proportionately affects women. Women are employment is available, it is more likely to go
much more likely than men to work as con- to male members of the household.
tributing family workers, without their own
pay, and in the informal sector, although there As economies develop, the share of women in
are large differentials between countries and non-agricultural wage employment becomes
at regional and national levels, often mirroring increasingly important. A higher share in paid
the relative importance of agriculture. employment could secure for them better
income, economic security and well-being.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION However, this shift is not automatic, nor does
The total number of women in paid employ- it account for differentials in working condi-
ment in the non-agricultural sector is divided tions between men and women. Other vari-
by the total number of people in paid employ- ables need to be considered, such as level of
ment in that same sector. education, level of remuneration and wage
differentials, and the extent to which women
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCES: and men benefit from labour legislation and
Data are obtained from population censuses, social programmes. Men more often hold reg-
labour force surveys, enterprise censuses and ular and better remunerated jobs, whereas
surveys, administrative records of social women are frequently in peripheral, insecure,
insurance schemes and official estimates less valued jobs, as home workers, casual
based on results from several of these workers or part-time or temporary workers.
sources. Enterprise surveys and administra-
tive records are likely to cover only large pri- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
vate and public sector employers, in particu- Although there are clear international stan-
lar in developing countries. The other sources dards for the relevant concepts, countries
may cover the whole relevant population. may use different defini tions for employment
status, especially for part-time workers, stu-
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT: dents, members of the armed forces and
Results from population censuses are normally household or contributing family workers. Also,
available every 10 years, while estimates based different sources of data may use different def-

28


initions and have different coverage, with limit- UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and
ed comparability across countries and over Recommendations for Population and
time within the same country. The employment Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No.
share of the agricultural sector is severely 67, Rev. 1. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available
underreported. In addition, studies have shown from http://unstats. un.org/unsd/pubs. (A,
that employment activity questions on stan- E, F, S)
dard censuses tend to grossly underestimate UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
the extent of female employment of any kind. Database. Statistics Division Internet site
http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
COMPARISONS Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
ANKER, R., M.E. KHAN and R.B. GUPTA (1988). Washington, D.C. Available in part from
Women’s Participation in the Labour Force: http://www.worldbank.org/data .
A Methods Test in India for Improving Its
Measurement. Women, Work and International data are compiled by the
Development 16. Geneva: International International Labour Organization based on
Labour Office. data reported by countries. An increasing
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE (1988). Assessing number of countries report economic activity
Women’s Economic Contribution to according to the ISIC.
Development. Geneva.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE (2002). Women AGENCIES
and Men in the Informal Economy: A statis- Ministries of labour
tical picture. Geneva. available from http:// National statistical offices
www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/g International Labour Organization
ems/download/women.pdf.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2000).
Current International Recommendations on
Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva.
12 PROPORTION OF SEATS HELD BY
WOMEN IN NATIONAL PARLIAMENTS
Laborsta—an International Labour Office DEFINITION
database on labour statistics operated by The proportion of seats held by women in
the ILO Bureau of Statistics. Internet site national parliaments is the number of seats
http://laborsta.ilo.org. Geneva. held by women expressed as a percentage of
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual). all occupied seats.
Key Indicators of the Labour Market.
Geneva. Available in part from GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
http://www.ilo. org/kilm. Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual). women
Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Geneva. Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary
Available at http://laborsta.ilo.org . and secondary education preferably by 2005,
SWEDEN, STATISTICS SWEDEN (1996). and in all levels of education no later than 2015
Engendering Statistics: A Tool for Change.
Stockholm. RATIONALE
UNITED NATIONS (1990). International Women’s representation in parliaments is one
Standard Industrial Classification of All aspect of women’s opportunities in political
Economic Activities (ISIC). Series M, No. 4, and public life, and it is therefore linked to
Rev. 3.1. available from http://unstats.un. women’s empowerment.
org/unsd/cr/registry.

29


METHOD OF COMPUTATION the resources, respect or constituency to
The indicator is obtained by dividing the num- exercise significant influence.
ber of parliamentary seats occupied by women
by the total number of seats occupied. REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
National parliaments consist of one or two COMPARISONS
chambers. For international comparisons, INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION (2003). Women
generally only the single or lower house is in National Parliaments. Internet site
considered in calculating the indicator. http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm.
Geneva.
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
At the national level, the data come from the Database. Statistics Division Internet site
records of national parliaments. National par- http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
liaments also report the total number of par- UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR WOMEN
liamentary seats and the number occupied by (2000). Progress of the World’s Women. New
women and men to the Inter-Parliamentary York. available from http://www.unifem.
Union (IPU), which regularly compiles interna- undp.org/progressww/2000.
tional data series and global and regional UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
aggregates. (2003 and annual). Human Development
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Available at http://hdr.undp.org.
The data are commonly available from national
parliaments and updated after an election. The IPU regularly compiles international data
National parliaments also transmit their data series and global and regional aggregates.
to the IPU at least once a year and when the
numbers change significantly, such as after AGENCIES
an election. National parliaments
Inter-Parliamentary Union
GENDER ISSUES
Women are underrepresented in all decision-
making bodies and within political parties,
particularly at the higher echelons. Women
13 UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE
still face many practical obstacles to the full
exercise of their role in political life. DEFINITION
The under-five mortality rate is the probability
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS (expressed as a rate per 1,000 live births) of a
Parliaments vary considerably in their inde- child born in a specified year dying before
pendence and authority, though they generally reaching the age of five if subject to current
engage in law-making, oversight of age-specific mortality rates.
Government and representation of the elec-
torate. In terms of measuring women’s real GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
political decision-making, this indicator may Goal 4. Reduce child mortality
not be sufficient, because women still face Target 5. Reduce by two thirds, between 1990
many obstacles in fully and efficiently carry- and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
ing out their parliamentary mandate. Thus,
being a member of parliament, especially in RATIONALE
developing countries and emerging democra- The indicator, which relates directly to the
cies, does not guarantee that a woman has target, measures child survival. It also reflects

30


the social, economic and environmental con- ing countries. Household surveys that include
ditions in which children (and others in society) questions on births and deaths are generally
live, including their health care. Because data conducted every three to five years.
on the incidences and prevalence of diseases
(morbidity data) frequently are unavailable, GENDER ISSUES
mortality rates are often used to identify vul- Under-five mortality rates are higher for boys
nerable populations. The under-five mortality than for girls in countries without significant
rate captures more than 90 per cent of global parental gender preferences. Under-five mor-
mortality among children under the age of 18. tality better captures the effect of gender dis-
crimination than infant mortality, as nutrition
METHOD OF COMPUTATION and medical interventions are more important
Age-specific mortality rates are calculated in this age group, while biological differences
from data on births and deaths in vital statis- have a higher impact during the first year of
tics registries, censuses and household surveys life (see also indicator 14, infant mortality
in developing countries. Estimates based on rate). There may be gender-based biases in
household survey data are obtained directly the reporting of child deaths.
(using birth history, as in Demographic and
Health Surveys) or indirectly (Brass method, DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
as in Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys). The Under-five mortality generally shows large
data are then summed for children under five, disparities across geographical areas and
and the results are expressed as a rate per between rural and urban areas. Under-five
1,000 live births. mortality may also vary across socio-econom-
ic groups. Children in some ethnic groups
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE might also be at higher risk of malnutrition,
At the national level, the best source of data poorer health and higher mortality. However,
is a complete vital statistics registration sys- showing and analysing data on specific ethnic
tem—one covering at least 90 per cent of groups may be a sensitive issue in the coun-
vital events in the population. Such systems try. Gender differences may also be more pro-
are uncommon in developing countries, so nounced in some social and ethnic groups.
estimates are also obtained from sample sur-
veys or derived by applying direct and indirect COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
estimation techniques to registration, census Data on under-five mortality is more com-
or survey data. A wide variety of household plete and more timely than data on adult mor-
surveys, including Multiple Indicator Cluster tality. The under-five mortality rate is consid-
Surveys and Demographic and Health ered to be a more robust estimate than the
Surveys, are used in developing countries. infant mortality rate if the information is
drawn from household surveys.
Several international agencies produce coun-
try estimates based on available national data In developing countries, household surveys
for purposes of international comparisons are essential to the calculation of the indica-
and assessment of global and regional trends tor, but there are some limits to their quality.
(see below, “International data compar- Survey data are subject to recall error; in
isons”). addition, surveys estimating under-five
deaths require large samples because such
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT incidences are uncommon and representative
Vital statistics are typically available once a households cannot ordinarily be identified for
year, but they are unreliable in most develop- sampling. Moreover, the frequency of the sur-

31


vey is generally only every three to five years. Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva.
Therefore, when using household surveys it is WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO
important to take sampling errors into Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)—
account. In addition, indirect estimates rely Evidence and Information for Health Policy.
on estimated actuarial (“life”) tables that may Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/
be inappropriate for the population con- menu.cfm. Geneva.
cerned.
Mortality rates are among the most frequently
There are also gender-based biases in the used indicators to compare levels of socio-
reporting of child deaths. economic development across countries. The
United Nations Population Division, the
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA United Nations Children’s Fund and the World
COMPARISONS Health Organization regularly produce esti-
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of mates of under-five mortality based on avail-
Sustainable Development: Guidelines and able national data. The data series may differ,
Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6. however, owing to differences in methodolo-
Available from http://www.un.org/esa/ gies used to estimate data and differences in
sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm . reporting periods.
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Principles and
Recommendations for a Vital Statistics AGENCIES
System, Revision 2. Series M, No. 19, Rev. 2. Ministries of health
Sales No. 01.XVII.10. Available from http:// National statistical offices
unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs. United Nations Children’s Fund
UNITED NATIONS (2003 and biennial). World World Health Organization
Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision,
vol. 1. Comprehensive Tables (Sales No.
E.03.XIII.6) and vol. 2, Sex and Age distribu-
tion of the World Population (Sales No.
14 INFANT MORTALITY RATE
E.03.XIII.7). Available from http://esa.
un.org/unpp. DEFINITION
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2000). The infant mortality rate is typically defined
Monitoring Progress towards the Goals of as the number of infants dying before reaching
the World Summit for Children: The End- the age of one year per 1,000 live births in a
Decade Multiple Indicator Survey Manual. given year.
New York. Available from http://www.
unicef. org/reseval/methodr.html . GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). Goal 4. Reduce child mortality
The State of the World’s Children. New York. Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
(2003 and annual). Human Development
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. RATIONALE
available from http://hdr.undp.org . Although the target relates specifically to
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World under-five mortality, infant mortality is rele-
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. vant to the monitoring of the target since it
Washington, D.C. Available in part from represents an important component of
http://www.worldbank.org/data . under-five mortality.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1992).
International Statistical Classification of Infant mortality rates measure child survival.
Diseases and Related Health Problems, They also reflect the social, economic and

32


environmental conditions in which children GENDER ISSUES
(and others in society) live, including their Girls have a survival advantage over boys dur-
health care. Since data on the incidence and ing the first year of life, largely based on bio-
prevalence of diseases (morbidity data) fre- logical differences. This is especially so during
quently are unavailable, mortality rates are the first month of life when perinatal condi-
often used to identify vulnerable populations. tions are most likely to be the cause or a con-
tributing cause of death. While infant mortal-
METHOD OF COMPUTATION ity is generally higher for boys than for girls, in
The indicator is the number of deaths of some countries girls’ biological advantage is
infants under one year of age in the indicated outweighed by gender-based discrimination
year per 1,000 live births in the same year. (see also INDICATOR 13, “Under-five mortality
rate”). However, under-five mortality better
For data from vital statistics registrations captures the effect of gender discrimination
(when reliable), the number of live births and than infant mortality, as nutrition and medical
deaths in the same year of children under one interventions are more important after age
year old are estimated. The number of deaths one.
is divided by the number of births and the
result is multiplied by 1,000. DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
Infant mortality generally shows large dispar-
For data from household surveys, infant mor- ities across geographical areas and between
tality estimates are obtained directly (using urban and rural areas. Infant mortality may
birth history, as in Demographic and Health also vary across socioeconomic groups, and
Surveys) or indirectly (Brass method, as in the indicator is often used as a general indi-
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys). When cator of social distress in populations. Infants
estimated indirectly, the under-one mortality in some ethnic groups might also be at higher
estimates must be consistent with the under- risk of malnutrition, poorer health and higher
five mortality estimates. mortality. However, showing and analysing
data on specific ethnic groups may be a sen-
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE sitive issue in the country. Gender differences
The best source of data is a complete vital sta- may also be more pronounced in some social
tistics registration system—one covering at and ethnic groups.
least 90 per cent of vital events in the popula-
tion. Such systems are uncommon in developing COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
countries, so estimates are also obtained from The infant mortality rate is considered to be a
sample surveys or derived by applying direct more robust estimate than the under-five
and indirect estimation techniques to registra- mortality rate if the information is drawn from
tion, census or survey data. A wide variety of vital statistics registration.
household surveys, including Multiple Indicator
Cluster Surveys and Demographic and Health In developing countries, household surveys
Surveys, are used in developing countries. are essential to the calculation of the indica-
tor, but there are some limits to their quality.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Survey data are subject to recall error, and
Vital statistics are typically available once a surveys estimating infant deaths require large
year, but they are unreliable in most develop- samples because such incidences are uncom-
ing countries. Household surveys that include mon and representative households cannot
questions on births and deaths are usually ordinarily be identified for sampling.
conducted every three to five years. Moreover, the frequency of the surveys is
generally only every three to five years.
Therefore, when using household survey esti-

33


mates, it is important to take sampling errors United Nations Children’s Fund and the World
into account. Health Organization regularly produce esti-
mates of infant and under-five mortality
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA based on available national data. The data
COMPARISONS series may differ, however, owing to differ-
UNITED NATIONS (1958). Multilingual ences in methodologies used to estimate data
Demographic Dictionary. Population Studies, and differences in reporting periods.
No. 29. Sales No. E.58.XIII.4.
UNITED NATIONS (1999). World Population AGENCIES
Prospects: The 1998 Revision, vol. III, Ministries of health
Analytical Report. Sales No. E.99.XIII.10. National statistical offices
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Principles and United Nations Children’s Fund
Recommendations for a Vital Statistics World Health Organization
System, Revision 2. Series M, No. 19, Rev. 2.
Sales No. 01.XVII.10. Available from http://
unstats.un. org/unsd/pubs.
UNITED NATIONS (2003 and biennial). World
15 PROPORTION OF 1-YEAR-OLD
CHILDREN IMMUNIZED AGAINST
Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision, MEASLES
vol. 1. Comprehensive Tables (Sales No.
E.03.XIII.6) and vol. 2, Sex and Age distribu- DEFINITION
tion of the World Population. (Sales No. The proportion of 1-year-old children immu-
E.03.XIII.7). Available from http://esa. nized against measles is the percentage of
un.org/unpp. children under one year of age who have
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). The received at least one dose of measles vaccine.
State of the World’s Children. New York.
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
(2003 and annual). Human Development Goal 4. Reduce child mortality
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. Target 5. Reduce by two thirds, between 1990
available from http://hdr.undp.org . and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. RATIONALE
Washington, D.C. Available in part from The indicator provides a measure of the cov-
http://www.worldbank.org/data . erage and the quality of the child health-care
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1992). system in the country. Immunization is an
International Statistical Classification of essential component for reducing under-five
Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth mortality. Governments in developing coun-
Revision (ICD-10), vol.1. Geneva. tries usually finance immunization against
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO measles and diphtheria, pertussis (whooping
Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)— cough) and tetanus (DPT) as part of the basic
Evidence and Information for Health Policy. health package. Among these vaccine-pre-
Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/ ventable diseases of childhood, measles is the
menu.cfm . Geneva. leading cause of child mortality. Health and
other programmes targeted at those specific
Mortality rates are among the most frequently causes are one practical means of reducing
used indicators to compare levels of socio- child mortality.
economic development across countries. The
United Nations Population Division, the

34


METHOD OF COMPUTATION GENDER ISSUES
The indicator is estimated as the percentage Immunization programmes are generally free
of children ages 12–23 months who received of charge and should not discriminate
at least one dose of measles vaccine either between boys and girls. However, in some
any time before the survey or before the age countries of south-central Asia and northern
of 12 months. Estimates of immunization Africa, girls’ immunization rates are lower
coverage are generally based on two sources than boys’, probably due to cultural rather
of empirical data: administrative data and than economic reasons.
coverage surveys (see “Data collection and
sources”). For estimates based on administra- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
tive data, immunization coverage is derived The first dose of measles vaccine is supposed
by dividing the total number of vaccinations to be administered to all children at the age of
by the number of children in the target popu- nine months or shortly after. By 2000, most
lation. For most vaccines, the target popula- countries were providing a “second opportu-
tion is the national annual number of births or nity” for measles vaccination, either through a
number of surviving infants (this may vary two-dose routine schedule or through a com-
depending on a country’s policies and the bined routine schedule and supplementary
specific vaccine). Immunization coverage sur- campaigns. Measles immunization coverage
veys are frequently used in connection with is expressed as the percentage of children
administrative data. who have received at least one dose.

DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE Vaccination coverage for measles needs to be
The two sources available at the national level above 90 per cent to stop transmission of the
are reports of vaccinations performed by service virus—not only because measles is so conta-
providers (administrative data) and house- gious, but also because up to 15 per cent of
hold surveys containing information on chil- children vaccinated at nine months fail to
dren’s vaccination history (coverage surveys). develop immunity. Some countries in the Latin
The principle types of surveys used as sources America and Caribbean region, for example,
of information on immunization coverage are administer the measles vaccine at 12–15
Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) months of age. This has to be taken into
30 cluster surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster account in calculations of coverage based on
Surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys. household surveys.
Routine data are compiled by national EPI
programme managers. In many developing countries, lack of precise
information on the size of the cohort of chil-
The World Health Organization and the United dren under one year of age makes immuniza-
Nations Children’s Fund compile country data tion coverage difficult to estimate.
series based on both types of data, gathered
through the WHO/UNICEF Joint Reporting REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
Form on Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. COMPARISONS
GUNN, S.W.A., KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT (1990). Multilingual Dictionary of Disaster
Administrative data are collected annually. Medicine and International Relief.
Surveys are generally conducted every three Dordrecht, The Netherlands. English/
to five years. Français/Español/Arabic.
Health. Internet site http://www.unicef.

35


org/health/index.html. New York. occurring between six weeks and one year
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003). after childbirth.
Routine Immunization. Internet site
http://www.childinfo.org/eddb/immuni/in GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
dex.htm. New York. Goal 5. Improve maternal health
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). Target 6. Reduce by three quarters, between
The State of the World’s Children. New York. 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
International Statistical Classification of RATIONALE
Diseases and Related Health Problems, The indicator, which is directly related to the
Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva. target, monitors deaths related to pregnancy.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1999). Such deaths are affected by various factors,
Recommended Standards for Surveillance including general health status, education and
of Selected Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. services during pregnancy and childbirth. It is
WHO/EPI/GEN/99012. Geneva. important to monitor changes in health condi-
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). tions related to sex and reproduction.
Measles. Internet site http://www.who.int/
health_topics/measles/en. Geneva. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). The maternal mortality ratio can be calculat-
Surveillance. Internet site http://www.who. ed by dividing recorded (or estimated) mater-
int/vaccines-surveillance. Geneva. nal deaths by total recorded (or estimated)
live births in the same period and multiplying
WHO and UNICEF compile country data series by 100,000. The indicator can be calculated
based on administrative data and household directly from data collected through vital sta-
surveys, gathered through the WHO/UNICEF tistics registrations, household surveys or
Joint Reporting Form on Vaccine-Preventable hospital studies. However, those sources all
Diseases. have data quality problems (see “Data collec-
tion and sources”). Alternative methods
AGENCIES include a review of all deaths of women of
Ministries of health reproductive age (so-called Reproductive Age
United Nations Children’s Fund Mortality Surveys, or RAMOS), longitudinal
World Health Organization studies of pregnant women and repeated
household studies. All these methods, howev-
er, still rely on accurate reporting of deaths of
MATERNAL MORTALITY RATIO pregnant women and of the cause of death,
16 something that is difficult to obtain.

DEFINITION Another problem is the need for large sample
The maternal mortality ratio is the number of sizes, which raises costs. This can be over-
women who die from any cause related to or come by using sisterhood methods. The indi-
aggravated by pregnancy or its management rect sisterhood method asks respondents
(excluding accidental or incidental causes) four simple questions about how many of
during pregnancy and childbirth or within 42 their sisters reached adulthood, how many
days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective have died and whether those who died were
of the duration and site of the pregnancy, per pregnant around the time of death. However,
100,000 live births. The 10th revision of the the reference period of the estimate is at least
International Classification of Diseases makes 10–12 years before the survey. The direct sis-
provision for including late maternal deaths terhood method used in Demographic and

36


Health Surveys also asks respondents to PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
provide the date of death, which permits the Every 7–10 years.
calculation of more recent estimates, but
even then the reference period tends to cen- GENDER ISSUES
ter on 0–6 years before the survey. The low social and economic status of girls
and women is a fundamental determinant of
Maternal deaths should be divided into two maternal mortality in many countries. Low
groups. Direct obstetric deaths result from status limits the access of girls and women to
obstetric complications of the pregnant state education and good nutrition as well as to the
(pregnancy, labour and puerperium); from inter- economic resources needed to pay for health
ventions, omissions or incorrect treatment; or care or family planning services.
from a chain of events resulting from any of
these. Indirect obstetric deaths result from pre- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
viously existing disease or disease that devel- The indicator is generally of unknown reliability,
oped during pregnancy and that was not direct- as are many other cause-specific mortality indi-
ly due to obstetric causes but was aggravated cators, owing to the difficulty in distinguishing
by the physiologic effects of pregnancy. deaths that are genuinely related to pregnancy
Published maternal mortality ratios should from deaths that are not. Even in industrialized
always specify whether the numerator (number countries with comprehensive vital statistics
of recorded maternal deaths) is the number of registration systems, misclassification and
recorded direct obstetric deaths or the number underreporting of maternal deaths can lead to
of recorded obstetric deaths (direct plus indi- serious underestimation. Because it is a relative-
rect). Maternal deaths from HIV/AIDS and ly rare event, large sample sizes are needed if
obstetrical tetanus are included in the maternal household surveys are used. Household surveys
mortality ratio. such as the Demographic and Health Survey
attempt to measure maternal mortality by ask-
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE ing respondents about survivorship of sisters.
Good vital statistics registration systems are While the sisterhood method reduces sample
rare in developing countries. Official data size requirements, it produces estimates cover-
are usually obtained from health service ing some 6–12 years before the survey, which
records, but few women in rural areas have renders the data problematic for monitoring
access to health services. So in developing progress or observing the impact of interven-
countries, it is more usual to use survey data. tions. In addition, owing to the very large confi-
The most common sources of data are the dence limits around the estimates, they are not
Demographic and Health Surveys and similar suitable for assessing trends over time or for
household surveys. Available data on levels of making comparisons between countries. As a
maternal mortality are generally significantly result, it is recommended that process indica-
underestimated because of problems of mis- tors, such as attendance by skilled health per-
classification and underreporting of maternal sonnel at delivery and use of emergency obstet-
deaths. The World Health Organization, the ric care facilities, be used to assess progress
United Nation’s Children’s Fund and the United towards the reduction in maternal mortality.
Nations Population Fund have adjusted exist-
ing data to take account of these problems The maternal mortality ratio should not be
and have developed model-based estimates confused with the maternal mortality rate
for countries with no reliable national data on (whose denominator is the number of women
maternal mortality. It is those estimates that of reproductive age), which measures the
are usually published in international tables. likelihood of both becoming pregnant and

37


dying during pregnancy or the puerperium WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, and UNITED
(six weeks after delivery). The maternal mor- NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (1997). The
tality ratio (whose denominator is the number Sisterhood Method for Estimating Maternal
of live birth), takes fertility levels (likelihood of Mortality: Guidance Notes for Potential
becoming pregnant) into consideration. Users. Geneva.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, UNITED NATIONS
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA CHILDREN’S FUND and UNITED NATIONS
COMPARISONS POPULATION FUND (2001). Maternal Mortality
UNITED NATIONS (2003 and biennial). World in 1995. Geneva.
Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision,
vol. 1. Comprehensive Tables (Sales No. The World Health Organization, the United
E.03.XIII.6) and vol. 2, Sex and Age distribu- Nation’s Children’s Fund and the United
tion of the World Population (Sales No. Nations Population Fund have adjusted exist-
E.03.XIII.7). Available from http://esa. ing data to account for the problems and have
un.org/unpp. developed model-based estimates for coun-
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators tries with no reliable national data on mater-
Database. Statistics Division Internet site nal mortality. It is those estimates that are
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. usually published in international tables.
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
The State of the World’s Children. New York. AGENCIES
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME Ministries of health
(2003 and annual). Human Development United Nations Children’s Fund
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. World Health Organization
Available from http://hdr.undp.org . United Nations Population Fund
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (1998).
Issues in measuring and monitoring mater-
nal mortality: implications for programmes.
Technical and Policy Paper No.1. New York.
17 PROPORTION OF BIRTHS ATTENDED
BY SKILLED HEALTH PERSONNEL
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (annual).
State of World Population. Available from DEFINITION
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/swpmain.htm . The proportion of births attended by skilled
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World health personnel is the percentage of deliver-
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. ies attended by personnel trained to give the
Washington, D.C. Available in part from necessary supervision, care and advice to
http://www.worldbank.org/data . women during pregnancy, labour and the
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1991). post-partum period; to conduct deliveries on
Maternal Mortality: A Global Factbook. their own; and to care for newborns.
Geneva.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1992). Skilled health personnel include only those
International Statistical Classification of who are properly trained and who have appro-
Diseases and Related Health Problems, priate equipment and drugs. Traditional birth
Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva. attendants, even if they have received a short
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1999). training course, are not to be included.
Reduction of Maternal Mortality: A Joint
WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF/World Bank State- GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
ment. Geneva. Available from www.who. Goal 5. Improve maternal health
int/reproductive-health. Target 6. Reduce by three quarters, between

38


1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio tion of skilled health personnel is sometimes
difficult because of differences in training of
RATIONALE health personnel in different countries.
Measuring maternal mortality accurately is Although efforts have been made to stan-
unusually difficult, except where there is dardize the definitions of doctors, nurses and
comprehensive registration of deaths and midwives and auxiliary midwives used in most
causes of death. Several process indicators household surveys, it is probable that many
have been proposed for tracking progress by “skilled attendants” would not meet the crite-
focusing on professional care during pregnan- ria for a “skilled attendant” as defined by the
cy and childbirth, particularly for the manage- World Health Organization. Moreover, it is
ment of complications. The most widely avail- clear that skilled attendants’ ability to provide
able indicator is the proportion of women who appropriate care in an emergency depends on
deliver with the assistance of a medically the environment in which they work.
trained health-care provider.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION Data are collected through household sur-
The number of births attended by skilled veys, in particular Demographic and Health
health personnel (doctors, nurses or mid- Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster
wives) is expressed as a percentage of deliv- Surveys, as well as other national household
eries (or births if those are the only data avail- surveys.
able) in the same period.
GENDER ISSUES COMPARISONS
The low social status of women in developing UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
countries limits their access to economic Database. Statistics Division Internet site
resources and basic education and thus their http://millenniumindicators. un.org.
ability to make decisions related to health and UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
nutrition. Some women are denied access to The State of the World’s Children. New York.
care when it is needed either because of cul- UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
tural practices of seclusion or because deci- (2003 and annual). Human Development
sion-making is the responsibility of other Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
family members. Lack of access to or use of Available from http://hdr.undp.org.
essential obstetric services is a crucial factor UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (annual).
contributing to high maternal mortality. State of World Population. Available from
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/swpmain.htm.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
Household survey data on this indicator is Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
generally available every three to five years. Washington, D.C. Available in part from
http://www.worldbank.org/data.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2001).
The indicator is a measure of a health sys- Reproductive Health Indicators for Global
tem’s ability to provide adequate care for Monitoring: Report of the Second
pregnant women. Concerns have been Interagency Meeting, 2001. WHO/RHR/
expressed that the term skilled attendant may 01.19. Geneva.
not adequately capture women’s access to WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO
good quality care, particularly when compli- Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)—
cations arise. Standardization of the defini- Evidence and Information for Health Policy.

39


Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/ percentage of all pregnant women in that age
menu.cfm. Geneva. group whose blood is tested.

AGENCIES DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Ministries of health Data on HIV in pregnant women come from
United Nations Children’s Fund tests on leftover blood samples taken for
World Health Organization other reasons during pregnancy. The samples
United Nations Population Fund come from selected antenatal clinics during
routine sentinel surveillance, chosen to reflect
urban, rural and other socio-geographic divi-
18 HIV PREVALENCE AMONG YEARS
NANT WOMEN AGED 15-24
PREG- sions in a country. HIV prevalence data in
groups with high-risk behaviour are collected
in serosurveys that are part of the surveil-
DEFINITION lance system or in ad hoc prevalence surveys.
HIV prevalence among 15–24 year-old preg-
nant women is the percentage of pregnant Only the results of unlinked, anonymous
women ages 15–24 whose blood samples screening of blood taken for other purposes
test positive for HIV. should be used in calculating this indicator of
HIV prevalence. Refusal and other forms of
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED participation bias are considerably reduced in
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other unlinked, anonymous HIV testing compared
diseases with other forms of testing, such as in pro-
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to grammes that offer counselling and voluntary
reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS HIV testing for pregnant women to reduce
mother-to-child transmission.

RATIONALE The data are gathered by the World Health
HIV infection leads to AIDS. Without treatment, Organization and the Joint United Nations
average survival from the time of infection is Programme on HIV/AIDS.
about nine years. Access to treatment is
uneven, and no vaccine is currently available. PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
The data are collated annually in many devel-
About half of all new HIV cases are among peo- oping countries.
ple 24 years of age or younger. In generalized
epidemics (with prevalence consistently at more GENDER ISSUES
than 1 per cent among pregnant women), the Pregnant women are chosen for clinical sur-
infection rate for pregnant women is similar to veillance, not because of gender issues, but
the overall rate for the adult population. because they offer a unique opportunity to
Therefore, the indicator is a measure of the monitor HIV/AIDS.
spread of the epidemic. In low-level and concen-
trated epidemics, HIV prevalence is monitored in Throughout the world, the unequal social status
groups with high-risk behaviour because preva- of women places them at higher risk for con-
lence among pregnant women is low. tracting HIV. Women are at a disadvantage when
it comes to access to information about HIV pre-
METHOD OF COMPUTATION vention, the ability to negotiate safe sexual
The number of pregnant women whose blood encounters and access to treatment for
samples test positive for HIV expressed as a HIV/AIDS once infected. As a result of those

40


inequities and the dynamics of the epidemic, the UNAIDS (2002). Monitoring the Declaration
proportion of women among people living with of Commitment on HIV/AIDS: Guidelines on
HIV/AIDS is rising in many regions. Construction of Core Indicators. Geneva.
Available from http://www.unaids.org/en/
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES in+ focus/monitoringevaluation.
Data from surveillance of pregnant women at UNAIDS (2003). Report on the Global
antenatal care clinics are broken into urban pop- HIV/AIDS Epidemic, 2002, biennial; AIDS
ulations and populations living outside major Epidemic Update. Geneva.
urban areas. In many countries, data from rural UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
areas are rare. The indicator for pregnant Database. Statistics Division Internet site
women ages 15–24 should be reported as the http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
median for the capital city, for other urban areas UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
and for rural areas. The State of the World’s Children. New York.
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND, UNAIDS
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS and WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002).
The indicator gives a fairly good idea of relative- Young People and HIV/AIDS: Opportunity in
ly recent trends in HIV infection nationwide in Crisis. New York.
countries where the epidemic is generalized. In UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR
areas where most HIV infections are confined to WOMEN (2000). Gender, HIV and Human
subpopulations with high-risk behaviours, Rights: A Training Manual. New York.
trends should be assessed in those populations. Available from http://www.unifem.undp.
org/ resources/hivtraining.
In most countries, serosurveillance sites have UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR WOMEN
not been selected as representative samples (2001). Turning the Tide: CEDAW and the
of the country. Logistical, feasibility and cost Gender Dimensions of the HIV/AIDS Pan-
issues guide the selection of these sites. In demic. New York. Available from http://www.
addition, in many countries, the sites included unifem.undp.org/resources/turningtide.
in the surveillance system have changed over WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002). Second
time, making interpretation of trends more Generation Surveillance for HIV. Geneva.
difficult. Available from http://www.who.int/hiv/
pub/surveillance/en.
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002).
COMPARISONS Strategic Information. Geneva. Available
CAROLINA POPULATION CENTER (2003). from http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/
National AIDS Programmes: A Guide to epdemiology/en.
Monitoring and Evaluation. Chapel Hill.
Available from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/ AGENCIES
measure/guide/guide.html . Ministries of health
PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
Fact Sheet: Gender and HIV/AIDS. World Health Organization
Washington, D.C. Available from United Nations Children’s Fund
http://www. paho.org/english/hdp/hdw/ United Nations Population Fund
GenderandHIVFactSheetI.pdf.
SCHWARTLÄNDER, BERNARD, and OTHERS
(1999). Country-specific estimates and
models of HIV and AIDS: methods and limi-
tations. AIDS, vol. 13, No. 17.

41


19 CONDOM USE RATE OF THE CON-
TRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE RATE
Irrespective of the contraceptive prevalence
rate, if 10 per cent of those practising contra-
ception use condoms, then the rate for indi-
DEFINITION cator 19 is 10 per cent.
Condom use rate of the contraceptive preva-
lence rate is the number of women aged The definition and method of calculation of
15–49 years in marital or consensual unions the indicator differ when it is used for moni-
who are practising contraception by using toring contraceptive use only. In that case,
condoms as a proportion of all of women of the numerator is the number of women ages
the same age group in consensual unions who 15–49 in marital or consensual unions who
are practising, or whose sexual partners are report that they are using a condom as their
19-A
practising, any form of contraception. main method of contraception.

GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other Contraceptive prevalence data are obtained
diseases mainly from household surveys, notably the
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple
reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS Indicator Cluster Surveys and contraceptive
prevalence surveys. For condom-use data,
RATIONALE married women are asked whether they have
The condom use rate is used to monitor ever heard of condoms and then whether
progress towards halting and reversing the they are currently using condoms to prevent
spread of HIV/AIDS, as condoms are the only pregnancy.
contraceptive method effective in reducing
the spread of HIV. Since the condom use rate PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
is measured only among women in unions, the Household surveys, such as Demographic and
indicator needs to be supplemented by an Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster
indicator on condom use in high-risk situa- Surveys and contraceptive prevalence sur-
tions (see indicator 19a). veys, are generally conducted every three to
five years.
The number of women ages 15–49 in marital GENDER ISSUES
or consensual unions who report that they are Statistics on contraception prevalence rates
using a condom to avoid pregnancy (regard- are based primarily on women, mainly
less of whether they are also using additional because contraception is more easily meas-
methods) is divided by the total number of ured in this way. Further, contraception, or its
women ages 15–49 in unions who are practis- absence, affects the health and well-being of
ing, or whose sexual partners are practising, women more than it does their sexual partners.
contraception. Similarly, condom use is still at the discretion
of male partners, and the female condom is
The indicator is not equivalent to condom use not as widely available. The rising number of
prevalence, which is the number of women women and girls infected by HIV/AIDS indi-
ages 15–49 in marital or consensual unions cates that condom use needs further promo-
who are practising (or whose sexual partners tion and that women need to be empowered
are practising) contraception by using con- to refuse unprotected sex.
doms as a percentage of the total number of
women of the same age group (and same DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
marital status, if applicable) in the survey. Condom use, as it is the case in general for

42


contraceptive use, may vary significantly across measuredhs.com. Calverton, Maryland.
socio-economic groups and regional and geo- UNAIDS (2003). Internet site http://www.
graphical areas. It is important that the analysis unaids.org. Geneva.
address specific demographic groups, such as UNITED NATIONS (1958). Multilingual
adolescents and unmarried women. Demographic Dictionary. Population Studies,
No. 29. Sales No. E.58.XIII.4.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
The indicator does not reflect condom use for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
the unmarried population and people in groups Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
with high-risk behaviour. Data are generally Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
collected for women in consensual unions and sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
in a particular age range, while the population UNITED NATIONS (2001). Levels and Trends of
of concern includes all women of reproductive Contraceptive Use as Assessed in 1998.
age, irrespective of marital status. Sales No. E.01.XIII.4. Available from
http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.
The spread of HIV through sexual relations htm.
depends on having unprotected sex with people UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
who also have other partners. Most monoga- Database. Statistics Division Internet site
mous relationships are cohabiting, although the http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
reverse is not necessarily true. Partners who do UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003).
not live together and who have sex only occa- Progress since the World Summit for
sionally are most likely to have other partners Children. New York. Available from http://
over the course of a year. These partnerships www.childinfo.org; in Quick Access under
therefore carry a higher risk of HIV transmission “Contraceptive prevalence”.
than partnerships that do not link into a wider UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
sexual network. AIDS prevention programmes The State of the World’s Children. New York.
try to discourage high numbers of partnerships UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR
and to encourage mutual monogamy. WOMEN (2000). Gender, HIV and Human
Rights: A Training Manual. New York.
Indicator 19, therefore, is not a practical indi- Available from http://www.unifem.undp.
cator for measuring the prevention of org/ resources/hivtraining.
HIV/AIDS. Information should be collected on UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
additional indicators on condom use in high- (2003 and annual). Human Development
risk situations (indicator 19A) and on knowl- Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
edge and misconceptions of HIV/AIDS among Available from http://hdr.undp.org.
15-24 year-olds (indicator 19B). Such indica- WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
tors give a better picture of the proportion of Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
the population that engages in relatively high- Washington, D.C. Available in part from
risk partnerships and that is therefore more http://www.worldbank.org/data.
likely to be exposed to the sexual networks WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and
within which HIV can circulate. annual). World Health Report. Geneva.
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA en.
COMPARISONS
ORC MACRO (2003). Demographic and Health AGENCIES
Surveys – Providing Information for Ministries of health
Informed Decisions in Population, Health and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
Nutrition. Internet site http://www. United Nations Children’s Fund

43


United Nations Population Division of the number of respondents ages 15–24
World Health Organization who reported having had a non-regular sexu-
United Nations Population Fund al partner in the last 12 months.


19-A CONDOM USE AT LAST HIGH-RISK
SEX
Household surveys, such as Demographic and
Health Surveys, rural household surveys and
behavioural surveillance surveys, are general-
DEFINITION ly conducted every three to five years.
Condom use at last high-risk sex is the per-
centage of young people ages 15–24 report- GENDER ISSUES
ing the use of a condom during sexual inter- Women’s risk of becoming infected with HIV
course with a non-regular sexual partner in during unprotected sexual intercourse is
the last 12 months. higher than that of men. And the risk is even
higher for younger women. Social and cultur-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED al factors may increase women’s vulnerability
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other to HIV infection. For instance, cultural norms
diseases related to sexuality often prevent girls from
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to taking active steps to protect themselves.
reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
RATIONALE A rise in the indicator is an extremely power-
Consistent use of condoms in non-regular ful sign that condom promotion campaigns
sexual partnerships substantially reduces the are having the desired effect among their
risk of sexual HIV transmission. This is espe- principle target market. However, condom
cially important for young people, who often promotion campaigns aim for consistent use
experience the highest rates of HIV infection of condoms with non-regular partners rather
because they have low prior exposure to than simply occasional use.
infection and (typically) relatively high num-
bers of non-regular sexual partnerships. Some surveys have tried to ask directly about
Consistent condom use with non-regular sex- consistent use, but the question is subject to
ual partners is important even in countries recall bias and other biases.
where HIV prevalence is low because it can
prevent the spread of HIV in circumstances The current indicator is therefore considered
where non-regular relationships are common. adequate to address the target since it is
Condom use is one measure of protection assumed that if consistent use rises, use at
against HIV/AIDS. Equally important are last high-risk sex will also increase.
delaying age at first sex, reducing the number
of non-regular sexual partners and being DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
faithful to one partner. Data on condom use with non-regular sexual
partners are available from household surveys
METHOD OF COMPUTATION (such as Demographic and Health Surveys,
The number of respondents ages 15–24 who rural household surveys and behavioural sur-
reported having had a non-regular (non-mar- veillance surveys) that collect information on
ital and non-cohabiting) sexual partner in the sexual behaviour.
last 12 months and using a condom the last
time they had sex with this partner, as a share

44


REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA transmit HIV.
COMPARISONS
CAROLINA POPULATION CENTER (2003). GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
National AIDS Programmes: A Guide to Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
Monitoring and Evaluation. Chapel Hill. diseases
Available from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/ Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to
measure/guide/guide.html. reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
UNAIDS (2002). Monitoring the Declaration
of Commitment on HIV/AIDS: Guidelines on RATIONALE
Construction of Core Indicators. Geneva. The indicator reflects the success of national
Available from http://www.unaids.org/en/ information, education and communication
in+ focus/monitoringevaluation. programmes and other efforts in promoting
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). knowledge of valid HIV-prevention methods
The State of the World’s Children. New York. and reducing misconceptions about the dis-
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND, UNAIDS ease. Common local misconceptions can be
and WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002). determined by the context of the country.
Young People and HIV/AIDS: Opportunity in
Crisis. New York. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, JOINT UNITED Since there are not enough surveys to calcu-
NATIONS PROGRAMME ON HIV/AIDS and the late the indicator as defined above, the
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2002). United Nations Children’s Fund, in collabora-
Epidemiological Fact Sheets. Geneva. tion with the Joint United Nations Programme
Available from http://www.who.int/emc- on HIV/AIDS and the World Health
hiv/fact_sheets. Organization, has produced two proxy indica-
tors that represent two components of the
AGENCIES actual indicator:
Ministries of health
United Nations Children’s Fund Percentage of women and men ages 15–24
United Nations Population Fund who know that a person can protect him or
herself from HIV infection by “consistent
use of condom”. The indicator is calculated
19-B PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED
15–24 YEARS WITH COMPREHEN-
as the number of respondents ages 15–24
who, in response to prompting, correctly
SIVE CORRECT KNOWLEDGE OF identify consistent use of condoms as a
HIV/AIDS means of protection against HIV infection,
as a percentage of the total number of
DEFINITION respondents ages 15–24.
Percentage of population aged 15–24 years
with comprehensive correct knowledge of Percentage of women and men ages 15–24
HIV/AIDS is the share of women and men who know a healthy-looking person can
aged 15–24 years who correctly identify the transmit HIV. The indicator is calculated as
two major ways of preventing the sexual the number of respondents ages 15–24
transmission of HIV (using condoms and lim- who, in response to prompting, correctly
iting sex to one faithful, uninfected partner), note that a person who looks healthy may
who reject the two most common local mis- transmit HIV, as a percentage of the total
conceptions about HIV transmission and who number of respondents ages 15–24.
know that a healthy-looking person can

45


DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE Available from http://www.unaids.org/en/
Data on knowledge of and misconceptions in+focus/monitoringevaluation. Select:
about HIV/AIDS are collected through house- Guidelines on construction of core indica-
hold surveys (such as Demographic and tors.
Health Surveys, rural household surveys, UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
behavioural surveillance surveys and Multiple The State of the World’s Children. New York.
Indicator Cluster Surveys). UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND, UNAIDS
and WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002).
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Young People and HIV/AIDS: Opportunity in
Household surveys, such as Demographic and Crisis. New York.
Health Surveys, rural household surveys, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, JOINT UN
behavioural surveillance surveys and Multiple PROGRAMME ON HIV/AIDS and the UNITED
Indicator Cluster Surveys, are generally con- NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2002). Epidemio-
ducted every three to five years. logical Fact Sheets. Geneva. Available from
http://www.who.int/emc-hiv/ fact_sheets.
GENDER ISSUES
Women’s risk of becoming infected with HIV AGENCY
during unprotected sexual intercourse is United Nations Children’s Fund.
higher than that of men. The risk is even high-
er for younger women. Social and cultural fac-
tors may increase women’s vulnerability to
HIV infection. For instance, cultural norms
19-C CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE RATE
related to sexuality often prevent girls from
taking active steps to protect themselves. DEFINITION
The contraceptive prevalence rate is the per-
In many countries, girls are becoming infect- centage of women who are practising, or
ed and dying younger than boys, for various whose sexual partners are practising, any
reasons, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, the form of contraception. It is usually reported
region most affected by HIV/AIDS. for women ages 15–49 in marital or consen-
sual unions.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS:
See “Methods of computation”. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA diseases
COMPARISONS
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to
CAROLINA POPULATION CENTER (2003). reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
National AIDS Programmes: A Guide to
Monitoring and Evaluation. Chapel Hill. RATIONALE
Available from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/ The indicator is useful in tracking progress
measure/guide/guide.html. towards health, gender and poverty goals. It also
ORC MACRO (2003). Demographic and serves as a proxy measure of access to repro-
Health Surveys – Providing Information for ductive health services that are essential for
Informed Decisions in Population, Health meeting many of the goals, especially the child
and Nutrition. Internet site http://www. and maternity mortality and HIV/AIDS goals.
measuredhs.com. Calverton, USA.
UNAIDS (2002). Monitoring the Declaration Contraceptive methods include condoms,
of Commitment on HIV/AIDS: Guidelines on female and male sterilization, injectable and
Construction of Core Indicators. Geneva. oral hormones, intrauterine devices, dia-

46


phragms, spermicides and natural family plan- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
ning, as well as lactational amenorrhoea (lack of Data are generally collected for women in
menstruation during breastfeeding) where it is unions and in a particular age range, while the
cited as a method. Since, among contraceptive population of concern includes all women of
methods, only condoms are effective in pre- reproductive age, irrespective of marital status.
venting HIV infections, specific indicators on
condom use are also considered (SEE INDICATORS In addition, contraceptive methods may
19, 19A and 19B). include traditional methods that are largely
ineffective. It is important, to the extent possi-
METHOD OF COMPUTATION ble, to at least distinguish between traditional
The number of women ages 15–49 in marital and modern methods.
or consensual unions who report that they are
practising (or whose sexual partners are prac- Underreporting can occur when the inter-
tising) contraception is divided by the total viewer does not mention specific methods,
number of women ages 15–49 (and same such as contraceptive surgical sterilization.
marital status, if applicable) in the survey.
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE COMPARISONS
Contraceptive prevalence data are obtained ORC MACRO (2003). Demographic and Health
mainly from household surveys, notably the Surveys–Providing Information for Informed
Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Decisions in Population, Health and
Indicator Cluster Surveys and contraceptive Nutrition. Internet site http://www.
prevalence surveys. measuredhs.com. Calverton, Maryland.
UNITED NATIONS (1958). Multilingual
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Demographic Dictionary, English Section,
Household surveys, such as Demographic and Population Studies, No. 29. Sales No.
Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster E.58.XIII.4.
Surveys and contraceptive prevalence sur- UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
veys, are generally conducted every three to Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
five years. Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
Available from: http://www.un.org/esa/
GENDER ISSUES sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
Statistics on contraception prevalence rates UNITED NATIONS (2001). Levels and Trends of
are based primarily on women, mainly Contraceptive Use as Assessed in 1998.
because contraception is more easily meas- Sales No. E.01.XIII.4. Available from
ured in this way. Further, contraception, or its http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.
absence, affects the health and well-being of htm.
women more than it does their sexual partners. UNITED NATIONS (2002). World Contraceptive
Use 2001. Wall Chart. Sales No. E.02.XIII.7.
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
Contraceptive use may vary significantly p o p u l a t i o n / p u b l i c a t i o n s / c o n t ra c e p
across socio-economic groups and regional tive2001/contraception01.htm.
and geographical areas. It is important that UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
the analysis address specific demographic The State of the World’s Children. New York.
groups, such as adolescents and unmarried UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR WOMEN
women. (2000). Gender, HIV and Human Rights: A
Training Manual. New York. Available from

47


http://www.unifem.undp.org/resources/ families and bringing up children. As a result,
hivtraining . orphan prevalence is rising steadily in many
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME countries, while fewer relatives within the
(2003 and annual). Human Development prime adult ages mean that orphaned chil-
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. dren face an increasingly uncertain future.
Available from http://hdr.undp.org.
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (annual). Orphanhood is frequently accompanied by prej-
State of World Population. Available from udice and increased poverty—factors that can
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/swpmain.htm. further jeopardize children’s well-being.
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World Children and adolescents orphaned by AIDS
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. face decreased access to adequate nutrition,
Washington, D.C. Available in part from basic health care, housing and clothing. They
http://www.worldbank.org/data. may turn to survival strategies that increase
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and their vulnerability to HIV. They are likely to drop
annual). World Health Report. Geneva. out of school owing to discrimination, emotion-
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/ al distress, inability to pay school fees or the
en. need to care for parents or caretakers infected
with HIV or for younger siblings. In sub-Saharan
AGENCIES Africa, only 60 per cent of orphans (ages
Ministry of health 10–14) who lost both parents attend school as
United Nations Population Fund compared with 71 per cent of those with both
United Nations Children’s Fund parents still living. The limited countries with
United Nations Population Division trend data indicate a widening of the gap. It is
important, therefore, to monitor the extent to
which AIDS support programmes succeed in
20 RATIO OF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF
ORPHANS TO SCHOOL ATTENDANCE
securing educational opportunities for
orphaned children.
OF NON-ORPHANS AGED 10–14
YEARS METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The current school attendance rate of children
DEFINITION ages 10–14 for whom both biological parents
Strictly defined, the number of children have died is divided by the current school
orphaned by HIV/AIDS is the estimated num- attendance rate of children ages 10–14 whose
ber of children who have lost their mother, parents are both still alive and who live with at
father or both parents to AIDS before age 15. least one biological parent.
In practice, the impact of the AIDS epidemic
on orphans is measured through the ratio of DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
orphans to non-orphans who are in school. Data for the indicator are collected through
household surveys (such as Demographic and
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other Surveys).
diseases
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS Household surveys, such as Demographic and
Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster
RATIONALE Surveys, are generally conducted every three
HIV/AIDS is claiming the lives of ever-growing to five years.
numbers of adults just when they are forming

48


GENDER ISSUES and UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL
Boys and girls are both affected. However, girls DEVELOPMENT (2002). Children on the Brink
might be more likely than boys to leave school 2002: A Joint Report on Orphan Estimates
to care for ill parents and younger siblings. and Program Strategies.
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND, UNAIDS
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES and WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002).
Data should be presented separately for boys Young People and HIV/AIDS: Opportunity in
and girls. Crisis. New York.

COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS AGENCIES
The indicator is confined to children ages Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
10–14 for comparability, as age at school entry United Nations Children’s Fund
varies across countries. Household surveys can
miss children in unstable households, and
orphaned children are disproportionately likely
to be in such households.
21 PREVALENCEWITH MALARIA RATES
ASSOCIATED
AND DEATH

The indicator is not a direct measure of the DEFINITION
number of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS, Prevalence of malaria is the number of cases
despite the wording. The indicator does not of malaria per 100,000 people. Death rates
directly distinguish the cause of orphanhood. associated with malaria refers to the number
However, it is believed that high proportions of of deaths caused by malaria per 100,000
deaths of adults with school-age children in people.
areas of HIV epidemics are likely to be related to
HIV/AIDS. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA diseases
COMPARISONS Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to
CAROLINA POPULATION CENTER (2003). reverse the incidence of malaria and other
National AIDS Programmes: A Guide to major diseases
Monitoring and Evaluation. Chapel Hill.
Available from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/ RATIONALE
measure/guide/guide.html. The indicator allows highly endemic countries
UNAIDS (2002). Monitoring the Declaration to monitor disease and death from malaria,
of Commitment on HIV/AIDS: Guidelines on which have been increasing over the last two
Construction of Core Indicators. Geneva. decades owing to deteriorating health sys-
Available from http://www.unaids.org/en/ tems, growing drug and insecticide resist-
in+ focus/monitoringevaluation. ance, periodic changes in weather patterns,
UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and civil unrest, human migration and population
Recommendations for Population and displacement.
Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No.
67, Rev. 1. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available METHOD OF COMPUTATION
from http://unstats. un.org/unsd/pubs (A, Where the only prevalence data available are
E, F, S). reported through the administration of health
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). services, they are expressed per 100,000
The State of the World’s Children. New York. population, using population estimates as the
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND, UNAIDS denominator.

49


immunity to tropical diseases. Gender roles
Where prevalence data on children under five and relations influence the degree of expo-
come from household surveys, the data may sure to the relevant vectors and also to the
be reported as percentages of children under access and control of resources needed to
five with fever in the last two weeks. The per- protect women and men from being infected.
centage may be multiplied by 1,000 to Women’s immunity is particularly compro-
express the rate per 100,000. mised during pregnancy, making pregnant
women more likely to become infected and
The World Health Organization also produces implying differential severity of the conse-
model-based estimates of malaria-specific quences. Malaria during pregnancy is an
mortality. important cause of maternal mortality.

DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
Data come from administrative sources, All data should be classified by sex, as there
household surveys and vital statistics regis- could be differential death rates.
trations. Administrative data are derived by
health ministries from the administration of Rural populations carry the overwhelming
health services. Multiple Indicator Cluster burden of disease, so urban and rural disag-
Surveys collect information on the prevalence gregation of the data is important in tracking
of fever in the last two weeks for children the progress made in rural areas. Multiple
under five. The surveys also provide data on Indicator Cluster Surveys data have shown
all causes of under-five mortality. substantial difference by wealth quintiles, and
where possible the data should be disaggre-
Vital statistics registration systems collect gated by a wealth index.
data on cause of death, including deaths
caused by malaria. Good quality information COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
requires that death registration be near uni- Malaria statistics are reported in countries
versal, that the cause of death be reported where it is endemic, which includes almost all
routinely on the death record and that it be developing countries. However, data reported
determined by a qualified observer according by ministries are often only a fraction of the
to the International Classification of Diseases. number of cases in the population. Many
Such information is not generally available in report only laboratory-confirmed cases. In
developing countries but is now compiled by sub-Saharan Africa, clinically diagnosed
WHO annually for approximately 70 (mainly cases also tend to be reported.
developed) countries.
Differences between male and female preva-
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT lence and incidence rates are difficult to
Administrative data are, in principle, available measure since malaria in women is more likely
annually. Data from surveys are generally to be undetected. The fact that health services
available every three to five years. focus almost exclusively on women’s repro-
ductive function means that opportunities are
GENDER ISSUES lost for detection of multiple conditions,
Potential differences between men and women including tropical diseases. Moreover, when
are a function of the interaction between bio- incidence rates in women and men are similar,
logical factors and gender roles and relations. there are still significant differences between
Biological factors vary between men and them in the susceptibility and the impact of
women and influence susceptibility and tropical diseases.

50


menu.cfm. Geneva.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION and UNITED
NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003). Africa
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Malaria Report. Available from http://www.
COMPARISONS rbm.who.int/amd2003/amr2003/
GUNN, S.W.A., KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS amr_toc.htm .
(1990). Multilingual Dictionary of Disaster
Medicine and International Relief. Dordrecht, AGENCIES
The Netherlands. English/Français/Español Ministries of health
/Arabic. United Nations Children’s Fund
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). World Health Organization
The State of the World’s Children. New York.
(2003 and annual). Human Development
Available from http://hdr.undp.org.
22 PROPORTION OF POPULATION IN
MALARIA-RISK AREAS USING
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World EFFECTIVE MALARIA PREVENTION
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. AND TREATMENT MEASURES
http://www.worldbank.org/data. DEFINITION
WORLD BANK, UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S Malaria prevention is measured as the per-
FUND, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION and centage of children ages 0–59 months sleep-
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ing under insecticide-treated bednets.
(2003). Roll Back Malaria (RBM). A Global Malaria treatment among children is meas-
Partnership. Internet site http://www.rbm. ured as the proportion of children ages 0–59
who.int/. Geneva. months who were ill with fever in the two
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1992). weeks before the survey and who received
International Statistical Classification of appropriate antimalarial drugs.
Diseases and Related Health Problems,
Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1998). Gender Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
and Health: Technical Paper. diseases
WHO/FRH/WHD/98.16. Geneva. Available Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to
from http://www.who.int/reproductive- reverse the incidence of malaria and other
health/publications. Select: Gender. major diseases
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and
annual). World Health Report. Geneva. RATIONALE
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/ The Roll Back Malaria initiative, established in
en. late 1998 by the World Health Organization,
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002). 2001- the United Nations Children’s Fund and the
2010: United Nations Decade to Roll Back World Bank, identifies four main interventions
Malaria: Monitoring and Evaluation. to reduce the burden of malaria in Africa:
Geneva. Available from http://www.who. I Use of insecticide-treated bednets, which

int/inf-fs/en/informationSheet11.pdf. have been demonstrated to cut all-cause
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO child mortality over the first two years by
Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)— 20 per cent.
Evidence and Information for Health Policy. I Prompt access to effective treatment in or

Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/ near the home.

51


I Provision of antimalarial drugs to symp-
tom-free pregnant women in high trans- GENDER ISSUES
mission areas. Girls may have greater exposure than boys to
I Improved forecasting, prevention and rapid malaria-infested areas owing to their role in
response to malaria epidemics. the provision of fuel, water and other supplies.

In areas of sub-Saharan Africa with high levels of DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
malaria transmission, regular use of an insecti- Disparities by sex, age, mother’s education
cide-treated bednet can reduce mortality in chil- and area of residence should be assessed.
dren under five years of age by as much as 20
per cent and has a significant impact on anemia. COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
Similar or greater benefits have been achieved Survey data are subject to sampling errors
in other regions and for pregnant women. The and are undertaken only every few years. As
prevention indicator will allow countries to mon- the data on bednet use are new, no trend data
itor widespread use of insecticide-treated mate- are yet available.
rials and other appropriate methods to limit
contact between humans and mosquitoes. REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
COMPARISONS
Detection of epidemics requires timely, com- GUNN, S.W.A. (1990). Multilingual
plete surveillance of malaria cases and monitor- Dictionary of Disaster Medicine and
ing of weather patterns. Reserve drug stocks, International Relief. Dordrecht, The
transport and hospital capacity are needed to Netherlands: KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS.
mount an appropriate response. In some epi- English/Français/Español/Arabic.
demic zones, well-timed and targeted vector UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003). The
control activities have minimized the impact of Challenge – Scope of the Problem. Internet
epidemics. The treatment indicator allows coun- site http://www.childinfo.org/eddb/Malaria.
tries to monitor detection and appropriate New York.
response to epidemics within two weeks of UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual).
onset. The State of the World’s Children. New York.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION (2003 and annual). Human Development
For prevention, the indicator is calculated as the Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
percentage of children under five years of age Available from http://hdr.undp.org.
in the survey who slept under an insecticide- WORLD BANK, UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S
treated bednet the previous night. FUND, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION and
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE (2003). Roll Back Malaria - A Global
The only data sources are household surveys, Partnership. Internet site http://www.rbm.
mainly Demographic and Health Surveys and who.int. Geneva.
the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, malar- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002). 2001-
ia surveys and malaria modules added to 2010: United Nations Decade to Roll Back
other ongoing household surveys. Malaria: Monitoring and evaluation.
Geneva. Available from http://www.who.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT int/ inf-fs/en/informationSheet11.pdf.
Data on coverage of insecticide-treated bed- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and
nets and treatment data should be collected annual). World Health Report. Geneva.
about every two to three years. Available from http://www.who.int/whr/

52


en. pressed per 100,000 population, using the total
population in the survey as the denominator.
AGENCIES Tuberculosis prevalence is sometimes ex-
Ministries of health pressed in absolute numbers of cases, while
United Nations Children’s Fund tuberculosis incidence in a given period (usu-
World Health Organization ally one year) is always per 100,000 people.


23 PREVALENCEWITH TUBERCULOSIS
ASSOCIATED
AND DEATH RATES Direct measures of tuberculosis prevalence are
uncommon, and recent population-based sur-
veys have been confined largely to countries in
DEFINITION East Asia and the Pacific . Direct measures of the
Tuberculosis prevalence is the number of cases tuberculosis death rate come from vital statis-
of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. Death tics registration. Reliable figures require that
rates associated with tuberculosis refers to death registration be nearly universal and that
the number of deaths caused by tuberculosis the cause of death be reported routinely on the
per 100,000 people. A tuberculosis case is death record and determined by a qualified
defined as a patient in whom tuberculosis has observer according to the International
been bacteriologically confirmed or diag- Classification of Diseases. Such information is
nosed by a clinician. not generally available in developing countries.
Vital statistics registration systems tend to
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED underestimate tuberculosis deaths, although
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other time series data from some countries in Asia and
diseases the Americas give a useful indication of trends.
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to
reverse the incidence of malaria and other In the absence of direct measures of prevalence
major diseases and death rates, a variety of techniques can be
used to estimate these values. Administrative
RATIONALE data are derived from the administration of
Detecting tuberculosis and curing it are key health services. Data can also be obtained from
interventions for addressing poverty and such household surveys as Multiple Indicator
inequality. Prevalence and deaths are more Cluster Surveys or the Demographic and Health
sensitive markers of the changing burden of Surveys, although they usually refer only to chil-
tuberculosis than incidence (new cases), dren under five and do not provide death rates.
although data on trends in incidence are far Population data come directly or indirectly from
more comprehensive and give the best overview population censuses.
of the impact of global tuberculosis control.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION Administrative data are, in principle, available
Where the only data available are data report- annually. Data from surveys are generally
ed through the administration of health serv- available every three to five years. Results
ices, they are expressed per 100,000 popula- from population censuses are generally avail-
tion, using population estimates as the able every 10 years.
denominator.
GENDER ISSUES
Where the data come from household surveys, At younger ages, the prevalence of infection is
prevalence (and more rarely deaths) is ex- similar in boys and girls. At older ages, a higher

53


prevalence has been found in men; in most http://www.worldbank.org/data.
of the world, more men than women are diag- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1992).
nosed with tuberculosis and die from it. International Statistical Classification of
However, recent analyses comparing infection Diseases and Related Health Problems,
and disease rates suggest that the propensity Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva.
to develop the disease after infection with WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1998). Gender
mycobacterium tuberculosis (the progression and Health, Technical Paper. Geneva.
rate) may be greater among women of repro- Available from http://www.who.int/
ductive age than among men of the same age. reproductive-health/publications.
A recent review of socio-economic and cultur- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and
al factors relating to the suggested differ- annual). World Health Report. Geneva.
ences called for further research to clarify such Available from http://www.who.int/whr/
differences in the epidemiology of tuberculosis. en.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). Global
Although more men than women die of tuber- Tuberculosis Control – Surveillance, Planning,
culosis, it is still a leading cause of death from Financing. WHO Report 2003. Geneva.
infectious disease among women. Since WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO
tuberculosis affects women mainly in their Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)—
economically and reproductively active years, Evidence and Information for Health Policy.
the impact of the disease is also strongly felt Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/
by their children and families. menu.cfm. Geneva.

DISAGGREGATION ISSUES AGENCIES
It is important to compile data by sex and to Ministries of health.
take a gender perspective in the analysis. World Health Organization.

Tuberculosis prevalence and death rate data
reported by ministries in developing countries
24 PROPORTION OF TUBERCULOSIS
CASES DETECTED AND CURED UNDER
are usually only a fraction of the number of INTERNATIONALLY RECOMMENDED
cases and deaths from tuberculosis in the TB CONTROL STRATEGY
population.
DEFINITION
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA The tuberculosis detection rate is the percent-
COMPARISONS age of estimated new infectious tuberculosis
GUNN, S.W.A. (1990). Multilingual cases detected under the internationally rec-
Dictionary of Disaster Medicine and ommended tuberculosis control strategy
International Relief. Dordrecht, The DOTS. DOTS combines five elements—politi-
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publis- cal commitment, microscopy services, drug
hers . English/Français/Español/Arabic. supplies, surveillance and monitoring systems
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME and use of highly efficacious regimes—with
(2003 and annual). Human Development direct observation of treatment. The cure
Report. New York: Oxford University Press. rate is the percentage of new, registered
Available from http://hdr.undp.org. smear-positive (infectious) cases that were
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World cured or in which a full course of DOTS was
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. completed. A tuberculosis case is defined as a
Washington, D.C. Available in part from patient in whom tuberculosis has been bateri-

54


ologically confirmed or diagnosed by a clini- the numerator.
cian.
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other Data on both the detection rate and the treat-
diseases ment success rate are derived from World
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to Health Organization DOTS programmes, which
reverse the incidence of malaria and other monitor and report cases detected, treatment
major diseases progress and programme performance.

RATIONALE PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Since tuberculosis is an airborne contagious Administrative data are, in principle, available
disease, primary control is effected through annually. Household surveys are generally
finding and treating infectious cases and thus available annually. Household surveys are
limiting the risk of acquiring infection. The generally available every three to five years.
recommended approach to primary control is Data from DOTS programmes, though incom-
the DOTS strategy, an inexpensive strategy plete, are updated frequently.
that could prevent millions of tuberculosis
cases and deaths over the coming decade. GENDER ISSUES
At younger ages, the prevalence of infection is
DOTS is a proven system based on accurate similar in boys and girls. At older ages, a higher
diagnosis and consistent treatment with a prevalence has been found in men; in most of
full course of a mixture of anti-tuberculosis the world, more men than women are diagnosed
drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, with tuberculosis and die from it. However,
streptomycin and ethambutol). DOTS requires recent analyses comparing infection and disease
government commitment, careful detection, rates suggest that the propensity to develop
consistent treatment, uninterrupted supply of the disease after infection with mycobacteri-
anti-tuberculosis drugs and a monitoring and um tuberculosis (the progression rate) may be
reporting system to evaluate treatment out- greater among women of reproductive age
comes for each patient. than among men of the same age. A recent
review of socio-economic and cultural factors
METHOD OF COMPUTATION relating to the suggested differences called
The case detection rate is the ratio of smear- for further research to clarify such differences
positive case notifications in a given year to the in the epidemiology of tuberculosis.
estimated number of new smear-positive cases
arising in that year. For some countries, there Tuberculosis is nevertheless a leading cause
is a margin of uncertainty in the estimation of of death from infectious disease among
the denominator of this ratio. women. Since tuberculosis affects women
mainly in their economically and reproductively
The treatment success rates is the ratio of active years, the impact of the disease is also
new, registered smear-positive (infectious) strongly felt by their children and families.
cases that were cured or that completed a full
course of DOTS to the total number of new, COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
registered cases. Treatment success rates can Tuberculosis cases reported by ministries in
be monitored directly and accurately in developing countries are usually only a fraction
cohorts of patients treated under the DOTS of the number of cases in the population. It is
strategy. Systematic evaluation of patient estimated that in 2000 only 27 per cent of
progress and treatment outcomes provides new cases were notified under DOTS and only

55


about 19 per cent of cases were successfully tations. It refers to land with an existing or
treated. expected tree canopy of more than 10 per
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA cent and an area of more than 0.5 hectare
COMPARISONS where the trees should be able to reach a min-
GUNN, S.W.A., (1990). Multilingual Diction- imum height of five metres. Forests are iden-
ary of Disaster Medicine and International tified by both the presence of trees and the
Relief. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer absence of other land uses. Land from which
Academic Publishers. English/Français/ forest has been cleared but that will be refor-
Español/Arabic. ested in the foreseeable future is included.
STOP TB PARTNERSHIP (2003). Stop Tuber- Excluded are stands of trees established pri-
culosis, the Stop TB Partnetship. Internet marily for agricultural production, such as
site http://www.stoptb.org . fruit tree plantations.
International Statistical Classification of GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
Diseases and Related Health Problems, Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability
Tenth Revision (ICD-10), vol. 1. Geneva. Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and development into country policies and pro-
annual). World Health Report. Geneva. grammes and reverse the loss of environmen-
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/ tal resources
en.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). Global RATIONALE
Tuberculosis Control – Surveillance, Planning, The indicator provides a measure of the rela-
Financing. WHO Report 2003. Geneva. tive importance of a forest in a country.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2003). WHO Changes in forest area reflect the demand for
Statistical Information System (WHOSIS)— land for other competitive uses.
Evidence and Information for Health Policy.
Internet site http://www3.who.int/whosis/ Forests fulfil a number of functions that are
menu.cfm. Geneva. vital for humanity, including the provision of
goods (timber and non-timber products) and
AGENCIES services such as protection against flooding,
Ministries of health habitat for biodiversity, carbon sequestration,
World Health Organization watershed protection and soil conservation.
Large areas of the world’s forests have been
converted to other uses or severely degraded.
25 PROPORTION OF LAND AREA COV-
ERED BY FOREST
While substantial areas of productive forest
remain, there is now widespread recognition
that the resource is not infinite and that its
DEFINITION wise and sustainable use is needed for
The Proportion of land area covered by forest humanity’s survival.
is the forest areas as a share of total land
area, where land area is the total surface area METHOD OF COMPUTATION
of the country less the area covered by inland The proportion of forest in the total land area
waters, such as major rivers and lakes. As is calculated from information provided by
defined by the Food and Agriculture countries or from satellite images or other
Organization of the United Nations in Global remote sensing information analysis. Changes
Forest Resources Assessmen, 2000, forest in the proportion should be computed to iden-
includes both natural forests and forest plan- tify trends.

56


The proportion of total forest cover (including
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE both natural forest and plantation) may
FAO global forest resource assessments, underestimate the rate at which natural for-
regional forest resource assessments, special est is disappearing in some countries.
studies and surveys, national forest invento-
ries and satellite images. It is also recommended that immediate users
or beneficiaries of wooded land be identified.
FAO global forest resource assessments are REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
carried out every 5–10 years, incorporating COMPARISONS
national forest resource variables, which FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE
are measured in the national forest inventory UNITED NATIONS (2000). Global Forest
process at different intervals (often 5–10 years). Resources Assessment, 2000. Rome.
Available from http://www.fao.org/
GENDER ISSUES forestry/fo/fra.
Men and women use forest products in different FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE
ways. Women typically gather forest products UNITED NATIONS (2003 and biennial). State of
for fuel, fencing, food for the family, fodder the World’s Forests. Available from http://
for livestock, medicine and raw materials for www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y7581E/Y758
income-generating activities. Women are also 1E00.HTM.
often the chief sources of information on the UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR
use and management of trees and other for- EUROPE (2000). Forest Resources of Europe,
est plants. Men, on the other hand, tend to CIS, North America, Australia, Japan and
use non-wood forest products, but also more New Zealand. Sales No. 99.II.E.96. Available
often cut wood to sell or use for building from http://www.unece.org/ trade/tim-
materials. Women’s access to forest products ber/fra/ pdf/contents.htm.
may not be ensured—even where women UNITED NATIONS. ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR
have ownership rights to land. EUROPE. CONFERENCE OF EUROPEAN STATISTICS
(1989). ECE Standard Statistical
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES Classification of Land Use. Geneva.
FAO provides a breakdown of forest cover Available from http://www.unescap.org/
between natural forest and plantation for stat/ envstat/stwes-class-landuse.pdf.
developing countries only. UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
(2003). Internet site http://www.unep.org.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS Nairobi.
National forest inventories and forest surveys WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
are irregular in some countries and may be Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
significantly out of date. Owing to climatic Washington, D.C. Available in part from
and geographical differences, forest areas http:// www.worldbank.org/data.
vary in importance among countries. Over
time, changes in area covered by forests as Although the FAO forestry-related definitions
well as area covered by forests should be doc- are clear and applied at the international level,
umented. Longer time series may be difficult countries have historically used their own
to compare directly without analysis of differ- definitions in conducting national forest inven-
ences in definitions, methods and underlying tories and assessments. Considerable efforts
data. have been made to adjust data based on

57


national definitions to comparable internation- harbouring an untold wealth of genetic re-
al ones, and FAO documents those adjust- sources; supporting thriving recreation and
ments in Global Forest Resources Assessment. tourism industries; providing for science,
research and education; and forming a basis
AGENCIES for cultural and other non-material values.
Ministries of environment Those values continue to grow in importance.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Protected areas, both terrestrial and marine,
are totalled and expressed as a percentage of
26 RATIO OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
MAINTAIN
AREA PROTECTED TO the total surface area of the country. The total
surface area of the country includes terrestri-
TO SURFACE AREA al area plus any territorial sea area (up to 12
nautical miles).
DEFINITION
The ratio of area protected to maintain biolog- DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
ical diversity to surface area is defined as Data are collected by ministries of environ-
nationally protected area as a percentage of ment and other ministries responsible for the
total surface area of a country. The generally designation and maintenance of protected
accepted IUCN–World Conservation Union areas. Data are stored in the World Database
definition of a protected area is an area of land on Protected Areas and can be accessed at
or sea dedicated to the protection and main- http://sea.unep-wcmc. org/ wdbpa/UN.cfm.
tenance of biological diversity and of natural
and associated cultural resources and man- PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
aged through legal or other effective means. Data are constantly updated in the World
Database on Protected Areas as new informa-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED tion is received from countries.
Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustain- GENDER ISSUES
able development into country policies and Mainstream agricultural, environmental and
programmes and reverse the loss of environ- related policies and programmes tend to envi-
mental resources sion farmers as men and often fail to recog-
nize women’s work, knowledge, contributions
RATIONALE and needs. This tendency has important con-
Habitat conservation is vital for stemming the sequences for biodiversity as well as for gen-
decline in biodiversity. The establishment of der equality.
protected areas is an important mechanism
for achieving that aim. Some areas, such as COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
scientific reserves, are maintained in their The designation of an area as protected is
natural state and closed to extractive use. not confirmation that protection measures
Others are partially protected and may be are actually in force. The indicator provides a
used for recreation or tourism. measure of Governments’ will to protect bio-
diversity. It does not measure the effective-
In addition to protecting biodiversity, protect- ness of policy tools in reducing biodiversity
ed areas have become places of high social loss, which ultimately depends on a range of
and economic value: supporting local liveli- management and implementation factors not
hoods; protecting watersheds from erosion; covered by the indicator.

58


WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
The indicator provides no information on areas (2003). World Database on Protected Areas.
that are not designated as protected but that Internet site http://sea.unep-wcmc.org .
may also be important for conserving biodi- Cambridge, United Kingdom.
versity. WORLD CONSERVATION UNION (IUCN).
Biodiversity Policy Coordination Division.
The data also do not include sites protected Internet site http://www.iucn.org/themes/
under local or provincial law. biodiversity.
WORLD CONSERVATION UNION, WORLD
No quantified target has been established for COMMISSION OF PROTECTED AREAS with the
this indicator. assistance of the WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE (1994). Guidelines for
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Protected Area Management Categories.
COMPARISONS Cambridge, United Kingdom. Available from
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND http://www.wcmc.org.uk/protected_area/
DEVELOPMENT/DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE categories/eng.
COMMITTEE (2003). Biodiversity and equality
between women and men. In Tipsheets for AGENCIES
Improving Gender Equality. Available from Ministries of environment
http://www1.oecd.org/dac/gender/htm/ United Nations Environment Programme,
tipsheets.htm. Paris. World Conservation Monitoring Centre
RAMSAR CONVENTION BUREAU and UNITED IUCN–World Conservation Union
NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANIZATION (2003). The Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands. Internet site
http://www.ramsar.org. Geneva.
27 ENERGY USE PER $1 GROSS
EQUIVALENT)
(KILOGRAM OIL

UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of DOMESTIC PRODUCT (PPP)
Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6. DEFINITION
Available from http://www.un.org/esa/ Energy use (kilogram oil equivalent) per $1
sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm. gross domestic product (PPP) is commercial
UNITED NATIONS. ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR energy use measured in units of oil equivalent
EUROPE. CONFERENCE OF EUROPEAN STATISTICS per $1 of gross domestic product converted
(1989). ECE Standard Statistical Classifica- from national currencies using purchasing
tion of Land Use. Geneva. Available from power parity conversion factors.
http://www.unescap.org/stat/envstat/
stwes-class-landuse.pdf. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). The MAB Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustain-
Programme: World Network of Biosphere able development into country policies and
Reserves. Internet site http://www.unesco. programmes and reverse the loss of environ-
org/mab/wnbr.htm. Paris. mental resources
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2003). World Heritage. RATIONALE
Internet site http://whc.unesco.org/nwhc/ The indicator provides a measure of energy
pages/home/pages/homepage.htm. Paris. intensity (it is the inverse of energy efficiency).
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME– Differences in this ratio over time and across

59


countries reflect structural changes in the INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (annual). Energy
economy, changes in the energy efficiency of Balances of Non-OECD Countries. Paris.
particular sectors and differences in fuel mixes. INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (annual).
In principle, the lower the ratio, the better the Energy Balances of OECD Countries. Paris.
energy efficiency. UNITED NATIONS (1987). Energy Statistics –
Definitions, Units of Measure and Conversion
METHOD OF COMPUTATION Factors, Series F, No. 44. Sales No.
Total commercial energy consumption is con- E.86.XVII.21. Available from http://unstats.
verted to metric ton oil equivalence using un.org/unsd/ pubs. (E, F, R, S)
standard tables. GDP data must be converted UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
using PPP tables so that real output is compared Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
with real energy input. National total GDP is Methodologies. Department of Economic
deflated (currently to 1995 US PPP dollars) by and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable
reference to PPP tables derived from the Development Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
International Comparison Programme. Energy Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
input is divided by GDP to derive the ratio. sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Energy Statistics.
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE Internet site http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
Energy consumption is calculated from national energy.
energy balance sheets. Real GDP comes from UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium
the national income accounts deflated by Indicators Database. Statistics Division
reference to PPP tables prepared by the Internet site http://millenniumindicators.
International Comparison Programme. un.org.
Traditional fuels, such as animal and vegetable UNITED NATIONS. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN
waste, fuel wood and charcoal, are excluded. COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND,
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994).
Data are available annually. System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA
1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No.
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates from
This is a relatively crude indicator and needs http://unstats. un.org/unsd/sna1993.
to be broken down by sector of industry to be WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
interpreted. Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS http://www.worldbank.org/data .
As the input is commercial energy, it should
be compared with the output from that ener- AGENCIES
gy, deflated by the purchasing power parities International Energy Agency
relevant to that output. Changes in the ratio World Bank
over time are influenced almost as much by United Nations Statistics Division
changes in the structure of the economy as
by changes in sectoral energy intensities.

COMPARISONS
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (2003).
Internet site http://www.iea.org . Paris.

60


programmes and reverse the loss of environ-
28 CARBON AND CONSUMPTION PER
CAPITA
DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
OF
mental resources

OZONE-DEPLETING CHLOROFLUORO- RATIONALE
CARBONS (ODP TONS) The indicators signify the commitment to
reducing carbon dioxide emissions and progress
DEFINITION in phasing out the consumption of CFCs by
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita is the countries that have ratified the Montreal
total amount of carbon dioxide emitted by a Protocol. Carbon dioxide emissions are largely
country as a consequence of human (produc- a by-product of energy production and use.
tion and consumption) activities, divided by They account for the largest share of green-
the population of the country. In the global house gases associated with global warming.
carbon dioxide emission estimates of the
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center The Vienna Convention for the Protection of
of Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the the Ozone Layer (1985) and the Montreal
United States, the calculated country emis- Protocol (1987) are now recognized as having
sions of carbon dioxide include emissions been successful in preventing the global envi-
from consumption of solid, liquid and gas ronmental catastrophe that could have been
fuels; cement production; and gas flaring. caused by stratospheric ozone depletion. The
National reporting to the United Nations Montreal Protocol aims to reduce and eventu-
Framework Convention on Climate Change, ally eliminate the emissions of anthropogenic
which follows the Intergovernmental Panel on ozone-depleting substances by ceasing their
Climate Change guidelines, is based on production and consumption. The phasing out
national emission inventories and covers all of ozone-depleting substances and their
sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide replacement with less harmful substances or
emissions as well as carbon sinks (such as new processes are aimed at the recovery of
forests). the ozone layer.

Consumption of ozone-depleting chlorofluoro- CFCs are considered most representative of
carbons (CFCs) in ODP (ozone-depleting poten- the protocol’s efforts to phase out the use of
tial) tons is the sum of the consumption of the ozone-depleting substances since they were
weighted tons of the individual substances in the first to be targeted for elimination.
the group—metric tons of the individual sub-
stance (defined in the Montreal Protocol on METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer) Carbon dioxide emissions per capita are cal-
multiplied by its ozone-depleting potential. culated by dividing carbon dioxide emissions
An ozone-depleting substance is any sub- by the number of people in the national pop-
stance containing chlorine or bromine that ulation. Carbon dioxide emission estimates
destroys the stratospheric ozone layer. The from 1950 to the present are derived primari-
stratospheric ozone layer absorbs most of the ly from energy statistics published by the
biologically damaging ultraviolet radiation. United Nations, using the methods outlined in
“Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels: a
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED procedure for estimation and results for
Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability 1950–82”. National reporting to the United
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustain- Nations Framework Convention on Climate
able development into country policies and Change is based on the Intergovernmental

61


Panel on Climate Change guidelines. Carbon ecosystem response.
dioxide emissions can be expressed in terms REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
of carbon dioxide or converted to carbon con- COMPARISONS
tent. CARBON DIOXIDE INFORMATION ANALYSIS CENTRE
(CDIAC) (2003). Global, Regional, and
The consumption of CFCs is the national pro- National Fossil Fuel CO2 Emissions:
duction plus imports, minus exports, minus http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/meth_
destroyed quantities, minus feedstock uses of reg.htm. Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
individual CFCs. National annual consump- CARBON DIOXIDE INFORMATION ANALYSIS CENTRE
tion of CFCs is the sum of the weighted tons (CDIAC) (2003). Internet site
(consumption in metric tons multiplied by the http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/. Oak Ridge,
estimated ozone-depleting potential) of the Tennessee.
individual CFCs. MARLAND, G., and R.M. ROTTY (1984).
Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels:
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE a procedure for estimation and results for
National carbon dioxide emissions are esti- 1950–82. Tellus, 36(B): 232–61.
mated from detailed data on emission sources, UNITED NATIONS (1996). Glossary of
using source-specific emission factors. Emission Environmental Statistics, Series F, No. 67
inventories are usually compiled by energy or (United Nations publication, Sales No.
environment ministries. Annex I parties (dev- E.96.XVII.12). Available from
eloped countries) to the United Nations http://unstats. un.org/unsd/pubs. (A, C, E,
Framework Convention on Climate Change sub- F, R, S)
mit their data on greenhouse gas emissions to UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
the organization’s secretariat through an Sustainable Development: Guidelines and
annual reporting format. Reporting of Non- Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
annex I parties is voluntary and occasional. Available from http:// www.un.org/esa/
Where national emission inventories are absent, sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
official sources are supplemented by other UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
sources and estimates. (2002). Production and Consumption of
Ozone-Depleting Substances under the
Estimation of the consumption of CFCs requires Montreal Protocol, 1986-2000. Available
data on national production plus imports, from http://www.unep.ch/ozone/15-year-
minus exports, minus stocks destroyed. data-report.pdf. Nairobi.
Those can be derived from national produc- UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
tion and international trade statistics. (2003). The Ozone Secretariat. Internet site
http://www.unep.org/ozone/. Nairobi.
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON
Data are usually collected annually. CLIMATE CHANGE (2003). Greenhouse Gas
Inventory Database (GHG). Internet site
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS http://ghg.unfccc.int. Bonn, Germany.
For carbon dioxide emissions, trend data are UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON
more reliable than data comparisons between CLIMATE CHANGE (2003). Internet site
countries. http://www.unfccc.int. Bonn, Germany.
For ozone depletion, the indicator does not Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
reveal much about current trends in deterio- Washington, D.C. Available in part from
ration of the ozone layer owing to delays in http://www.worldbank.org/data.

62


WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION AND complex phenomenon and depends on inter-
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME. actions of pollution source (fuel and stove type),
INTER-GOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE pollution dispersion (housing and ventilation)
(2003). Internet site http://www.ipcc.ch. and the time-activity budget of household
Geneva. members. The type of fuel and participation in
WORLD RESOURCE INSTITUTE (2003). cooking tasks have consistently been the
EarthTrends: The Environment Information most important predictors of exposure.
Portal. Internet site http://earthtrends.
wri.org. Washington, D.C. METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The indicator is computed as the ratio of
AGENCIES households using one or more unprocessed solid
Carbon dioxide: fuels (dung and crop residues, wood, char-
United Nations Framework Convention on coal, and coal) for cooking and heating, to the
Climate Change total population, expressed as a percentage.
United Nations Statistics Division
Chlorofluorocarbons: DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
United Nations Environment Programme, Data can be derived from household surveys,
Ozone Secretariat such as Living Standard Measurement study
surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys
and from population censuses. Standard
questions for inclusion in all nationally repre-
29 PROPORTION FUELS POPULATION
USING SOLID
OF THE
sentative household surveys have not yet
been developed and no internationally com-
DEFINITION parable data are available.
Proportion of population using solid fuels is
the proportion of the population that relies on GENDER ISSUES
biomass (wood, charcoal, crop residues and More than half the world’s households cook
dung) and coal as the primary source of with unprocessed solid fuels, exposing prima-
domestic energy for cooking and heating. rily women and children to indoor air pollu-
tion, which can result in serious health prob-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED lems, such as acute respiratory diseases. In
Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability addition, women spend more time than men
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustain- gathering wood for fuel.
able development into country policies and
programmes and reverse the loss of environ- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
mental resources Development of standard questions for inclu-
sion in all nationally representative household
RATIONALE surveys and censuses is needed to obtain
Incomplete and inefficient combustion of data for calculating the indicator and allowing
solid fuels results in the emission of hundreds comparisons across countries.
of compounds, many of which are health-
damaging pollutants or greenhouse gases Since the use of solid fuels affects both the
that contribute to global climate change. There environment and the population as a whole
are also important linkages between house- and the health status of those directly
hold solid fuel use, indoor air pollution, defor- exposed, guidelines should clearly set defini-
estation and soil erosion and greenhouse gas tions and measurement standards for what is
emissions. Exposure to indoor air pollution is a intended by “exposure”.

63


REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA 30 PROPORTION OF ACCESS TO WITH
SUSTAINABLE
POPULATION
AN
COMPARISONS IMPROVED WATER SOURCE, URBAN
BRUCE, NIGEL, ROGELIO PEREZ-PADILLA and AND RURAL
RACHEL ALBALAK (2000). Indoor air pollution
in developing countries: a major environ- DEFINITION
mental and public health challenge. Bulletin The proportion of the population with sustain-
of the World Health Organization 78 (9), able access to an improved water source,
1078-1092 Geneva. urban and rural, is the percentage of the pop-
STAKEHOLDER FORUM (2002). Earth Summit ulation who use any of the following types of
Forum 2002. Internet site http://www.earth water supply for drinking: piped water, public
summit2002.org/es/issues/gender/gen- tap, borehole or pump, protected well, pro-
der.htm. tected spring or rainwater. Improved water
UNITED NATIONS (1982). Concepts and sources do not include vendor-provided
Methods in Energy Statistics, with Special water, bottled water, tanker trucks or unpro-
Reference to Energy Accounts and tected wells and springs.
Balances: A Technical Report, Series F, No.
29. Sales No. E.82.XVII.13 and corrigen- GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
dum. Available from http://unstats.un.org/ Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability.
unsd/pubs (E, F, R). Target 10: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of
UNITED NATIONS (1987). Energy Statistics – people without sustainable access to safe
Definitions, Units of Measure and Conversion drinking water and basic sanitation.
Factors, Series F, No. 44. Sales No.
E.86.XVII.21. Available from http://unstats. RATIONALE
un.org/unsd/pubs (E, F, R, S). The indicator monitors access to improved
WORLD BANK (2003). Briefing Notes on water sources based on the assumption that
Gender and Development - Energy. improved sources are more likely to provide
Available from http://www.worldbank.org/ safe water. Unsafe water is the direct cause of
gender/resources/briefing. Washington, many diseases in developing countries.
D.C.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002). World METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Health Report 2002 – Reducing Risks, The indicator is computed as the ratio of the
Promoting Healthy Life. Geneva. Available number of people who use piped water, public
from http://www.who.int/whr/en. tap, borehole or pump, protected well, protected
spring or rainwater to the total population,
The World Health Organization has produced expressed as a percentage. The same method
estimates of regional aggregates for this indi- applies for the urban and rural breakdown.
cator. However, no country data series are
available to allow comparison across coun- Access to safe water refers to the percentage
tries or assessment of trends. of the population with reasonable access to
an adequate supply of safe water in their
AGENCIES dwelling or within a convenient distance of
National statistical offices their dwelling. The Global Water Supply and
World Health Organization Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report defines
reasonable access as “the availability of 20
litres per capita per day at a distance no
longer than 1,000 metres”. However, access

64


and volume of drinking water are difficult to GENDER ISSUES
measure, so sources of drinking water that Women and men usually have different roles
are thought to provide safe water are used as in water and sanitation activities. The differ-
a proxy. ences are particularly pronounced in rural
areas. Women are most often the users,
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) providers and managers of water in rural
and the World Health Organization (WHO), households and the guardians of household
through the Joint Monitoring Programme, hygiene. If a water system breaks down,
assess trends in “access to improved drinking women are more likely to be affected than
water sources” by drawing a regression line men because they have to travel farther for
through the available household survey and water or use other means to meet the house-
census data for each country (details are avail- hold’s water and sanitation needs.
able at http://www.childinfo.org). Regional
and global estimates are aggregated from the DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
national estimates, using population-weight- The indicator should be monitored separately
ed averages. for urban and rural areas. Because of nation-
al differences in characteristics that distin-
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE guish urban from rural areas, the distinction
Since the late 1990s, data have routinely been between urban and rural population is not
collected at the national and subnational levels amenable to a single definition applicable to
in more than 100 countries using censuses and all countries. National definitions are most
surveys by national Governments, often with commonly based on size of locality, with rural
support from international development agen- population as the residual of population that
cies. Two data sources are common: administra- is not considered urban.
tive or infrastructure data that report on new
and existing facilities, and data from household COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
surveys, including Multiple Indicator Cluster When data from administrative sources are
Surveys, Demographic and Health Surveys and used, they generally refer to existing sources,
Living Standards Measurement study surveys. whether used or not. Despite official WHO defi-
Before the population-based data were avail- nitions, the judgment about whether a water
able, provider-based data were used. source is safe is often subjective. In addition, the
existence of a water supply does not necessari-
Evidence suggests that data from surveys are ly mean that it is safe or that local people use it.
more reliable than administrative records and For those and other reasons, household survey
provide information on facilities actually used data are generally better than administrative
by the population. data, since survey data are based on actual use
of sources by the surveyed population rather
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT than the simple existence of the sources.
Administrative data are often available annu-
ally. Household surveys are generally con- While access is the most reasonable indicator
ducted every three to five years. for water supply, it still involves severe method-
ological and practical problems. Among them:
WHO and UNICEF annually compile interna- I The data are not routinely collected by “the

tional data and prepare regional and global sector” but by others outside the sector as
estimates based on household survey data. part of more general surveys.
I Water quality is not systematically addressed.

I The timing of collection and analysis of

65


household survey data is irregular, with long WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (2002 and
intervals between surveys annual). World Health Report. Geneva.
Available from http://www.who.int/whr/
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA en.
COMPARISONS WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION AND UNITED
ORC MACRO (2003). Demographic and NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2000). Global
Health Surveys – Providing Information for Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment
Informed Decisions in Population, Health 2000 Report, pp.77-78. Geneva. Available
and Nutrition. Internet site http://www. from http://www.who.int/docstore/water_
measuredhs.com. Calverton, Maryland. sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTO
UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and C.htm.
Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No. AGENCIES
67, Rev. 1. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available National statistical offices
from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs (A, United Nations Children’s Fund
E, F, S). World Health Organization
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
31 PROPORTION OF POPULATION WITH
ACCESS TO IMPROVED SANITATION,
sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm. URBAN AND RURAL
Database. Statistics Division Internet site DEFINITION
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. Proportion of the urban and rural population
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003). with access to improved sanitation refers to
Progress since the World Summit for the percentage of the population with access
Children. New York. Available from http:// to facilities that hygienically separate human
www.childinfo.org. excreta from human, animal and insect con-
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (annual). tact. Facilities such as sewers or septic tanks,
The State of the World’s Children. New York. poor-flush latrines and simple pit or ventilat-
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World ed improved pit latrines are assumed to be
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. adequate, provided that they are not public,
Washington, D.C. Available in part from according to the World Health Organization
http://www.worldbank.org/data. and United Nations Children’s Fund’s Global
WORLD BANK (2003). Briefing Notes on Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000
Gender Development - Water and Sanitation. Report. To be effective, facilities must be cor-
Washington, D.C. Available from http:// rectly constructed and properly maintained.
www.worldbank.org/gender/resources/
briefing. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
WORLD BANK (2003). The Living Standards Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability
Measurement Study of the World Bank Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of
(LSMS). Internet site http://www.world- people without sustainable access to safe
bank.org/lsms. Washington, D.C. drinking water and basic sanitation
WORLD BANK (2003). Toolkit on Gender in
Water and Sanitation. Washington, D.C. RATIONALE
Available from http://www.worldbank.org/ Good sanitation is important for urban and rural
gender/resources/sectoraltools.htm. populations, but the risks are greater in urban

66


areas where it is more difficult to avoid con- holds and the guardians of household hygiene.
tact with waste. If a water system breaks down, women are
more likely to be affected than men because
METHOD OF COMPUTATION they have to travel farther for water or use
The indicator is computed as the ratio of the other means to meet the household’s water
number of people in urban or rural areas with and sanitation needs.
access to improved excreta-disposal facilities
to the total urban or rural population, expressed DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
as a percentage. The indicator should be monitored separately
for urban and rural areas. Owing to national
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE differences in characteristics that distinguish
Since the late 1990s, data have routinely been urban from rural areas, the distinction
collected at national and subnational levels in between urban and rural population is not
more than 100 countries using censuses and amenable to a single definition applicable to
surveys by national Governments, often with all countries. National definitions are most
support from international development commonly based on size of locality, with rural
agencies. Two data sources are common: ad- population as the residual of population that
ministrative or infrastructure data that report is not considered urban.
on new and existing facilities, and data from
household surveys including Multiple Indicator COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
Cluster Surveys, Demographic and Health When data are from administrative sources,
Surveys, and LSMS surveys. Before those they generally refer to existing sanitation
population-based data were available, facilities, whether used or not. Household sur-
provider-based data were used. vey data are therefore generally better than
administrative data, since survey data are
Evidence suggests that data from surveys are based on actual use of facilities by the sur-
more reliable than administrative records and veyed population rather than the simple exis-
provide information on facilities actually used tence of the facilities.
by the population.
While access is the most reasonable indicator
Rural and urban population statistics come for sanitation facilities, it still involves severe
directly from population censuses. methodological and practical problems,
including the following:
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT I The data are not routinely collected by “the

Administrative data are often available annu- sector” but by others outside the sector as
ally. Household surveys are generally conducted part of more general surveys
every three to five years. WHO and UNICEF I Facility quality is not systematically
annually compile international data and pre- addressed
pare regional and global estimates based on I The timing of collection and analysis of

household survey data. household survey data is irregular, with
long intervals between surveys
GENDER ISSUES
Women and men usually have different roles The definition of access to improved sanita-
in water and sanitation activities. The differ- tion facilities and methods for assessing it are
ences are particularly pronounced in rural even more contentious than those for water,
areas. Women are most often the users, pro- with national definitions of “acceptable” sani-
viders and managers of water in rural house- tation varying widely.

67


COMPARISONS
32 PROPORTION OF HOUSEHOLDS WITH
ACCESS TO SECURE TENURE
ORC MACRO (2003). Demographic and
Health Surveys – Providing Information for DEFINITION
Informed Decisions in Population, Health The proportion of households with access to
and Nutrition. Internet site http://www. secure tenure is 1 minus the percentage of
measuredhs.com. Calverton, Maryland. the urban population that lives in slums. In the
UNITED NATIONS (1998). Principles and absence of data on number of slum dwellers,
Recommendations for Population and the United Nations Human Settlements
Housing Censuses, Revision 1, Series M, No. Programme (UN-HABITAT) produces estimates
67, Rev. 1. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Available based on a definition of slums as agreed by
from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs (A, the Expert Group Meeting on Urban Indicators
E, F, S). in 2002. Those indicators will be adjusted,
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of and the definitions of secure tenure and
Sustainable Development: Guidelines and slums will be refined through future consulta-
Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6. tions with Expert Group Meeting participants
Available from http://www.un.org/esa/ and their related networks of professionals.
sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators Secure tenure refers to households that own
Database. Statistics Division Internet site or are purchasing their homes, are renting pri-
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. vately or are in social housing or subtenancy.
UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2003). Households without secure tenure are defined
Progress since the World Summit for Children. as squatters (whether or not they pay rent),
New York. Available from http://www. homeless and households with no formal
childinfo.org . agreement.
WORLD BANK (2003) The Living Standards
Measurement Study of the World Bank UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a
(LSMS). Internet site http://www.worldbank. group of individuals living under the same
org/lsms. Washington, D.C. roof who lack one or more (in some cities, two
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION AND UNITED or more) of the following conditions: security
NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (2000). Global of tenure, structural quality and durability of
Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment dwellings, access to safe water, access to
2000 Report. Geneva. Available from sanitation facilities and sufficient living area.
http://www.who.int/docstore/ water_sani-
tation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
htm . Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability
Target 11. By 2020, to have achieved a signifi-
AGENCIES cant improvement in the lives of at least 100
National statistical offices million slum dwellers
United Nations Children’s Fund
World Health Organization RATIONALE
The indicator is intended to provide an
overview of the share of urban population liv-
ing in conditions of poverty and physical and
environmental deprivation.

68


METHOD OF COMPUTATION REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
The indicator is computed as 1 minus the ratio COMPARISONS
of the number of households in urban areas CENTER ON HOUSING RIGHTS AND EVICTIONS
that lack one or more of the above-mentioned (2003). Women and housing rights. In
conditions listed under “Definition”to the num- Housing Rights. Geneva. Available from
ber of urban households, expressed as a per- http://www.cohre.org/hrframe.htm.
centage. UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
Database. Statistics Division Internet site
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
Data come mainly from household surveys UNITED NATIONS. COMMISSION ON HUMAN
such as the Demographic and Health Surveys, RIGHTS. Women’s equal ownership of,
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Joint access to and control over land and the
Monitoring Programme questionnaires. In equal rights to own property and to ade-
countries without such data from surveys, quate housing. Official Records of the
data can be derived from population and Economic and Social Council, Fifty-sixth
housing censuses, which usually include Session Supplemjent No. 3 (E/200/23-
questions about housing tenure. E/CN.4/2000/167), resolution 2000/13.
Geneva. Available from http://www.
UN-HABITAT produces slum population esti- unhabitat.org/programmes/landtenure/
mates based on those national sources for 13.asp.
assessing regional and global trends. UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
(UN-HABITAT) (2002). Expert Group Meeting
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT on Urban Indicators – Secure Tenure, Slums
Household surveys are generally conducted and Global Sample of Cities. Nairobi.
every three to five years. Censuses are con- Available from http://www.unhabitat.org/
ducted every 10 years. programmes/guo/documents/EGM final
report 4 Dec 02.pdf.
GENDER ISSUES UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
For women (more than for men), housing— (UN-HABITAT) (2003). Global Urban
beyond basic shelter—also often functions as Observatory. Internet site http://www.
an important place of employment and social unhabitat.org/programmes/guo. Nairobi.
interaction, and a place to care for children. It UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
may offer respite from social instability and (UN-HABITAT) (2003). Guide to Monitoring
violence. Discriminatory social and economic Target 11: Improving the Lives of 100
practices within and outside the household Million Slum Dwellers–Progress towards the
may result in women being excluded from Millennium Development Goals. Nairobi.
many aspects of housing, including policy Available from http://www.unhabitat.org/
development, control over housing resources, mdg.
rights of inheritance and ownership, commu- UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
nity organizing or the construction of hous- (UN-HABITAT) (2003). The Global
ing. Such exclusion can threaten women’s Campaign for Secure Tenure. Internet site
security of tenure by preventing women from http://www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/
owning, inheriting, leasing, renting or remain- tenure. Nairobi.
ing in housing and on land.
UN-HABITAT produces regional and global
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS estimates of percentage of slum dwellers
Data are not yet generally available. based on national data. Internationally

69


comparable data series at country level Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial
have not yet been produced. Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar,
AGENCY Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, the
United Nations Human Settlements Niger, Rwanda, Saõ Tomé and Principe,
Programme Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, the Sudan,
Togo, Uganda, the United Republic of
Tanzania and Zambia; Asia and the Pacific:
33 NET ODA, TOTAL AND TO THEALEAST
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, AS PER-
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia,
Kiribati, the Lao People’s Democratic
CENTAGE OF OECD/DAC DONORS’ Republic, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Samoa,
GROSS NATIONAL INCOME Solomon Islands, Timor Leste, Tuvalu,
Vanuatu and Yemen; Latin America and the
DEFINITION Caribbean: Haiti.
Official development assistance comprises
grants or loans to developing countries and ter- GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
ritories on the Organisation for Economic Co- Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
operation and Development/Development opment
Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC) list of aid Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based,
recipients that are undertaken by the official predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
sector with promotion of economic develop- financial system. Includes a commitment to
ment and welfare as the main objective and at good governance, development and poverty
concessional financial terms (if a loan, having a reduction—both nationally and internationally
grant element of at least 25 per cent). Technical Target 13. Address the special needs of the
cooperation is included. Grants, loans and cred- least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
its for military purposes are excluded. Also quota-free access for least developed coun-
excluded is aid to more advanced developing tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
and transition countries as determined by DAC. relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
Donors’ gross national income (GNI) at market more generous ODA for countries committed
prices is the sum of gross primary incomes to poverty reduction
receivable by resident institutional units and Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
sectors. GNI at market prices was called gross locked countries and small island developing
national product (GNP) in the 1953 System of States (through the Programme of Action for
National Accounts. In contrast to gross domes- the Sustainable Development of Small Island
tic product (GDP), GNI is a concept of income Developing States and the outcome of the
(primary income) rather than value added. twenty-second special session of the General
Assembly)
The General Assembly, on the recommenda- Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt
tion of the Committee for Development Policy, problems of developing countries through
through the Economic and Social Council, national and international measures in order
decides on the countries to be included in the to make debt sustainable in the long term
list of least developed countries (LDCs). As of
January 2004, the list included the following RATIONALE
countries, by region: Africa: Angola, Benin, Goal 8 addresses the way developed coun-
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central tries can assist developing countries to
African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic achieve the other seven goals through more

70


development assistance, improved access to UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN
markets and debt relief. The International COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND,
Conference on Financing for Development, ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION and
held in Monterrey, Mexico in 2002, stimulated DEVELOPMENT AND WORLD BANK (1994).
commitments from major donors to start to System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA
reverse the decline in official development 1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No.
assistance and focus more on poverty reduc- E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates at
tion, education and health to help countries http://unstats. un.org/unsd/sna1993.
realize the Millennium Development Goals. UNITED NATIONS OFFICE OF THE HIGH
REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE LEAST DEVELOPED
METHOD OF COMPUTATION COUNTRIES, LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
GNI is equal to GDP (which at market prices AND SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES (2003).
represents the final result of the production Internet site http://www.un.org/ohrlls.
activity of resident producer units) less pri-
mary incomes payable to non-resident units AGENCY
plus primary incomes receivable from non- Organisation for Economic Co-operation
resident units. In other words, GNI is equal to and Development, Development Assistance
GDP less taxes (less subsidies) on production Committee
and imports, compensation of employees and
property income payable to the rest of the
world plus the corresponding items receivable
from the rest of the world.
34 PROPORTION OF TOTAL BILATERAL,
SECTOR-ALLOCABLE ODA OF OECD/
DAC DONORS TO BASIC SOCIAL
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE SERVICES (BASIC EDUCATION, PRI-
Data are compiled by the Development MARY HEALTH CARE, NUTRITION,
Assistance Committee of OECD. SAFE WATER AND SANITATION)

PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT DEFINITION
Annual. Official development assistance comprises
grants or loans to developing countries and ter-
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA ritories on the OECD Development Assistance
COMPARISONS Committee list of aid recipients that are under-
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND taken by the official sector with promotion of
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE economic development and welfare as the main
COMMITTEE (2003). Internet site http://www. objective and at concessional financial terms (if
oecd.org/dac . Paris. a loan, having a grant element of at least 25 per
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND cent). Technical cooperation is included. Grants,
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE loans and credits for military purposes are
COMMITTEE (annual). Development Co-opera- excluded. Also excluded is aid to more
tion Report. Paris. advanced developing and transition countries
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND as determined by DAC. Bilateral official develop-
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE ment assistance is from one country to another.
COMMITTEE (annual). International
Development Statistics. CD-ROM. Paris. Basic education comprises primary education,
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators basic life skills for youth and adults and early
Database. Statistics Division Internet site childhood education. Primary health care
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. includes basic health care, basic health infra-

71


structure, basic nutrition, infectious disease DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
control, health education and health person- Compiled by the Development Assistance
nel development. (For safe water and sanita- Committee of the OECD.
tion, see INDICATORS 30 and 31.)
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED Annual.
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
opment COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, Aid to water supply and sanitation is defined
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and as part of basic social services only if poverty
financial system. Includes a commitment to focused.
good governance, development and poverty REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
reduction—both nationally and internationally. COMPARISONS
Target 13. Address the special needs of the ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
least developed countries. Includes: tariff and AND DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
quota-free access for least developed coun- COMMITTEE (2003). Internet site http://www.
tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt oecd.org/dac. Under Topics, select: Aid sta-
relief for heavily indebted poor countries and tistics, Aid effectiveness and donor prac-
cancellation of official bilateral debt; and tices or Millennium Development Goals.
more generous ODA for countries committed Paris.
to poverty reduction ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
Target 14. Address the special needs of land- AND DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
locked countries and small island developing COMMITTEE (annual). Development Co-opera-
States (through the Programme of Action for tion Report. Paris.
the Sustainable Development of Small Island ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
Developing States and the outcome of the AND DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
twenty-second special session of the General COMMITTEE (annual). International Development
Assembly) Statistics CD-ROM. Paris.
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
problems of developing countries through Database. Statistics Division Internet site
national and international measures in order http://millenniumindicators.un.org .
to make debt sustainable in the long term
AGENCY
RATIONALE Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
The World Summit on Social Development at Development/Development Assistance
Copenhagen in 1995 suggested the possibili- Committee
ty of “mutual commitment between interest-
ed developed and developing country part-
ners to allocate, on average, 20 per cent of
ODA and 20 per cent of the national budget,
35 PROPORTION OF BILATERAL UNTIED
OECD/DAC DONORS THAT IS
ODA OF

respectively, to basic social programmes”.
These programmes comprise basic education, DEFINITION
basic health, population and reproductive Official development assistance (ODA) com-
health programmes, and poverty-focused prises grants or loans to developing countries
water and sanitation projects. and territories on the OECD Development
Assistance Committee list of aid recipients
that are undertaken by the official sector with

72


promotion of economic development and wel- effectiveness. Recognizing this, OECD/DAC
fare as the main objective and at concession- member countries have raised the share of
al financial terms (if a loan, having a grant ele- their aid that is untied. The share of untied aid
ment of at least 25 per cent). Technical coop- to the least developed countries has risen rel-
eration is included. Grants, loans and credits atively slowly, but the situation is likely to
for military purposes are excluded. Also improve with the implementation of the new
excluded is aid to more advanced developing DAC Recommendation on Untying Official
and transition countries as determined by the Development Assistance to the Least
Committee. Bilateral official development Developed Countries.
assistance is from one country to another.
Untied bilateral official development assis- DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
tance is assistance from country to country Data are compiled by the Development
for which the associated goods and services Assistance Committee of OECD.
may be fully and freely procured in substan-
tially all countries. PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Annual.
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
opment COMPARISONS
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
financial system. Includes a commitment to (2003). Internet site http://www.oecd.org/
good governance, development and poverty dac . Under Topics, select: Aid statistics, Aid
reduction—both nationally and internationally effectiveness and donor practices or
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Millennium Development Goals. Paris.
least developed countries. Includes: tariff and ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
quota-free access for least developed coun- DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt (annual). Development Co-operation
relief for heavily indebted poor countries and Report. Paris.
cancellation of official bilateral debt; and ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
more generous ODA for countries committed DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
to poverty reduction (annual). International Development
Target 14. Address the special needs of land- Statistics. CD-ROM. Paris.
locked countries and small island developing UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
States (through the Programme of Action for Database. Statistics Division Internet site
the Sustainable Development of Small Island http://millenniumindicators.un.org .
Developing States and the outcome of the UNITED NATIONS. OFFICE OF THE HIGH
twenty-second special session of the General REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE LEAST DEVELOPED
Assembly) COUNTRIES, LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt AND SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES (2003).
problems of developing countries through Internet site http://www.un.org/ohrlls .
national and international measures in order
to make debt sustainable in the long term AGENCY
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
RATIONALE Development, Development Assistance
Tying procurement from aid contracts to sup- Committee
pliers in the donor country reduces its cost-

73


36 ODA RECEIVED PROPORTION OF
COUNTRIES AS
IN LANDLOCKED predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
financial system. Includes a commitment to
THEIR GROSS NATIONAL INCOMES good governance, development and poverty
reduction—both nationally and internationally
DEFINITION Target 13:. Address the special needs of the
Official development assistance comprises least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
grants or loans to developing countries and quota-free access for least developed coun-
territories on the OECD Development tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
Assistance Committee list of aid recipients relief for HIPCs and cancellation of official
that are undertaken by the official sector with bilateral debt; and more generous ODA for
promotion of economic development and wel- countries committed to poverty reduction
fare as the main objective and at concession- Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
al financial terms (if a loan, having a grant ele- locked countries and small island developing
ment of at least 25 per cent). Technical coop- States (through the Programme of Action for
eration is included. Grants, loans and credits for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
military purposes are excluded. Also excluded Developing States and the outcome of the
is aid to more advanced developing and tran- twenty-second special session of the General
sition countries as determined by DAC. Assembly)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt
Recipient countries’ gross national income problems of developing countries through
(GNI) at market prices is the sum of gross pri- national and international measures in order
mary incomes receivable by resident institu- to make debt sustainable in the long term
tional units and sectors. GNI at market prices
was called gross national product (GNP) in the RATIONALE
1953 System of National Accounts. In con- The indicator addresses the special needs of
trast to gross domestic product (GDP), GNI is landlocked countries to achieve their develop-
a concept of income (primary income) rather ment goals.
than value added.
The land-locked developing countries are, by Data are compiled by the Development
region: Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Assistance Committee of the Organisation for
Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, Economic Co-operation and Development
Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger,
Rwanda, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Zimbabwe; Asia and the Pacific: Afghanistan, Annual.
Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and COMPARISONS
Uzbekistan; Europe: The former Yugoslav ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
Republic of Macedonia and the Republic of DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
Moldova (expected from 2003); Latin America (2003). Internet site http://www.oecd.
and the Caribbean: Bolivia and Paraguay. org/dac. Under Topics, select: Aid statis-
tics, Aid effectiveness and donor practices
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED or Millennium Development Goals. Paris.
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
opment DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, (annual). Development Co-operation Report.

74


Paris.
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND Recipient countries’ gross national income at
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE market prices is the sum of gross primary
(annual). International Development incomes receivable by resident institutional
Statistics. CD-ROM. Paris. units and sectors. GNI at market prices was
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators called gross national product in the 1953
Database. Statistics Division Internet site System of National Accounts. In con-
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. trast to gross domestic product, GNI is a con-
UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN cept of income (primary income) rather than
COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, value added.
DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994). The small island developing States are by
System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA region: Africa: Cape Verde, Comoros, Guinea-
1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No. Bissau, Mauritius, Saõ Tomé and Principe, and
E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates at Seychelles; Asia and the Pacific: Bahrain, Cook
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993. Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall
UNITED NATIONS. OFFICE OF THE HIGH Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of),
REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE LEAST DEVELOPED Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
COUNTRIES, LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Timor
AND SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES (2003). Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu;
Internet site http://www.un.org/ohrlls. Europe: Cyprus and Malta; Latin America and
the Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba,
AGENCY the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cuba,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Grenada,
Development/Development Assistance Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Netherlands Antilles,
Committee. St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and
the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and
Tobago, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
37 ODA RECEIVED IN SMALL ISLAND
DEVELOPING STATES AS PROPOR- GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
TION OF THEIR GROSS NATIONAL Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
INCOMES opment
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based,
DEFINITION predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
Official development assistance comprises financial system. Includes a commitment to
grants or loans to developing countries and good governance, development and poverty
territories on the OECD Development reduction—both nationally and internationally
Assistance Committee list of aid recipients Target 13. Address the special needs of the
that are undertaken by the official sector with least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
promotion of economic development and wel- quota-free access for least developed coun-
fare as the main objective and at concession- tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
al financial terms (if a loan, having a grant ele- relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
ment of at least 25 per cent). Technical coop- cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
eration is included. Grants, loans and credits for more generous ODA for countries committed
military purposes are excluded. Also excluded to poverty reduction
is aid to more advanced developing and tran- Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
sition countries as determined by DAC. locked countries and small island developing

75


States (through the Programme of Action for ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
the Sustainable Development of Small Island DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994).
Developing States and the outcome of the System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA
twenty-second special session of the General 1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No.
Assembly) E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates from
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt http://unstats.un.org/ unsd/sna1993.
problems of developing countries through UNITED NATIONS. OFFICE OF THE HIGH
national and international measures in order REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE LEAST DEVELOPED
to make debt sustainable in the long term COUNTRIES, LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
AND SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES (2003).
RATIONALE Internet site http://www.un.org/ohrlls.
The indicator addresses the special needs of
small island developing States. That group of AGENCY
countries has very diverse incomes per capita, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
ranging from the least developed countries to Development/Development Assistance
high-income countries. The least developed Committee
countries need continued aid, which should
be monitored closely.

38 PROPORTION OF TOTAL DEVELOPED
COUNTRY IMPORTS (BY VALUE AND
Data are compiled by the Development EXCLUDING ARMS) FROM DEVEL-
Assistance Committee of OECD. OPING COUNTRIES AND FROM THE
LEASE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES,
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT ADMITTED FREE OF DUTY
Annual.
DEFINITION
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Imports and imported value of goods (mer-
COMPARISONS chandise) are goods that add to the stock of
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND material resources of a country by entering
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE its economic territory. Goods simply being
(2003). Internet site http://www.oecd.org/ transported through a country (goods in tran-
dac. Under Topics, select: Aid statistics, Aid sit) or temporarily admitted (except for goods
effectiveness and donor practices or for inward processing) do not add to the stock
Millennium Development Goals. Paris. of material resources of a country and are not
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND included in international merchandise trade
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE statistics. In many cases, a country’s econom-
(annual). Development Co-operation Report. ic territory largely coincides with its customs
Paris. territory, which is the territory in which the
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND customs laws of a country apply in full.
DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
(annual). International Development Statistics. Goods admitted free of duties are exports of
CD-ROM. Paris. goods (excluding arms) received from devel-
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators oping countries and admitted without tariffs
Database. Statistics Division Internet site to developed countries.
UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN There is no established convention for the
COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, designation of developed and developing

76


countries or areas in the United Nations system. least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
In common practice, Japan in Asia, Canada quota-free access for least developed coun-
and the United States in North America, tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
Australia and New Zealand in Oceania and relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
Europe are considered “developed” regions or cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
areas. In international trade statistics, the more generous ODA for countries committed
Southern African Customs Union is also treat- to poverty reduction
ed as a developed region, and Israel is treated Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
as a developed country; countries emerging locked countries and small island developing
from the former Yugoslavia are treated as States (through the Programme of Action for
developing countries; and countries of east- the Sustainable Development of Small Island
ern Europe and European countries of the for- Developing States and the outcome of the
mer Soviet Union are not included under twenty-second special session of the General
either developed or developing regions. Assembly)
The General Assembly, on the recommenda- problems of developing countries through
tion of the Committee for Development Policy, national and international measures in order
through the Economic and Social Council to make debt sustainable in the long term
decides on the countries to be included in the
list of least developed countries (LDCs). As of RATIONALE
January 2004, the list included the following The indicator monitors the international effort
countries, by region: Africa: Angola, Benin, made to remove barriers to trade for develop-
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, the ing countries, to encourage the achievement
Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, the of the Millennium Development Goals. Poor
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, people in developing countries work primarily
Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the in agriculture and labour-intensive manufac-
Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, turing, sectors that confront the greatest
Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, trade barriers. Removing barriers to merchan-
Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Saõ Tomé and dise trade, therefore, could increase growth in
Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, the those countries by a significant amount.
Sudan, Togo, Uganda, the United Republic of
Tanzania and Zambia; Asia and the Pacific: METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, To value their exports, countries can choose
Kiribati, the Lao People’s Democratic free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, which include
Republic., Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Samoa, only the transaction value of the goods and
Solomon Islands, Timor Leste, Tuvalu, the value of services performed to deliver
Vanuatu and Yemen; Latin America and the goods to the border of the exporting country,
Caribbean: Haiti. or cost, insurance and freight (c.i.f.) values,
which add to this the value of the services
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED performed to deliver the goods from the bor-
Goal 8:. Develop a global partnership for devel- der of the exporting country to the border of
opment the importing country. It is recommended that
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, imported goods be valued at c.i.f. prices for
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and statistical purposes. Specific duties—not
financial system. Includes a commitment to good expressed as a proportion of the declared
governance, development and poverty reduc- value—may or may not be included in calcu-
tion—both nationally and internationally lations of goods admitted free of duties.
Target 13. Address the special needs of the

77


The indicator is calculated by the United Nations AGENCY
Conference on Trade and Development in col- World Trade Organization.
laboration with the World Bank and the World
Trade Organization, from the Trade Analysis
39 AVERAGE TARIFFS IMPOSED BY
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ON AGRI-
and Information System (TRAINS) CD-ROM, CULTURAL PRODUCTS AND CLOTH-
version 8 (2002). ING FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS DEFINITION
Indicator data available only at the world level. Average tariffs are the simple average of all
applied ad valorem tariffs (tariffs based on
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA the value of the import) applicable to the
COMPARISONS bilateral imports of developed countries. Agri-
UNITED NATIONS (1998). International cultural products comprise plant and animal
Merchandise Trade Statistics – Concepts products, including tree crops but excluding
and Definitions, Series M, No. 52, Rev. 2. timber and fish products. Clothing and textiles
Sales No. E.98.XVII.16. Available from include natural and synthetic fibers and fabrics
http:// unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs (A, C, E, and articles of clothing made from them.
F, R, S).
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
Database. Statistics Division Internet site Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. opment
UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based,
COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND financial system. Includes a commitment to
DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994). good governance, development and poverty
System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA reduction—both nationally and internationally
1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No. Target 13. Address the special needs of the
E.94.XVII.4, para. 7.66 for import duties. least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
Available with updates at http://unstats. quota-free access for least developed coun-
un.org/unsd/sna 1993. tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
DEVELOPMENT (2003). Trade Analysis and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
Information System (TRAINS). Internet site more generous ODA for countries committed
http://r0.unctad.org/trains. Geneva. to poverty reduction
UNITED NATIONS. OFFICE OF THE HIGH Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE LEAST DEVELOPED locked countries and small island developing
COUNTRIES, LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES States (through the Programme of Action for
AND SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES (2003). the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Internet site http://www.un.org/ohrlls. Developing States and the outcome of the
WORLD CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION (1996). twenty-second special session of the General
Harmonized Commodity Description and Assembly)
Coding Systems, Second Edition (HS). Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt
Brussels. English, French. problems of developing countries through
Data discrepancies across countries limit to make debt sustainable in the long term
international comparison.

78


RATIONALE www.oecd.org. Agricultural Market Access
The indicator monitors the international Database, http://www.amad.org.
effort made to remove barriers to trade for
developing countries in order to encourage the
achievement of the Millennium Development COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
Goals. Poor people in developing countries work There are two types of average tariffs—sim-
primarily in agriculture and labour-intensive ple average tariffs, which are used for goals
manufacturing, sectors that confront the monitoring, and the weighted average. Simple
greatest trade barriers. Removing barriers to averages are frequently a better indicator of
merchandise trade, therefore, could increase tariff protection than weighted averages,
growth in those countries by a significant which, because higher tariffs discourage
amount. trade and reduce the weights applied to them,
are biased downward .
To calculate average tariffs, each Harmonized REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
System six-digit bilateral trade flow is given COMPARISONS
the same weight. The results for each developed UNITED NATIONS (1998). International
country are then aggregated using the stan- Merchandise Trade Statistics – Concepts and
dard import pattern as the weighting scheme Definitions, Series M, No. 52, Rev. 2. Sales
for all importers. The standard weighting No. E.98.XVII.16. Available from http://
scheme would be the average import structure unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs (A, C, E, F, R, S).
of all developed markets for imports from the UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
least developed countries and from developing Database. Statistics Division Internet site
countries. The tariff rates used are the avail- http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
able ad valorem rates, including most- WORLD CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION (1996).
favoured nation and non-most-favoured- Harmonized Commodity Description and
nation (largely preferential) rates. As it is not Coding System (HS), Second Edition.
possible to convert non-ad valorem rates to Brussels. English, French.
ad valorem equivalents, all tariff lines with
non-ad valorem rates are excluded from the Data discrepancies across countries limit
calculation. This affects, in particular, agricul- international comparison.
tural products, where almost 25 per cent of
the Harmonized System six-digit product cat- AGENCY
egories contain at least one non-ad valorem World Trade Organization
tariff line. Therefore, the agricultural part of
the indicator is excluded from the initial data
set until an appropriate methodology for treat-
ing non-ad valorem tariffs is developed.
40 AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT ESTIMATE
FOR OECD COUNTRIES AS A PER-
CENTAGE OF THEIR GROSS DOMES-
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE TIC PRODUCT
The indicator is calculated by the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development and DEFINITION
the World Trade Organization in consultation Agricultural support is the annual monetary
with the World Bank from the Trade Analysis value of all gross transfers from taxpayers and
and Information System (TRAINS) CD-ROM, consumers, both domestic and foreign (in the
version 8 (2002). Organisation for Economic form of subsidies arising from policy measures
Co-operation and Development database, that support agriculture), net of the associated

79


budgetary receipts, regardless of their objec- tively address both domestic and international
tives and impacts on farm production and goals while ensuring well-functioning markets.
income, or consumption of farm products.

For agricultural products, the total support METHOD OF COMPUTATION
estimate represents the overall taxpayer and The agricultural total support estimate
consumer costs of agricultural policies. When includes support to individual farmers from
expressed as a percentage of GDP, the total trade barriers that keep domestic farm prices
support estimate is an indicator of the cost to above those on world markets, budget-financed
the economy as a whole. payments, input subsidies, consumer food
subsidies and support to general services pro-
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED vided to the agricultural sector as a whole.
opment PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, Annual.
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
financial system. Includes a commitment to COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
good governance, development and poverty Differences across countries in total support
reduction—both nationally and internationally estimates as a percentage of GDP reflect the
Target 13. Address the special needs of the level of support and the share of agricultural
least developed countries. Includes: tariff and output in the economy. Changes over time
quota-free access for least developed coun- reflect changes in the level of support and in
tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt the share of agriculture in GDP, as well as the
relief for heavily indebted poor countries and growth of the economy.
cancellation of official bilateral debt; and REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
more generous ODA for countries committed COMPARISONS
to poverty reduction ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
Target 14. Address the special needs of land- DEVELOPMENT (2003). Producer and Consumer
locked countries and small island developing Support Estimates, OECD Database 1986-
States (through the Programme of Action for 2002, User’s Guide. Paris. Available from
the Sustainable Development of Small Island http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/47/20/43
Developing States and the outcome of the 51287.pdf.
twenty-second special session of the General ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
Assembly) DEVELOPMENT (2003). Producer and Consumer
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt Support Estimates, OECD Database 1986-
problems of developing countries through 2002. Internet site http://www.oecd.org,
national and international measures in order Select Statistics/Agriculture and Fisheries.
to make debt sustainable in the long term Paris.
RATIONALE DEVELOPMENT (annual). Agricultural Policies
In penetrating foreign markets, developing in OECD Countries, Monitoring and
countries face not only tariffs but also competi- Evaluation. Paris.
tion from products in developed countries that UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
benefit from government subsidies. The chal- Database. Statistics Division Internet site
lenge linked to the Doha Development Agenda is http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
to further reduce production and trade-distort- UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN
ing support and implement policies that effec- COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND,

80


ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND Those activities are further classified by the
DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994). First Joint WTO/OECD Report on Trade-Related
System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA Technical Assistance and Capacity-Building
1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No. (2002) under two main categories, trade pol-
E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates from icy and regulations (divided into nineteen
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993. subcategories) and trade development (divid-
ed into six subcategories).
AGENCY
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
Development Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
opment
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based,
41 PROPORTION OF ODA PROVIDED TO
HELP BUILD TRADE CAPACITY
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
good governance, development and poverty
DEFINITION reduction—both nationally and internationally
Official development assistance comprises Target 13. Address the special needs of the
grants or loans to developing countries and least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
territories on the OECD Development quota-free access for least developed coun-
Assistance Committee list of aid recipients tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
that are undertaken by the official sector with relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
promotion of economic development and wel- cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
fare as the main objective and at concession- more generous ODA for countries committed
al financial terms (if a loan, having a grant ele- to poverty reduction
ment of at least 25 per cent). Technical coop- Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
eration is included. Grants, loans and credits locked countries and small island developing
for military purposes are excluded. Also States (through the Programme of Action for
excluded is aid to more advanced developing the Sustainable Development of Small Island
and transition countries as determined by Developing States and the outcome of the
DAC. twenty-second special session of the General
Assembly)
Activities to help build trade capacity enhance Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt
the ability of the recipient country problems of developing countries through
I To formulate and implement a trade devel- national and international measures in order
opment strategy and create an enabling to make debt sustainable in the long term
environment for increasing the volume and
value-added of exports, diversifying export RATIONALE
products and markets and increasing for- At the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the
eign investment to generate jobs and trade World Trade Organization, held in Doha in
I To stimulate trade by domestic firms and 2001, donors committed to providing
encourage investment in trade-oriented increased support to help developing coun-
industries tries, especially the least developed coun-
I To participate in the benefit from the insti- tries, build the capacity to trade and to inte-
tutions, negotiations and processes that grate into world markets.
shape national trade policy and the rules
and practices of international commerce Data collected for the indicator will help mon-
itor the following aspects of trade-related

81


official development assistance: There are also differences in the methodology
I Transparency of trade-related technical used for reporting trade development activi-
assistance delivered ties among donors who replied to the requests
I Sharing of information for information. A number of donors isolated
I Minimization and avoidance of duplication the trade components of each activity, whereas
I Estimation of progress in the implementa- others reported the whole activity as trade
tion of the Doha mandates on technical related. The total amounts of trade-related
cooperation and capacity-building technical assistance and capacity building per
I Coordination and coherence donor in this category should therefore be
I Achievement of the objectives mandated in interpreted with caution.
paragraph 41 of the Ministerial Declaration
adopted by the Conference at Doha The joint report also highlights the need to
refine the activity categories to better identi-
METHOD OF COMPUTATION fy general trade development activities, such
See “Comments and limitations”. as trade fairs, trade information, publications
or general export training. At present, most of
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE those activities appear under “business sup-
The World Trade Organization and the OECD port services and institutions”.
have compiled the Doha Development Agenda
Trade Capacity-Building Database (TCBDB) These issues are being addressed in the first
that lists and quantify activities by bilateral update to the data, with results online by
and multilateral donors from 2001 onwards. August 2003.
The database lists both the number and the
value of activities. REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
Data are reported from bilateral donors and COMPARISONS
multilateral and regional agencies that replied ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
to the requests for information sent in May DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
2002 and April 2003 by the director-general of (2003). Internet site http://www.oecd.org/dac.
the World Trade Organization and the secretary- Under topics, select: Aid statistics, Aid
general of the Organisation for Economic Co- effectiveness and donor practices or
operation and Development. Millennium Development Goals. Paris.
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
Donors differ in defining what constitutes a (annual). Development Co-operation
single “activity”. Some donors split individual Report. Paris.
activities into components in order to obtain ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND
detailed data on aid allocated to each subcat- DEVELOPMENT. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE
egory. Others classify the whole activity under (annual). International Development
the most relevant subcategory. For some Statistics CD-ROM. Paris.
donors, the number of records in the database WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION AND ORGANISATION
is larger than the actual number of activities. FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
In the Joint Report by the World Trade (2003 and annual). Joint WTO/OECD Report
Organization and the Organisation for on Trade-Related Technical Assistance and
Economic Co-operation and Development, the Capacity-Building, Management of Trade
data are based on the actual number of activ- Capacity-Building. Paris and Geneva.
ities. Available from http://tcbdb.wto.org/stat-
analysis.asp.

82


relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
AGENCIES cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and more generous ODA for countries committed
Development to poverty reduction
World Trade Organization Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
locked countries and small island developing
States (through the Programme of Action for
42 TOTAL REACHEDOF COUNTRIESDECI-
HAVE
NUMBER
THEIR HIPC
THAT the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States and the outcome of the
SION POINTS AND NUMBER THAT twenty-second special session of the General
HAVE REACHED THEIR HIPC COM- Assembly)
PLETION POINTS (CUMULATIVE) Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt
problems of developing countries through
DEFINITION national and international measures in order
The HIPC decision point is the date at which a to make debt sustainable in the long term
heavily indebted poor country with an estab-
lished track record of good performance RATIONALE
under adjustment programmes supported by A global partnership for development requires
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and increased debt reduction for heavily indebted
the World Bank commits to undertake addi- poor countries. The indicator will monitor the
tional reforms and to develop and implement Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, a
a poverty reduction strategy. major international effort targeted specifical-
ly at improving developing countries’ debt
The HIPC completion point is the date at which sustainability. Launched in 1996 and enhanced
the country successfully completes the key in 1999 to broaden and accelerate debt relief,
structural reforms agreed at the decision the HIPC Initiative marked the first time that
point, including the development and imple- multilateral, official bilateral and commercial
mentation of its poverty reduction strategy. creditors united in a joint effort to reduce the
The country then receives the bulk of debt external debt of the world’s most debt-laden
relief under the HIPC Initiative without any poor countries to sustainable levels.
further policy conditions.
See “Definition”.
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
opment Information is compiled by the IMF and World
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, Bank from their HIPC decision and completion
predictable, non-discriminatory trading and point documents (see “References”).
good governance, development and poverty PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
reduction—both nationally and international- Twice a year.
ly
Target 13. Address the special needs of the COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
least developed countries. Includes: tariff and The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
quota-free access for least developed coun- was launched in 1996. The earliest available
tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt data are for 2000 and the most recent avail-

83


able data are for 2002. predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA good governance, development and poverty
COMPARISONS reduction—both nationally and internationally
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (2003). Debt Target 13. Address the special needs of the
Relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
Countries (HIPC) Initiative. Internet site quota-free access for least developed coun-
http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
/hipc.htm. Washington, D.C. relief for heavily indebted poor countries and
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators cancellation of official bilateral debt; and
Database. Statistics Division Internet site more generous ODA for countries committed
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. to poverty reduction
Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
World Bank, www.worldbank.org/hipc. locked countries and small island developing
States (through the Programme of Action for
AGENCIES the Sustainable Development of Small Island
International Monetary Fund Developing States and the outcome of the
World Bank twenty-second special session of the General
Assembly)
43 DEBT INITIATIVE
HIPC
RELIEF COMMITTED UNDER problems of developing countries through
DEFINITION
Debt relief committed under HIPC Initiative (in RATIONALE
United States dollars) as a component of offi- A global partnership for development requires
cial development assistance has been record- increased debt reduction for heavily indebted
ed in different ways over time. Up through poor countries. The indicator will monitor the
1992, forgiveness of non-official develop- Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, a
ment assistance debt that met the tests of major international effort targeted specifically
official development assistance was at improving developing countries’ debt sus-
reportable as ODA. During 1990–1992 it tainability. Launched in 1996 and enhanced in
remained reportable as part of a country’s 1999 to broaden and accelerate debt relief,
ODA, but was excluded from the Development the HIPC Initiative marked the first time that
Assistance Committee total. Since 1993, for- multilateral, official bilateral and commercial
giveness of debt originally intended for mili- creditors united in a joint effort to reduce the
tary purposes has been reportable as “other external debt of the world’s most debt-laden
official flows”, while forgiveness of other non- poor countries to sustainable levels.
ODA loans (mainly export credits) recorded as
ODA has been included in both country data METHOD OF COMPUTATION
and total Committee ODA, as it was until See “Definition” and The DAC Journal:
1989. Development Cooperation Report and the
OECD/DAC International Development
GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED Statistics CD-ROM for notes on definitions.
opment DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, Information is compiled by the International

84


Monetary Fund and the World Bank from their exporting country are included in exports of
HIPC decision and completion point docu- goods. Other transactions involving a mixture of
ments (see “References”). goods and services, such as expenditures by
foreign travellers in the domestic market, may
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT all have to be recorded under services in the rest
Annual. of the world account. Export receipts along with
worker remittances received from abroad pro-
DISAGGREGATION ISSUES vide the foreign exchange proceeds for meeting
Figures are available by country. external debt service obligations.
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA GOAL AND TARGETS ADDRESSED
COMPARISONS Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel-
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (2003). Debt opment
Relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based,
Countries (HIPC) Initiative. Internet site predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts financial system. Includes a commitment to
/hipc.htm. Washington, D.C. good governance, development and poverty
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators reduction—both nationally and internationally
Database. Statistics Division Internet site Target 13. Address the special needs of the
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. least developed countries. Includes: tariff and
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World quota-free access for least developed coun-
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. tries’ exports; enhanced programme of debt
Washington, D.C. Available in part from relief for HIPCs and cancellation of official
http://www.worldbank.org/data. bilateral debt; and more generous ODA for
WORLD BANK (2003). Debt Initiative for the countries committed to poverty reduction
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs). Target 14. Address the special needs of land-
Internet site http://www.worldbank.org/hipc. locked countries and small island developing
Washington, D.C. States (through the Programme of Action for the
AGENCIES Sustainable Development of Small Island Dev-
International Monetary Fund eloping States and the outcome of the twenty-
World Bank second special session of the General Assembly)
problems of developing countries through
44 DEBT SERVICE AS A PERCENTAGE OF
EXPORTS OF GOODS AND SERVICES

DEFINITION RATIONALE
External debt service refers to principal repay- The targets on debt relief also address the
ments and interest payments made to non- need to make debt sustainable in the long
residents in foreign currency, goods or services. term. The indicator is one measure of whether
Long-term refers to debt that has an original debt levels are sustainable.
or extended maturity of more than one year.
Exports of goods and services comprise sales, The indicator is calculated as the ratio of
barter or gifts or grants of goods and services external debt service to exports of goods and
from residents to non-residents. Where exports services, expressed as a percentage.
of goods are valued f.o.b., the costs of trans-
portation and insurance up to the border of the DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE

85


The World Bank collects data on indicators Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs).
of finance, published annually in Global Internet site http://www.worldbank.org/hipc.
Development Finance. Washington, D.C.
WORLD BANK (annual). Global Development
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT Finance, vol. 2, Country Tables.
Annual. Washington, D.C.

COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS AGENCIES
Small, open economies may have relatively International Monetary Fund
high levels of exports (and imports) and yet may World Bank
face problems in meeting debt service obliga-
tions, particularly when debt service payments
due on public debt are high relative to gov-
ernment revenue. A large economy may have
45 UNEMPLOYMENT RATE OF YOUNG
PEOPLE AGED 15–24 YEARS, EACH
proportionately smaller exports and still find its SEX AND TOTAL
dept payments sustainable. For this reason, it
is useful to look at other indicators, such as the DEFINITION
ratio of total debt to gross national income, the Unemployment rate of young people aged
size of international reserves relative to total 15–24 years is the number of unemployed
debt and debt maturing within a year’s time, people ages 15–24 divided by the labour
in forming a picture of debt sustainability. force of the same age group. Unemployed
people are all those who are not employed
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA during a specified reference period but are
COMPARISONS available for work and have taken concrete
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (2003). Debt steps to seek paid employment or self-
Relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor employment. In situations where the conven-
Countries (HIPC) Initiative. Internet site tional means of seeking work are of limited
http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts relevance, where the labour market is largely
/hipc.htm. Washington, D.C. unorganized or of limited scope, where labour
UNITED NATIONS (1998). International absorption is temporarily inadequate or
Merchandise Trade Statistics – Concepts and where the labour force is largely self-
Definitions, Series M, No. 52, Rev. 2. Sales employed, a relaxed definition of unemploy-
No.E.98.XVII.16. Available from ment can be applied, based on only the first
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/pubs (A, C, E, F, R, two criteria (without work and currently avail-
S). able for work).
Database. Statistics Division Internet site The labour force consists of those who are
http://millenniumindicators.un.org. employed plus those who are unemployed
UNITED NATIONS, COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN during the relevant reference period. It is the
COMMUNITIES, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, economically active portion of the population.
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND Employment refers to being engaged in an
DEVELOPMENT and WORLD BANK (1994). economic activity during a specified reference
System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA period or being temporarily absent from such
1993), Series F, No.2, Rev. 4. Sales No. an activity, while economic activity refers to
E.94.XVII.4. Available with updates from the production of goods and services for pay
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993. or profit or for use by own household.
WORLD BANK (2003). Debt Initiative for the

86


GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED tence work and, more often than men, work in
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- the informal sector. In those settings, women
opment are seldom employed, although they may
Target 16. In cooperation with developing often be underemployed. Furthermore,
countries, develop and implement strategies women may not have easy access to formal
for decent and productive work for youth channels for seeking employment, particularly
in rural areas, and often face social and cul-
RATIONALE tural barriers when looking for a job. Thus
The indicator monitors the degree to which official labour statistics may undercount
the youth labour force is utilized in the econ- women’s unemployment (unless the relaxed
omy and therefore serves as a measure of the definition of unemployment is used and ade-
success of strategies to create jobs for youth. quate criteria are adopted in data collection).

METHOD OF COMPUTATION DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
The number of people aged 15–24 years who In most countries, data are available sepa-
are unemployed is divided by the number of rately for men and women.
people in the labour force of the same age
group. INTERNATIONAL DATA COMPILATIONS
ILO compiles internationally comparable data
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE series on unemployment and youth unem-
Country data are available from labour force ployment.
surveys, administrative records, official national
estimates and population censuses. Labour Bulletin of Labour Statistics, 2002–4.
force surveys generally provide the most com- International Labour Organization. Geneva.
prehensive and comparable source of infor- Key Indicators of the Labour Market (annu-
mation. Concepts and definitions adopted for al). International Labour Organization.
data collection in labour force surveys also Available in part from
generally conform to International Labour http://www.ilo.org/kilm.
Organization (ILO) resolutions and recom-
mendations, such as the International COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
Conference of Labour Statisticians resolution The concepts of employment and unemploy-
on international standards for unemployment ment have different relevance depending on
and youth unemployment. the level of labour market development and
the presence of a market economy. People
PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT living in regions of a country where there is lit-
Results from population censuses are normally tle or no formal employment would not usual-
available every 10 years. Labour force surveys ly be classified as “unemployed” even if they
may be available annually or even more fre- are without work and would accept a job if
quently in OECD countries and generally every offered one (discouraged workers).
three to five years in developing countries
Unemployment is but one dimension of the
GENDER ISSUES employment problem faced by young people.
Female unemployment rates are often signifi- A disproportionately large number of youth in
cantly higher than male unemployment rates. many countries are underemployed. Some work
However, unemployment data do not ade- fewer hours than they would like to, and others
quately reflect the situation of women in the work long hours with little economic gain.
labour market, especially in developing coun- Stagnation and decline of employment oppor-
tries where women are engaged in subsis- tunities in the formal sector of most developing

87


countries have intensified the problem in Employment/ Statistics/Indicators.
recent years, with young women bearing a dis- UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
proportionate share of the burden. Therefore, Database. Statistics Division Internet site
indicators measuring underemployment, the http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
informal sector, educational access and labour UNITED NATIONS, AND INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
force participation, among others, should ORGANIZATION BUREAU OF STATISTICS (2002).
supplement the information obtained from Collection of Economic Characteristics in
the youth unemployment indicator. Population Censuses. Technical report.
ST/ESA/STAT/119.
Limitations to comparability arise from vari- WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World
ous causes, including different sources, Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
measurement methodologies, number of Washington, D.C. Available in part from
observations per year and coverage. http://www.worldbank.org/data.
Comparability may also be limited by concep-
tual variations, involving issues such as the AGENCIES
definition of job search or whether to include Ministries of labour
discouraged workers who are not currently National statistical offices
looking for work. International Labour Organization

COMPARISONS
Surveys of Economically Active Population,
Employment, Unemployment and Under-
employment: An ILO Manual on Concepts
and Methods. Geneva.
Current International Recommendations on
Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva.
Laborsta—an International Labour Office
database on labour statistics operated by
the ILO Bureau of Statistics. Internet site
http://laborsta.ilo.org . Geneva.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual).
Key Indicators of the Labour Market.
Geneva. Available in part from http://www.
ilo.org/kilm.
Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Tables 3A-
3E. Geneva. Available from http://laborsta.
ilo.org.
DEVELOPMENT (2003). Standardized Un-
employment rates for OECD countries. In
Main Economic Indicators. Paris. Available
from http://www.oecd.org. Select:

88


46 PROPORTION OF POPULATION WITH
ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE, ESSENTIAL DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
DRUGS ON A SUSTAINABLE BASIS The Action Programme on Essential Drugs of
the World Health Organization periodically
DEFINITION interviews experts in each country about the
The proportion of population with access to pharmaceutical situation, asking them to rate
affordable essential drugs on a sustainable access by the population to essential drugs at
basis is the percentage of the population that less than 50 per cent, 50–80 per cent, 80–95
has access to a minimum of 20 most essential per cent or more than 95 per cent (WHO
drugs. Access is defined as having drugs con- Expert Committee on Essential Drugs,
tinuously available and affordable at public or November 1999).
private health facilities or drug outlets that
are within one hour’s walk of the population. PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Essential drugs are drugs that satisfy the National data series are currently available for
health care needs of the majority of the pop- 1995 and 1997. Regional aggregates are cur-
ulation. The World Health Organization has rently available for 1987 and 1999.
developed the Model List of Essential Drugs,
which is regularly updated through widespread REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
consultations with member States and other COMPARISONS
partners. Progress in access to essential med- UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
icines is thus the result of combined effort by Database. Statistics Division Internet site
governments, strategic partners such as United http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
Nations agencies, public-private partnerships, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1997). The
non-governmental organizations and profes- WHO Model List of Essential Medicines- The
sional associations (WHO Expert Committee 13th Model List of Essential Medicines.
on Essential Drugs, November 1999). Geneva. Available from http://www.who.
int/medicines.
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1998).
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- Progress of WHO Member States in
opment Developing National Drug Policies and in
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical Revising Essential Drugs Lists. WHO/DAP/
companies, provide access to affordable, 98.7. Geneva. Available from http://www.
essential drugs in developing countries who.int/medicines.

RATIONALE WHO produces country data series and
Millions of people die prematurely or suffer regional aggregates.
unnecessarily each year from diseases or
conditions for which effective medicines or AGENCIES
vaccines exist. Essential drugs save lives and Ministries of health
improve health, but their potential can only be World Health Organization
realized if they are accessible, rationally used
and of good quality.

The World Health Organization regularly
monitors access to a minimum of 20 most
essential drugs.

89


47 TELEPHONE LINES100 POPULATION
SUBSCRIBERS PER
AND CELLULAR METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Total telephone lines (see “DEFINITION”) are
divided by the population and multiplied by 100.
DEFINITION Total cellular subscribers (see “DEFINITION”) are
Telephone lines refer to the number of tele- divided by the population and multiplied by 100.
phone lines connecting subscribers’ terminal
equipment to the public switched network DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
and that have a dedicated port in the tele- Data on telephone lines and cellular subscribers
phone exchange equipment. are collected through annual questionnaires
that the International Telecommunication
Cellular subscribers refers to users of cellular Union (ITU) sends to government telecommu-
telephones who subscribe to an automatic nication agencies. The questionnaire is sup-
public mobile telephone service that provides plemented by annual reports of industry
access to the public switched telephone net- organizations to cross-check accuracy and to
work using cellular technology. obtain data for countries that do not reply to
the questionnaire.
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
opment Annual.
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector,
make available the benefits of new technolo- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
gies, especially information and communica- Data for telephone lines come from adminis-
tions trative records compiled by national regulatory
authorities or telecommunication operators
RATIONALE and tend to be timely and complete. However,
Indicator 47 and indicators 48A and B are there are comparability issues for mobile sub-
important tools for monitoring progress scribers owing to the prevalence of prepaid
towards Goal 8, because effective communi- subscriptions. Those issues arise from differ-
cation among those involved in the develop- ences in the time period chosen for determin-
ment process is not possible without the nec- ing when a prepaid subscription is considered
essary infrastructure. Personal computers no longer active.
and telephones allow people to exchange
experiences and learn from each other, REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
enabling higher returns on investment and COMPARISONS
avoiding problems of duplication or missing INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
information. The use of information and com- (2003). World Telecommunication Indicators
munication technologies can make Database. Geneva. Available from http://
Governments more transparent, thereby www.itu.int/ITU–D/ict/publications/world/
reducing corruption and leading to better world.html.
governance. It can help people in rural areas INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
find out about market prices and sell their (annual). Yearbook of Statistics. Geneva.
products at a better price. It can also over- Available from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/
come traditional barriers to better education ict.
by making books available online and opening UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
the door to e-learning. Database. Statistics Division Internet site

90


AGENCY munication Union sends to government tele-
International Telecommunication Union communication agencies. In the absence of data
from countries, the number of PCs is estimated
using industry sales data or PC imports data.
48 PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN USE PER
100 POPULATION DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
Data for PCs come from administrative and
DEFINITION operational records that do not disaggregate
Personal computers (PCs) are computers de- the data.
signed to be operated by a single user at a time.
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED Annual.
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
opment Very few countries have a precise measure of
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sec- the number of PCs. For some small developing
tor, make available the benefits of new tech- economies, neither sales nor import data are
nologies, especially information and commu- available. PC data are quite recent, so long
nication technologies time series exist only for developed countries
and major developing countries.
RATIONALE
Indicators 47 and 48 are important tools for REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
monitoring progress towards Goal 8, because COMPARISONS
effective communication among those INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
involved in the development process is not (2003). World Telecommunication Indicators
possible without the necessary infrastructure. Database. Geneva. Available from http://www.
Personal computers and telephone lines allow itu.int/ITU–D/ict/publications/world/world.
people to exchange experiences and learn html.
from each other, enabling higher returns on INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
investment and avoiding problems of duplica- (annual). Yearbook of Statistics. Geneva.
tion or missing information. The use of infor- Available from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/
mation and communication technologies can ict.
make Governments more transparent, there- UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
by reducing corruption and leading to better Database. Statistics Division Internet site
governance. It can help people in rural areas http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
find out about market prices and sell their
products at a better price. It can also over- AGENCY
come traditional barriers to better education International Telecommunication Union
by making books available online and opening
the door to e-learning.

48 INTERNET USERS PER 100
POPULATION
The total number of PCs in a country is divid-
ed by the population and multiplied by 100. DEFINITION
The Internet is a linked global network of
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE computers in which users at one computer, if
Data are based largely on responses to a ques- they have permission, get information from
tionnaire that the International Telecom- other computers in the network.

91


the number of users per subscriber.
Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for devel- GENDER ISSUES
opment Surveys have been conducted by some coun-
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sec- tries providing a breakdown between male and
tor, make available the benefits of new tech- female Internet users. The surveys indicate
nologies, especially information and commu- that more men than women use the Internet.
nications Since the availability of gender-disaggregated
statistics for this indicator is limited, however,
RATIONALE little is known about use by gender.
Indicators 47 and 48 are important tools for
monitoring progress towards Goal 8, because DISAGGREGATION ISSUES
effective communication among those Internet user data can be disaggregated by
involved in the development process is not gender, age, frequency of use, household
possible without the necessary infrastructure. income, location of access and other vari-
Personal computers and telephone lines allow ables. However, this information is available
people to exchange experiences and learn only for a limited number of countries that
from each other, enabling higher returns on collect data on information and communica-
investment and avoiding problems of duplication technology use in household surveys.
tion or missing information. The use of infor-
mation and communication technologies can PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
make Governments more transparent, there- Annual.
by reducing corruption and leading to better
governance. It can help people in rural areas COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
find out about market prices and sell their The quality of Internet user data varies, and
products at a better price. It can also over- the quality of data for smaller developing
come traditional barriers to better education countries is uncertain. The data can also be
by making books available online and opening misleading owing to multiple prepaid Internet
the door to e-learning. accounts, free Internet access accounts or
public Internet access such as Internet cafés.
The total number of Internet users is divided REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
by the population and multiplied by 100. COMPARISONS
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE (2003). World Telecommunication
Internet user statistics are based largely on Indicators Database. Geneva. Available
responses to an annual questionnaire that the from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publica-
International Telecommunication Union tions/ world/world.html.
sends to government telecommunication INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
agencies. For most developed and larger (annual). Yearbook of Statistics. Geneva.
developing countries, Internet user data are Available from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/
based on methodologically sound user sur- ict.
veys conducted by national statistical agen- UNITED NATIONS (2003). Millennium Indicators
cies or industry associations. The data are Database. Statistics Division Internet site
either provided directly to the ITU by each http://millenniumindicators.un.org.
country, or the ITU does the necessary
research to obtain the data. For countries AGENCY
where Internet user surveys are not available, International Telecommunication Union
the ITU uses average multipliers to estimate

92


ANNEX 1 PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
Results from population censuses are normally
Additional socio-economic available every 10 years. Labour force surveys
common country assessment may be available annually or more frequently
indicators in developed countries, but are generally
available every three to five years in develop-
ing countries. The other surveys are produced
CCA PROPORTION OF CHILDREN UNDER only occasionally.
19 AGE 15 WHO ARE WORKING
GENDER ISSUES
DEFINITION The available data indicate that boys are more
Proportion of children under age 15 who are likely to be economically active than girls. Girls
working refers to children who are employed are more often engaged in household services.
in an economic activity for pay, profit or fam-
ily gain. Economic activity covers the produc- COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
tion of goods and services for pay or profit or Reliable estimates of child labour are difficult
for use by own household. Employed means to obtain. In many countries child labour is
being engaged in an economic activity during assumed not to exist and therefore is excluded
a specified reference period or being tem- from official statistics. Some estimates cover
porarily absent from such an activity. only children ages 10–14. Others cover chil-
dren ages 5–14. Still others cover different
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED age ranges.
Goal. Reduce child labour
Target. Elimination of child labour (World Not all work is harmful to a child’s develop-
Summit on Sustainable Development, 1995) ment. The International Labour Organization
has addressed this concern, for example, by
RATIONALE differentiating acceptable work from unac-
The indicator monitors the degree to which ceptable labour. The United Nations Children’s
the youth labour force is utilized in the econ- Fund sometimes also distinguishes between
omy and therefore serves as a measure of the different types of work and different ages of
success of strategies to create jobs for youth. children.

METHOD OF COMPUTATION REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
The number of children who are employed is COMPARISONS
divided by the number of children of the same HUSSMANNS, R., F. MEHRAN AND V. VERMA
age group in the population. (1990). Surveys of Economically Active
Population, Employment, Unemployment
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCES and Underemployment: An ILO Manual on
Data come from population censuses, labour Concepts and Methods. Geneva.
force surveys, special child labour surveys, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2000).
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (http:// Current International Recommendations on
www.childinfo.org), Demographic and Health Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva.
Surveys (http://www.measuredhs.com), INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2002).
Living Standards Measurement Study surveys Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates
(http://www.worldbank.org/lsms) and Core on Child Labour. Geneva.
Welfare Indicators Questionnaires (http:// INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2003).
www4.worldbank.org/afr/stats/cwiq.cfm). International Programme on the Elimination

93


of Child Labour: IPEC. Geneva. Internet site older from those younger than 15 years old.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/stan-
dards/ipec/. GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual). Goal. Creation of full employment
Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Geneva. Target. Universal access to paid employment
Available from http://laborsta.ilo.org. (World Summit on Sustainable Development, 1995)
Progress since the World Summit for METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Children. New York. Available from http:// The number of people who are employed is
www.childinfo.org. Select: Quick Access/ divided by the total number of people in the
Child labour. selected age interval for working age, gener-
UNITED NATIONS, AND INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ally 15–64.
ORGANIZATION (2002). Collection of Economic
Characteristics in Population Censuses. DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Technical Report. ST/ESA/STAT/119. Data are collected through population cen-
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World suses, labour force surveys and official
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. national estimates.
Notes to table 2.3. Washington, DC. Available
in part from http://www.worldbank.org/ PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
data. Results from population censuses are normally
available every 10 years. Labour force surveys
AGENCIES may be available annually or more frequently
International Labour Organization in developed countries, but are generally
United Nation’s Children’s Fund available every three to five years in develop-
ing countries. The other surveys are produced
occasionally.
CCA EMPLOYMENT TO POPULATION OF
30 WORKING AGE RATIO GENDER ISSUES
Male employment rates are generally higher
DEFINITION than female employment rates. Female
Population of working age covers people ages employment rates are often underestimated
15–64. Employment is defined according to because many economic activities in which
international definitions and refers to being women dominate are not recorded as employ-
engaged in an economic activity during a speci- ment. This may influence the international
fied reference period, or being temporarily comparability of employment rates.
absent from such an activity. Economic activity
covers all production of goods and services COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
for pay or profit or for use by own household. Measuring employment is more straightfor-
ward where labour markets are well devel-
Working age is usually determined on the oped and a large proportion of the population
basis of national circumstances, such as the gains its livelihood from a market economy.
age at which most children have completed
compulsory education and the age at which REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA
any general old age pension system can be COMPARISONS
claimed. The United Nations recommends that HUSSMANNS, R., F. MEHRAN and V. VERMA
population census tabulations on the (1990). Surveys of Economically Active
employed distinguish those 15 years and Population, Employment, Unemployment

94


and Underemployment: An ILO Manual on Summit on Sustainable Development 1995)
Concepts and Methods. Geneva.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2000). METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Current International Recommendations on The number of people who are unemployed is div-
Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva. ided by the number of people in the labour force.
Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Geneva. DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE
Available from http://laborsta.ilo.org. Data are collected from population censuses,
UNITED NATIONS (2003). Methods and Classif- labour force surveys, Demographic and Health
ications. Statistics Division Internet site Surveys (http://www.measuredhs.com), Living
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods.htm . Standards Measurement Study surveys
UNITED NATIONS, AND INTERNATIONAL LABOUR (http://www.worldbank.org/lsms) and Core
ORGANIZATION (2002). Collection of Welfare Indicators Questionnaires (http://
Economic Characteristics in Population www4.worldbank.org/afr/stats/cwiq.cfm).
Censuses Technical Report. ST/ESA/STAT/
119. PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World Results from population censuses are normally
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. available every 10 years. Labour force sur-
Notes to table 2.3 and 2.4. Washington, DC. veys may be available annually or more fre-
Available in part from http://www.world- quently in developed countries, but are gen-
bank.org/data. erally available every three to five years in
developing countries. The other surveys are
AGENCY produced only occasionally.
International Labour Organization
GENDER ISSUES
Female unemployment rates are often signifi-
CCA UNEMPLOYMENT RATE cantly higher than male unemployment rates.
31
DEFINITION The concepts of employment and unemploy-
Unemployment covers all people who, during ment have different relevance depending on
a specified reference period, are not employed, the level of labour market development and
are available for work and have taken con- the presence of a market economy. People liv-
crete steps to seek paid employment or self- ing in regions of a country where there is little
employment during a recent period. The labour or no formal employment would not usually
force consists of those who are employed plus be classified as “unemployed” even if they are
those who are unemployed during the relevant without work and would accept a job if offered
reference period. Employed means being en- one (discouraged workers). Unemployment
gaged in an economic activity during a specified estimates can also understate problems in
reference period or being temporarily absent labour markets when people are discouraged
from such an activity. Economic activity refers from seeking work because jobs are scarce or
to all production of goods and services for pay nonexistent.
or profit or for use by own household.
Only household surveys can give reliable esti-
GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED mates according to the international definition.
Goal. Creation of full employment Employment services and unemployment
Target. Universal access to paid employment (World compensation schemes that are well

95


developed (such as those in OECD countries) rations) as defined by the System of National
can derive reliable unemployment estimates Accounts 1993; they produce at least some of
from records of unemployment registration or their goods or services for sale or barter; they
from national insurance records. are engaged in non-agricultural activities
(including secondary non-agricultural activi-
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA ties of enterprises in the agricultural sector);
COMPARISONS and their size (in number of employees) is below
HUSSMANNS, R., F. MEHRAN and V. VERMA a specified threshold, determined according
(1990). Surveys of Economically Active to national circumstances, or they are not
Population, Employment, Unemployment registered under specific forms of national
and Underemployment: An ILO Manual on legislation (such as commercial acts, tax or
Concepts and Methods. Geneva. social security laws, professional groups, reg-
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (2000). ulatory acts, or similar acts, laws or regula-
Current International Recommendations on tions established by national legislative bod-
Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva. ies), or none of their employees is registered.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual). Households producing domestic or personal
Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Geneva. services in employing paid domestic employ-
available from http://laborsta.ilo.org. ees may be included.
UNITED NATIONS, and INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
ORGANIZATION (2002). Collection of Economic Employed means being engaged in an eco-
Characteristics in Population Censuses. nomic activity during a specified reference
Technical Report. ST/ESA/STAT/119. period or being temporarily absent from such
WORLD BANK (2003 and annual). World an activity. Economic activity refers to all pro-
Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM. duction of goods and services for pay or profit
Notes to 2.5. Washington, DC. Available in or for use by own household
part from http://www.worldbank.org/data.
AGENCY Goal. Creation of full employment
International Labour Organization Target. Universal access to paid employment
(World Summit on Sustainable Development,
1995)
CCA INFORMAL SECTOR EMPLOYMENT AS
32 A PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYMENT METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The number of people classified as employed
DEFINITION in the informal sector in their main or second
Informal sector employment includes all peo- jobs is divided by the total number of people
ple who, during a given reference period, were employed in the same geographical areas,
employed in at least one informal sector branches of economic activity, age group or
enterprise, irrespective of their status in other defining characteristic.
employment (employer, own-account worker,
contributing family worker, employee or DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCES
member of a producers cooperative) or Data are collected through informal sector
whether it was their main or second job. surveys, Labour force surveys and Multiple
Indicator Cluster Surveys.
Informal sector enterprises are defined by the
following criteria: they are household unincor- PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT
porated enterprises (excluding quasi-corpo- Informal sector surveys are generally carried

96


out ad hoc, often with intervals of five or AGENCY
more years. Labour force surveys tend to be International Labour Organization
conducted more frequently, generally every
three to five years in developing countries.
CCA NUMBER OF PERSONS PER ROOM, OR
GENDER ISSUES 41 AVERAGE FLOOR AREA PER PERSON
There are large gender-specific differences in
informal sector employment in most countries. DEFINITION
Number of persons per room, or average floor
INTERNATIONAL DATA COMPARISONS area per person, is a measure of crowding.
Major limitations on the international compa- Number of persons per room is the number of
rability of data result from the inclusion or rooms in the living quarters of a household
exclusion of agricultural activities from the per person in the household. Average floor area
scope of the informal sector, the inclusion or (in square metres) per person is the median
exclusion of informal sector activities under- usable floor area per person.
taken as second jobs, differences in the geo-
graphical coverage of informal sector surveys The number of rooms excludes kitchens,
and similar factors. bathrooms, toilets, verandas, rooms used for
business and rooms let to tenants.
Statistics on employment in the informal sec- Floor area includes kitchens, bathrooms,
tor tend to be available only for developing internal corridors and closets. Covered, semi-
countries and transition countries, where the private spaces such as corridors, inner court-
informal sector plays a significant role in yards or verandas are included in the floor
employment and income generation. Informal area if they are used for cooking, eating,
employment outside informal sector enter- sleeping or other domestic activities.
prises is not covered by the enterprise-based
definition of the informal sector. Although GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
there are international standards, definitions Goal. Adequate shelter for all
may vary among countries. Target. Provision of sufficient living space and
avoidance of overcrowding (United Nations
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA Conference on Human Settlements, [Habitat II],
COMPARISONS 1996)
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE (2002). Women
and Men in the Informal Economy: A statis- RATIONALE
tical picture. Geneva. available from Crowding, or housing density, is a key meas-
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employ- ure of housing quality. The three most com-
ment/gems/download/women.pdf. monly used measures of crowding are per-
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (annual). sons per room, floor area per person and
Key Indicators of the Labour Market. Table households per dwelling unit. Surveys have
7. Geneva. Available in part from shown that floor area per person is the more
http://www.ilo.org/kilm. precise and more policy sensitive of the three.
Current International Recommendations on METHOD OF COMPUTATION
Labour Statistics, 2000 Edition. Geneva. The number of persons per room is calculated
by dividing the number of people who live in
the household by the total number of rooms

97


they occupy. A low indicator denotes low E.01.XVII.5.
crowding (density). UNITED NATIONS (2001). Indicators of
The area per person is calculated by dividing Methodologies. Sales No. E.01.II.A.6.
the floor area in square metres by the number Available from http://www.un.org/esa/
of people in the household. A low indicator susdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm.
denotes high crowding (density). UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT) (1995). Human
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCE Settlement Interventions: Addressing
The data are mainly collected from population Crowding and Health Issues. (HS/374/95/E).
censuses and from household surveys such as Nairobi.
Living Standards Measurement Study surveys UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
(http://www.worldbank.org/lsms), Multiple PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT) (2003). Global
Indicator Cluster Surveys (http://www.childinfo. Urban Observatory. Internet site http://www.
org), Demographic and Health Surveys unhabitat.org/programmes/guo. Nairobi.
(http://www.measuredhs.com) and Core UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Welfare Indicators Questionnaires PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT) (2003). Internet
(http://www4.worldbank.org/afr/stats/cwiq. site http://www.unhabitat.org and http://
cfm). www.unhabitat.org/mdg. Nairobi.
GENDER ISSUES Development Indicators. Print and CD-ROM.
In many countries, households headed by Notes to table 3.11. Washington, DC.
women are more crowded than those headed Available in part from http://www.
by men. worldbank.org/data .

PERIODICITY OF MEASUREMENT AGENCY
Population censuses are every 10 years or less. United Nations Human Settlements Programme
Household surveys are generally conducted
every three to five years.
CCA NUMBER OF INTENTIONAL HOMI-
COMMENTS AND LIMITATIONS 43 CIDES PER 100,000 INHABITANTS
Data on the two indicators were collected
during the first phase of the joint DEFINITION
UN–HABITAT–World Bank Housing Indicators Homicide is defined by the United Nations
Programme (1992). Results vary considerably Interregional Crime and Justice Research
when collected in different areas: urban, rural Institute as the killing of any human being by
and national. Informal settlements and disad- the act, procurement or omission of another.
vantaged groups tend to have less space. (The term murder is usually applied to unlaw-
Housing size and housing quality are not ful and premeditated homicide.)
always linked, for economic and cultural rea-
sons. Floor area is preferred for accuracy and
sensitivity to policy, but some censuses and GOAL AND TARGET ADDRESSED
surveys collect only number of rooms. Goal. Improve crime prevention
Target. Eliminate/significantly reduce violence
REFERENCES AND INTERNATIONAL DATA and crime (United Nations Congress on the
COMPARISONS Prevention of Crime and Treatment of
UNITED NATIONS (2001). Compendium of Offenders, 1995)
Human Settlements Statistics. Sales No.

98


The indicator is calculated as the ratio of
number of the intentional homicides to the
total population multiplied by 100,000.

Crime data, including homicide data, are
derived mainly from the administration records
of criminal justice ministries. Population data
come from censuses.

GENDER ISSUES
Women commit fewer crimes than men gen-
erally, including homicide. Women are also
less often the victims of homicide.

Administrative data on crimes are normally
available annually. Census data are usually
collected every 10 years.

Since crime data are dependent on national
definitions and reporting procedures, they are
often not comparable internationally.

More comparable and more consistent data
are derived from household crime victim sur-
veys, but such surveys are not universal and
are often taken only in capital cities.

COMPARISONS
UNITED NATIONS CRIME AND JUSTICE INFORMATION
NETWORK(UNCJIN) (2003). Internet site
http://www.uncjin.org. Vienna.
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME
(2003). Internet site http://www.odccp.
org/odccp/crime_cicp_sitemap.html.
Vienna.

AGENCIES
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
United Nations Interregional Crime and
Justice Research Institute

99


ANNEX 2 DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) are
Household surveys and sponsored by the United States Agency for
other national data sources International Development and undertaken by
Macro International, Inc. They were first con-
ducted in 1984 as successors to the
Annex 2 reviews Multiple Indicator Cluster International Statistical Institute World
Surveys, Demographic and Health Surveys, Fertility Surveys. The Demographic Health
Living Standards Measurement Studies, Core Surveys are now in their fourth series. The
Welfare Indicators Questionnaires in Africa, abbreviated name was changed in 1997 to
household budget surveys, labour force sur- DHS+. They have been undertaken in over 60
veys, household surveys with an institutional countries. Some countries have had only one
component, censuses of population and DHS, but others have had several. Most sur-
housing, other surveys and administrative veys are addressed to about 5,000 house-
data. holds.

All household surveys and censuses provide Most questions refer to demography and to
data by gender and age and by many other health including nutrition, but they also
classifying variables. TABLE A2 at the end of the include other topics, such as education. TABLE
present annex shows the topics covered by A2 shows the indicators likely to be covered by
the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, Demo- the DHS. More information can be found at
graphic and Health Surveys, Living Standards www.measuredhs.com.
Measurement Studies and Core Welfare
Indicators Questionnaires in Africa. LIVING STANDARDS MEASUREMENT STUDY
The first Living Standards Measurement
MULTIPLE INDICATOR CLUSTER SURVEY Study (LSMS) surveys were launched by the
To provide recent data for assessing progress World Bank in Côte d’Ivoire and Peru in 1985.
towards the 1990 World Summit for Children Since then there have been about 40 surveys
goals, the United Nation’s Children’s Fund in 25 countries. They have been sponsored by
developed the Multiple Indicator Cluster various donors, including the World Bank and
Surveys (MICS) in 1994 to obtain data on a the United States Agency for International
small subset of the goals. Experience from Development, and by some countries.
this work was used in developing a revised and
expanded Survey (known as MICS2) for assess- Although the first few LSMS surveys followed
ing progress at end-decade. The surveys were a similar format, they have varied consider-
conducted in 66 countries during 1999– ably since then. There are standard LSMS
2001, primarily by national government min- modules, but they are often omitted. The
istries with support from a variety of partners. organization of the fieldwork also varies.
Most are one-off sample surveys, but a four-
wave panel was also undertaken in the Kagera
The main subjects of MICS2 are health and region of Tanzania.
education; TABLE A2 shows which indicators are
likely to be included. MICS2 is modular and so TABLE A2 shows the indicators likely to be cov-
the surveys may not be identical. More infor- ered by LSMS. More information can be found
mation can be found at http://www.childinfo.org. at http://www.worldbank.org/lsms.

100


ducted there approximately every five years
CORE WELFARE INDICATORS QUESTIONNAIRE since 1985.
SURVEY IN AFRICA
The Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire LABOUR FORCE SURVEYS
(CWIQ) survey is relatively new. Developed by Labour force surveys (LFS) have become
the World Bank, it was piloted in Kenya in 1996 widespread in industrialized countries, but
and in Ghana in 1997. The questionnaires are are more rare in developing countries. They
relatively short (about eight sides), but other are intended to provide information on
modules may be added. The surveys are employment and unemployment, but they
intended to be annual and to have samples of also frequently seek information on education
5,000 to 15,000 households. The question- and training and may include other variables.
naire is designed to complement other sur- They occasionally include questions on
veys as part of a national monitoring package. income from employment. For reasons of effi-
It is intended to contribute to statistical ciency, they generally cover the non-institu-
capacity-building in developing countries. The tional population. In developing countries,
results are intended to be available within a they are often undertaken only in urban areas
few weeks of data collection.
SURVEYS WITH AN INSTITUTIONAL COMPONENT
TABLE A2 shows the indicators likely to be cov- Some household surveys are also accompa-
ered by the CWIQ. More information can be nied by surveys addressed to local institu-
found at http://www4.worldbank.org/afr/ tions, including schools and hospitals. The
stats/cwiq.cfm. Zimbabwe Sentinel Surveillance Survey, for
example, includes institutional components
HOUSEHOLD BUDGET SURVEYS addressed to schools and to health establish-
Household budget surveys (HBS) are intended ments. Thus they are able to provide data on
for various purposes, including measurement facilities serving households.
of poverty and of household consumption of
goods and services for weighting consumer CENSUSES OF POPULATION AND HOUSING
prices. Their value as sources of other data A population census is the primary source of
derive from the inclusion of a variety of ques- information about the number of people in a
tions among basic or general variables. This country and the characteristics of the popula-
offers the possibility of cross-classifying them tion. Several features distinguish a census
against many other variables, including from survey-based sources of data. It can
income and urban or rural location as well as all achieve complete coverage of the population.
the common classifiers such as age and gender. It offers possibilities for relating individual
characteristics of the population with those
The surveys are complex and expensive, so of households. It provides details about sub-
they are not conducted very frequently in national population groups. Owing to its high
developing countries. They are undertaken cost, it has the disadvantage of being able to
often enough (perhaps every five years or so) provide data only once every 10 years, or
in many countries to provide fairly up-to-date sometimes less, and the questionnaires have
and fairly frequent data, however. to be relatively short.

The Income Consumption and Expenditure The census is the unique basic source of bench-
Survey (ICES) in Zimbabwe is an example of a mark demographic data, such as number of
household budget survey. The 2001 survey is people by age and gender. Demographic data
the most recent, and the ICES has been con- are used as denominators for ratios of all

101


kinds, on school enrolment for example, and (Joint United Nations Programme on
for many other common country assessment HIV/AIDS)
and Millennium Development Goals indica- I Tuberculosis/DOTS (notification pro-
tors. However, population estimates have to gramme); Roll Back Malaria (World Health
be updated between censuses, and national Organization)
methods and standards can differ. Many I Pilot surveys in selected countries to
international agencies use United Nations test/improve methodologies of data collec-
estimates of population as denominators for tion on labour force (International Labour
ratios in order to be consistent between Organization)
countries. Nevertheless, the United Nations I Child labour survey (International Labour
population estimates, which are revised every Organization)
two years, are often different from the I Informal sector surveys (International
national estimates, mainly (but not always) as Labour Organization)
a result of international standardization. I Pilot surveys in selected countries to
test/improve methodologies of data collec-
Censuses are also sometimes used as sam- tion on nutrition (Food and Agriculture
pling frames for sample surveys. Organization of the United Nations)
I Pilot small-scale studies on education/lit-
REFERENCES : eracy (United Nations Educational,
UNITED NATIONS. (1998). Principles and Scientific and Cultural Organization)
Recommendations for Population and I Access to personal computers and the
Housing Censuses, Revision 1. Series M, No. Internet (International Telecommunication
67. Sales No. E.98.XVII.1. Union)
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (2002). I Secure tenure and slum improvement
Population and Housing Censuses: Strategies (United Nations Human Settlements
for Reducing Costs. Available from: Programme)
http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_
file/24_filename_pophousingcensus.pdf. ADMINISTRATIVE SOURCES
UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (2003). The most commonly used sources of data for
Counting the People: Constraining Census education, and often for health, are adminis-
Costs and Assessing Alternative Approaches. trative sources—data derived from the admin-
Available from: http://www.unfpa.org/ istration of education or health. Unemploy-
upload/ lib_pub_file/184_filename_popdev- ment data are also frequently derived from
strat-7.pdf. administrative registrations of employment
offices. The data are made available by min-
OTHER SURVEYS istries and sometimes by national statistical
There are also many household surveys of offices. Data on births and deaths are also
variable frequency, or ad hoc, that are either frequently drawn from administrative sources,
general in their purpose or have a limited usually vital statistics registration systems.
range of purposes. There are special surveys
on particular topics, such as some limited Administrative sources can potentially pro-
aspect of health. vide data for very small areas. Their disadvan-
tages include bias, application of national
Survey programmes pertinent to the data for standards and definitions, and non-response.
common country assessment and Millennium For vital statistics, such as births and deaths,
Development Goals indicators, in addition to and for many other indicators, the data often
those mentioned above, include the following: do not exist or are incomplete.
I HIV/AIDS, various epidemiological surveys

102

TABLE A2. Comparison of indicator coverage of four survey types
a
GOALS LSMS DHS CWIQ MICS
GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER

Proportion of population below $1 per day b •c
Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] •
Share of poorest quintile in national consumption •
Prevalence of underweight children under 5 years of age • • • •
Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy
consumption d

GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION

Net enrolment ratio in primary education e ( •) ( •) ( •) ( •)
Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 • • • •
Literacy rate of 15–24 year-olds • • • •

GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN

Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education f ( •) ( •) ( •) ( •)
Ratio of literate women to men, 15–24 years old
Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector • • • •
Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament • •

GOAL 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY

Under-five mortality rate • •
Infant mortality rate • •
Proportion of 1-year-old children immunized against measles • •

GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH

Maternal mortality ratio • •
Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel • •

GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES

HIV prevalence among aged pregnant women 15–24 years
Contraceptive prevalence rate g • •
Number of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS
Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria •i
Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective
malaria prevention and treatment measures h
Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS

GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Proportion of land area covered by forest
Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity
to surface area
Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP)
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita and consumption of
ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP tons)
Proportion of population using solid fuels
Proportion of population with sustainable access to an
improved water source, urban and rural j • • • •

Proportion of urban and rural population with access to
improved sanitation • • • •
Proportion of households with access to secure tenure ( • )k

103


TABLE A2 (CONTINUED)

NOTES
a. The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) is
made up of modules, and not all modules were
used in all countries. This column is based on the
full questionnaire using all modules.
b. For monitoring country poverty trends, indicators
based on national poverty lines should be used,
where available.
c. This indicator also requires the calculation of a
national PPP, which in turn is derived from inter-
nationally coordinated price collection conducted
by the International Comparison Programme.
d. National data are provided by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
based on a statistical modeling technique.
e. All surveys collect school attendance, rather than
enrolment. However, it could be argued that this
has greater policy relevance at the national level.
Enrolment rates in international reporting are
based on administrative records.
f. The ratio is of attendance rates, not enrolment
rates.
g. Among contraceptive methods, only condoms are
effective in preventing HIV transmission. The
contraceptive prevalence rate is also useful in
tracking progress in other health, gender and
poverty goals. Since the condom use rate is
measured only among women in union, it is sup-
plemented by an indicator on condom use in
high-risk situations (indicator 19A) and an indi-
cator on HIV/AIDS knowledge (indicator 19B).
h. Prevention can be measured by the percentage
of children under five sleeping under insecticide-
treated bednets. Treatment can be measured by
the percentage of children under five who are
appropriately treated.
i. For children under five only.
j. All surveys measure access to improved source,
but do not assess whether it is sustainable.
k. Surveys typically ask about type of dwelling and
tenure. They may not explicitly address the issue
of how secure is, for example, a rental agree-
ment, but that could be covered in the future.

104


ANNEX 3 UNEP. Land use. Available from http://www.
unep.org/themes/land
Web sites United Nations Educational, Scientific and
(see also references in the metadata sheets)
Cultural Organization. http://www.unesco.
org
United Nations. Millennium Development UNESCO Institute for Statistics. http://
Goals. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals www.uis.unesco.org
United Nations Statistics Division. United Nations Children’s Fund. http://
Millennium Indicators Database. www.unicef.org and http://www.childinfo.
http://millenniumindicators.un.org org
United Nations Statistics Division. http:// United Nations Framework Convention on
unstats.un.org/unsd Climate Change. http://unfccc.int
World Bank. Millennium Development United Nations Population Fund. http://
Goals. http://www.developmentgoals. org www.unfpa.org
Organisation for Economic Co-operation United Nations Human Settlements
and Development. http://www.oecd.org/ Programme. http://www.unhabitat.org
dac. Under Topics, select: Aid statistics, and http://www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/
Aid effectiveness and donor practices or tenure/introduction.asp
Millennium Develoment Goals Cities in a Globalizing World. Available from
Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire http://www. earthscan.co.uk/cities
(CWIQ) surveys. Available from http:// United Nations Interregional Crime and
www4.worldbank.org/afr/stats/cwiq.cfm Justice Research Institute. http://www.
Demographic and Health Surveys. http:// unicri.it
www.measuredhs.com World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the Protected area data unit. http://www.
United Nations. http://www.fao.org wcmc.org.uk/data
International Labour Organization. http:// Joint United Nations Programme on
www.ilo.org/stat HIV/AIDS. http://www.unaids.org/hivaids
World Health Organization/United Nations info
Environment Programme Intergovernmental World Health Organization. Directly
Panel on Climate Change. http://www.ipcc. observed treatment short course (for
ch tuberculosis). Available from http://www.
IUCN–World Conservation Union. http:// who.int/gtb/dots
www.iucn.org Stop TB Partnership. http://www.stoptb.org
Living Standards Measurement Study World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/data
(LSMS). http://www.worldbank.org/lsms World Bank. World Development Indicators.
Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS). Available from http://www.worldbank.org/
Available from http://www.childinfo.org data
Organisation for Economic Co-operation World Resources Institute. http://www.
and Development. Development Assistance earthtrends.wri.org
Committee. http://www.oecd.org/dac Biosphere reserves. http://www.unesco.
United Nations Development Group. org/mab
http://www.undg.org Heritage sites. http://www.unesco.org/
United Nations Development Programme. whc
Human Development Report. Available Wetlands. http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.
from http://www. undp.org/hdr2003 pdf
United Nations Environment Programme.
http://www.unep.org

105


ANNEX 4
World summits and
conferences
World Food Summit, Rome, 1996

International Conference on Primary Health World Conference of Ministers Responsible
Care, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 1978 for Youth, Lisbon, 1998

World Conference to Review and Appraise Twentieth special session of the General
Achievements of the United Nations Decade Assembly on the world drug problem, New
for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, York, 1998
Nairobi, 1985
Global Conference on the Sustainable
World Conference on Education for All, Development of Small Island Developing
Jomtien, Thailand, 1990 States, New York, 1999

World Summit for Children, New York, 1990 Tenth United Nations Congress on the
Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of
International Conference on Nutrition, Offenders, Vienna, 2000
Rome, 1992
World Education Forum, Dakar, 2000
United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992 Twenty-fourth special session of the General
Assembly: World Summit for Social
World Conference on Human Rights, Development and beyond: achieving social
Vienna, 1993 development for all in a globalizing word,
Geneva, 2000
Global Conference on the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing World Summit on Sustainable Development,
States, Bridgetown, 1994 Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002

International Conference on Population and
Development, Cairo, 1994

Fourth World Conference on Women,
Beijing, 1995

Ninth United Nations Congress on the
Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of
Offenders, Cairo, 1995

World Summit for Social Development,
Copenhagen, 1995

United Nations Conference on Human
Settlements (Habitat II), Istanbul, 1996

106

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