Marekting internship Report Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd.

Marketing Internship Report-Dawood Engineering (Private) Limited
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INTERSNHIP REPORT
Internship Training In
Marketing Department Of
Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Limited
Duration:
March 28 2016 to April 2016
Prepared& Submitted By:
Internee: Muhammad Asif khan s/o Abul Hasan Taj
Student ID: MB-2-05-51271
Studying In: MBA
Electives: Production & Operations Management /
Entrepreneurship
Studying At: PAF-KIET (City Campus)

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Executive Summary
This internship report has been written at the successful completion of the
internship training at Dagwood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd. in Marketing Department. This
repot consist the information related to the tasks and duties carry out during the
internship training and provide basic information about the forging and precision
industry and describe the implication of effective marketing strategies within the
same industry. The last part of the internship report consist the observations of the
internee during internship and simultaneously with some suggestions that can
improve the organization’s efficiency and ultimately the profitability.
The Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd. is one of the renowned metal précising
organization and serving most renowned brands of the world. They have been
recognized due to the specialty in Auto Parts manufacturing and aiming to enhance
their customer network through effectively utilizing the marketing tools and
techniques. To achieve this objective they are participating in the World’s Largest
Industrial Trade Fair Hannover MESSE, which will be going to held at Germany from
April 25 to 29, 2016.
The most part of this internship training is also belongs to the marketing
activities carry out to effectively capitalize this lucrative opportunity through
introducing the Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd. and its associate Companies as one
of the competent manufacturer of the metal precision product and gain maximum
business from this exhibition, where more than five thousand manufacturers are
showcasing their products and services for the rest of the world.
DEPL’s management is also struggling to develop Dawood Engineering as one
of the most reliable brand name among the other metal forging and precision
product manufacturers of the world.

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The metal and steel industry is one of the prominent industrial sectors
besides others and almost all of other industrial sectors are directly or indirectly use
the metal related products. It can be easily say that this industry exists in every part
of our life from Domestic Appliances to Industrial Products. This industry possesses a
lot of potential and a large market of customers and consumers. A careful marketing
strategy can help the DEPL to capture the maximum market share according its
capability and will allow them grow themselves more rapidly in this competitive
environment.
At last I am very thankful to the Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd. upon
providing me chance for such a great learning opportunity and to complete my
Internship Training with their esteemed organization..

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Table of Contents
 Preamble
 Marketing
o Digital or e Marketing
o The four P’s Of Marketing
o Entrepreneurial Marketing
o What is B2B Marketing?
 What is forging?
o How big the forging industry?
o Forging processes
o Application of forged components
o Defects in Metal Forging
 Die Casting
o Advantages of Die Casting
o Die Casting Process Cycle
o Gravity Die Casting
o Mold or Tooling
 Machining
o Machining Operations
 Precision Engineering
 Surface Treatment of Metal
o Surface Finishing
o Surface Treatment of Aluminum at Aluminum Alloys
 Cost Drivers in Metal Forging, Die Casting and Precision
Engineering
 Die Casting vs. Other Processes
 How Forging Compares to Casting
 About Dawood Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd.

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 Hannover MESSE
 Activities during Internship Training at DEPL
 Observations
 Suggestions
Preamble
With growing need of the businesses, Marketing has been recognized as
the one of the strategic component with others. Its due importance has been
increased with the passage of time due to its nature of work. Marketing
encompasses the key important business processes which are known as
essential for businesses Customer Relationships, Creation of Value chain to
the customers and the effective Management of Supply Chain of the
organization. It is just not all about to communicate the customers about the
products or services but to create a long lasting relationship with them and
providing them value against the price they pay for. It will be kept in our mind
when devising a strategy for our business that our customers deserve the best.
Marketing Department in an organization is also play a very pivotal role
for the attainment of organizational goals and objectives. The effective
marketing also leads to the organizations toward achievement of their vision,
the higher goals of the organization. Irrespective of their area of working the
many things are common while designing a marketing plan.
An effective marketing plan not only provide us guideline to communicate
with the potential customers or the audience but also comprises a road map
through which these customers will be translate into the permanent customers
and make them loyal enough that they will become a cause for new customers
for the organization.

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Marketing
In the broadest sense, marketing incorporate everything about understanding
markets (both yours and the ones you have not yet made yours), bringing your
product/service to a market, and even developing new markets.
Marketing is about producing what you can sell, rather than just selling what
you can produce. Marketing is basically the strategic part of business.
Marketing incorporates or impacts heavily upon all of the following activities:
 Business Development
 Product Development
 Market Development
 Market Research
 Competitor Analysis
 Pricing Strategy
 Public Relations
 Customer Service
 Promotions
 Brand Development
 Company/Corporate Identity
Digital or E-Marketing?
Digital marketing is Quirk's guide to online marketing. Digital / E-
Marketing or Electronic Marketing refers to the application of marketing
principles and techniques via electronic media and more specifically the
Internet. The terms eMarketing, Internet marketing and online marketing, are
frequently interchanged, and can often be considered synonymous.

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E-Marketing is the process of marketing a brand using the Internet. It
includes both direct response marketing and indirect marketing elements and
uses a range of technologies to help connect businesses to their customers.
By such a definition, eMarketing encompasses all the activities a
business conducts via the worldwide web with the aim of attracting new
business, retaining current business and developing its brand identity.
Why is it important?
When implemented correctly, the return on investment (ROI) from
eMarketing can far exceed that of traditional marketing strategies.
Whether you're a "bricks and mortar" business or a concern operating
purely online, the Internet is a force that cannot be ignored. It can be a means
to reach literally millions of people every year. It's at the forefront of a
redefinition of way businesses interact with their customers.
Start at the beginning:
The foundation of all good marketing is to know your market. That means
your customers. The well marketed business is completely customer focused.
They identify what the customer wants or needs, and then supply it at a price
the customer is prepared to pay.
The customer is always right. That is the classic saying which has fallen
from favour in recent years. However it is true. The customer is always right,
provided that they are the right customer.
Knowing your customers:

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The tricky part to this is that you really need to know who your
customers are and what they want even before you can make them your
customers. Bigger businesses literally do this by carrying out extensive market
research to find the best balance of the 4 P's of marketing before they go any
further.
It is the data you get from knowing your customers, combined with the
data from studying your competition in the market that helps you to find a
good mixture of the 4 P's
The Four P's of Marketing:
The four P's of marketing are:
1. Product is what you are selling. Not just the physical product or the
actual service, but all the customer benefits and values that the product
represents. It is usually not important to have the best possible product.
Cutting edge and feature packed products cost more. The key is to have
the most valuable product in its price range.
2. Price is the amount that the customer must pay. This is the acid test of
whether the features you added to the product were really valuable, or
whether you might have been better to cut a few low-value features out
and so be able to offer a lower price.
3. Place is sometimes thought unimportant to online business. However,
many deals still go best with a handshake. Services can only be cost-
effectively provided within a fixed travel-radius. Shipping costs matter.
Place is still a vital concern. With the internet, all online shops are on
the super-highway and equidistant to any customer, and yet people still
look for local and regional suppliers. Financial and legal issues are still
mostly set by place too. Where will you place your distribution centers?

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Would better placement of your business let you ship faster or more
cost-efficiently?
4. Promotion is the P that everyone knows Marketing is about. Of course
about advertising in promotions, public relations, special offers, viral
marketing, and so much more.
Every business, and every product or service, will need its own special
blend of those four elements. The cheaper the product and the better your
place, the lower the price you can offer. The more attractive a product is for
the price, the further people will travel or the longer they'll wait, and the less
promotion the product will need.
The 4 P's of marketing all inter-relate to create an overall mix that you can
control, and in doing so, can find the optimum blend for your customers and
market conditions.
Entrepreneurial Marketing:
It is only recently that entrepreneurship has been studied as its own
distinct category of business. The amazing success of once small companies
like Microsoft, Virgin, and Dell has revealed that entrepreneurship is its own
class of business with many unique challenges and opportunities. As the field
has received more and more focus, specific strategies for successful
entrepreneurship have begun to emerge.
The primary challenge facing the entrepreneur is competing against
larger, better known, and more resourceful companies. How can a start up with
a small staff, limited budget, and miniscule customer base hope to compete
against the giants in their industry? They do this by turning their weaknesses

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into their strengths. By their very nature, start-up companies can be more
flexible and unorthodox than their major competitors.
Marketing is one area where entrepreneurs can actually define a unique
identity for themselves. Think of all the clever ads that came out of the first
wave of Internet start-ups. Pets.com, for example, was able to turn a simple
sock puppet into a nationally recognized spokesperson. Since marketing is a
tool that is available to any business willing to invest in it, it is one of the best
ways for emerging companies to define their image in the minds of consumers.
What is Entrepreneurial Marketing?
Entrepreneurial marketing is less about a single marketing strategy and
more about a marketing spirit that differentiates itself from traditional marketing
practices. It eschews many of the fundamental principles of marketing because
they are typically designed for large, well established firms. Entrepreneurial
marketing utilizes a toolkit of new and unorthodox marketing practices to help
emerging firms gain a foothold in crowded markets.
Marketing Strategies for Entrepreneurs:
In competitive markets, it can be easy to get lost in the crowd. One of
the biggest challenges for entrepreneurs is standing out from their competitors.
Marketing in new, unusual, or aggressive ways is the best way to illustrate
what makes a business unique. Below are some marketing strategies that
entrepreneurs have used successfully in the past. A company can direct all of
its marketing efforts towards one strategy, or use several of them at once.
 Relationship Marketing – Focuses on creating a strong link between the
brand and the customer.
 Expeditionary Marketing – Involves creating markets and developing
innovative products. Companies act as leaders rather than followers.

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 One to One Marketing - Customers are marketed to as individuals. All
marketing efforts are personalized.
 Real Time Marketing – Uses the power of technology to interact with a
customer in a real time.
 Viral Marketing – Places marketing messages on the Internet so they can
be shared and expanded on by customers.
 Digital Marketing – Leverages the power of Internet tools like email and
social networking to support marketing efforts
How is an Entrepreneurial Marketing Plan Develop and Implemented?
Marketing plans can only develop after a company determines several
aspects about their business model. They must understand the core mission of
the company, which customers they will target, and who their competitors are.
Making careful self-analysis can help emerging businesses define their place in
the market and set realistic goals. The type of business a startup strives to be
will also affect its marketing decisions. If a company decides that it will market
to professional business customers, it probably won’t use funny viral videos on
YouTube.
The detail of the plan will depend largely on the particular marketing strategy
that a company chooses. The strategies of relationship marketing are
significantly different than viral marketing. It is important to define which type of
marketing to focus on, and then concentrate all efforts in that area. A
comprehensive marketing plan helps companies to maintain this focus as they
revise their strategies. Most marketing plans do not cover more than a year’s
worth of time because start-ups face such uncertain circumstance, requiring
businesses to be flexible and open to quick changes. Entrepreneurial marketing
plans are based on input from every aspect of the company – from production,
to finance, to personnel. In order to succeed, start-up should work in a
coordinated way to use their resources as efficiently as possible. Marketing
decisions must reflect the real world circumstances facing the company.

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Metrics used to evaluate the marketing plan should reflect the foals of
the company. These goals can range from maximizing profits, to reaching the
broadest customer base, to redefining a particular market. Each goal will
require a different marketing strategy and be evaluated on different terms.
Emerging companies have to set quantitative targets for themselves and then
revise their strategies of those targets are not met. Otherwise, growth is
impossible.
What is Business-to-business (B2B) Marketing?
Business-to-business (B2B) refers to a situation where one business makes
a commercial transaction with another. This typically occurs when:
 A business is sourcing materials for their production process (e.g. a food
manufacturer purchasing salt).
 A business needs the services of another for operational reasons (e.g. a
food manufacturer employing an accountancy firm to audit their finances).
 A business re-sells goods and services produced by others (e.g. a
retailer buying the end product from the food
Business marketing
Business marketing is a marketing practice of individuals or organizations
(including commercial businesses, governments and institutions). It allows them
to sell products or services to other companies or organizations that resell
them, use them in their products or services or use them to support their
works.
Business marketing is also known as industrial marketing or business-to-
business (B2B) marketing. Despite sharing dynamics of organizational marketing
with marketing to governments, business-to-government marketing is different.

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Business and consumer markets
Business markets have a derived demand – a demand in them exists
because of demand in the consumer market. An example would be the Indian
government wishing to purchase equipment for a nuclear power plant. The
underlying consumer demand that has triggered this is that people of India are
consuming more electricity (by using more household devices such as washing
machines and computers). Business markets do not exist in isolation.
A single consumer market demand can give rise to hundreds of business
market demands. The demand for cars in India creates demands for castings,
forgings, plastic components, steel and tires. In turn, this creates demands for
casting sand, forging machines, mining materials, polymers, rubber. Each of
these growing demands has triggered more demands.
As the spending power of citizens’ increases, countries generally see an
upward wave in their economy. Cities or countries with growing consumption
are generally growing business markets.
B2B Marketing: What makes it Special?
Around the time of B2B International’s inception in the 1990s, a key
challenge we faced was explaining to potential customers that our skills as
business-to-business market researchers and marketers were unique. There
was a frequent dismissal of the idea that business-to-business markets – and
therefore the techniques used to explore these markets – were in any
meaningful way distinct from consumer markets.
Over the past 15 years, however, business-to-business marketing has
emerged as a discipline in its own right and divergences in marketing practice
have been accentuated. We feel it is worth reiterating the many differences

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between the two disciplines and, above all, pointing out the implications of
these differences when it comes to implementing a business-to-business
marketing strategy.
B2B marketing is therefore about meeting the needs of other businesses,
though ultimately the demand for the products made by these businesses is
likely to be driven by consumers in their homes.
We believe that there are ten key factors that make business-to-business
markets special and different to consumer markets. These are described below
1) B2B Markets Have A More Complex Decision-Making Unit
The decision making unit (DMU) in business-to-business markets is highly
complex or at least it has the potential to be so.
Ordering products of low value and low risk (such as the ubiquitous paper
clip) may well be the responsibility of the office junior. However, the purchase
of a new plant that is vital to a business may involve a large team who makes
their decision over a protracted period. The DMU at any one time is often
ephemeral – specialists enter and leave to make their different contributions
and, of course, over time people leave the company or change jobs far more
frequently than they change family unit.
This complexity and dynamism has implications for business-to-business
markets. The target audiences for B2B communications are amorphous, made
up of groups of constantly changing individuals with different interests and
motivations. Buyers seek a good financial deal. Production managers want
high throughput. Health and safety executives want low risk. And those are
just their simple, functional needs. Each person who is party to the DMU will
also bring their psychological and cultural baggage to the decision and this can
create interesting variations to the selection of products and suppliers.

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Following figure divides business-to-business purchases into four categories
according to their financial value and the level of business risk associated with
the purchase. Each of these categories gives rise to different purchasing
behavior and different complexities.
 Low-risk, low-value purchases are the least distinct from consumer
purchases. They often involve just one, frequently junior person. There
is little financial or business risk involved on getting the decision wrong,
meaning that relatively little thought goes into the decision.
 Low-risk, high-value items such as raw materials typically involve a
mixture of technical and purchasing personnel, and often very senior
people such as board members. This complexity is necessary to ensure
that price is minimized without impacting upon quality. Purchasing

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personnel would usually be the key decision makers on a transaction-by-
transaction basis, under the general guidance of more technical
employees, who would review suppliers periodically.
 Low-value, high-risk items such as office insurance would similarly involve
a mixture of specialists and purchasers. As the ‘risk’ is in the product
rather than the price, and as each transaction is likely to be unique, an
expert (in this case perhaps an in-house legal expert) would tend to be
the key decision maker every time a purchase takes place.
 High-value, high-risk purchases are the most distinct from consumer
purchases, with a large number of senior decision makers evaluating a
large range of purchase criteria. In the case of plant equipment, we
might expect a CFO, R&D Director, Production Director, Purchasing
Director, Head of Legal Department, CEO and a number of upper-
management department heads to be involved.
A Typical Decision Making Unit In A B2B Environment
2) B2B Buyers Are More "Rational"

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The description of business-to-business buyers as more ‘rational’ than
their consumer counterparts is perhaps controversial, but we believe true. We
may not leave our emotions at home when we go to work, but most of us
attach them to a tight leash and try to keep them away from our colleagues.
Would the consumer who pays £3,000 for a leather jacket that is less
warm and durable than its £200 counterpart in the shop next door make a
similar decision in the workplace? What about the person who spends £1,000
for a season ticket at a football club that has just been relegated and frustrates
them every Saturday, or £6.50 on a packet of cigarettes that excludes them
from indoor public places and puts them at risk of serious disease – would the
same person choose to buy, for example, a computer that consistently
infuriated them or an asbestos roof that risked their own health and that of
their colleagues?
The truth is that as consumers we are often less well-informed, less
accountable to others and far more susceptible to whims, indulgences,
recklessness and showing off than is the case when we are in the workplace.
We therefore have a tendency to make purchasing decisions that a rational
observer (a business-to-business buyer that has to make a profit each month)
would regard as ludicrous. As consumers we are far less likely to ask whether
the product we are buying has an ROI (return on investment). We buy what
we want, not what we need.
3) B2B Products Are Often More Complex
Just as the decision making unit is often complex in business-to-business
markets, so too are B2B products themselves.
Where the purchase of a consumer product requires little expertise
(perhaps nothing more than a whim), the purchase of an industrial product
frequently requires a qualified expert. Where consumer products are largely
standardized, industrial products are often bespoke and require high levels of

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fine-tuning. Even relatively complex consumer products tend to be chosen on
fairly simple criteria. A car might be chosen because it goes fast and looks
nice, and a stereo might be purchased on the grounds that it is tremendously
loud.
Even simpler industrial products, on the other hand, frequently have to
be integrated into wider systems and as a result have very specific
requirements and need intimate, expert examination and modification. It is
difficult to imagine a turbine manufacturer or commercial website design buyer
having a look at three or four products and then choosing one simply because
it looks nice. The choice of turbine will involve a whole host of technical,
productivity and safety issues, whilst the choice of website might be based on
its integration into a wider B2B marketing campaign, its interactivity with users
and the degree to which it draws potential clients via search engines.
Buyers of consumer products are generally not interested in the technical
details of what they are buying. The vast majority of car buyers are far more
interested in what speed the car will reach than in how it will reach that
speed. Similarly, the buyer of a chocolate bar is likely to be far more
interested in the fact that the item stops them feeling hungry and tastes nice
than in the technology and ingredients that make it so. As a result, consumer
products are frequently marketed in ways that are superficial or even vacuous.
Car manufacturers frequently completely ignore not only how a car
performs, but often the fact that the car performs at all, and instead seek to
apply non-physical attributes such as sex appeal to their products. Business-to-
business campaigns, on the other hand, seek to educate their target audience
by providing specific factual information. A corporate vehicle fleet buyer is
unlikely to purchase a car for his sales force on the basis of its colour or sex
appeal. Many target companies in business-to-business campaigns are already

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well-informed on the product area, in which case promotional material may
have to go as far as offering product specifications.
4) Limited Number Of Buying Units in B2B Markets
Almost all business-to-business markets exhibit a customer distribution
that confirms the Pareto Principle or 80:20 rule. A small number of customers
dominate the sales ledger. Nor are we talking thousands and millions of
customers. It is not unusual, even in the largest business-to-business
companies, to have 100 or fewer customers that really make a difference to
sales.
There is also a matter of scale. In consumer markets there are
reasonable limits to the amount that a single person can buy and use of any
product. Certainly there are heavy users of all consumer products but the
difference between the light user and the heavy user is a matter of small
degree compared with the scale of differences in business-to-business
markets. You can fit most buyers of consumer products into a “typical spend
per month” with a few heavy spenders and a few light spenders at the
extremes. The range of spend between the largest and smallest buyer in a
business-to-business universe is likely to be much, much larger than the range
of spend between the largest and smallest buyers in consumer markets. Small
numbers of customers of widely different sizes – and the presence of a few key
accounts – is a major distinguishing feature of business-to-business markets and
this requires a completely different marketing approach to that required for
consumer markets.
5) B2B Markets Have Fewer Behavioral And Needs-Based Segments
Our experience of over 2,000 business-to-business studies shows that
B2B markets typically have far fewer behavioral or needs-based segments than
is the case with consumer markets. Whereas it is not uncommon for an

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FMCG market to boast 10, 12 or more segments, the average business-to-
business study typically produces 3 or 4.
Part of the reason for this is the smaller target audience in business-to-
business markets. In a consumer market with tens of thousands of potential
customers, it is practical and economical to divide the market into 10 or 12
distinguishable segments, even if several of the segments are only separated
by small nuances of behavior or need. This is patently not the case when the
target audience consists of a couple of hundred business buyers.
The main reason for the smaller number of segments, however, is simply
that a business audience’s behavior or needs vary less than that of a (less
rational) consumer audience. Whims, insecurities, indulgences and so on are
far less likely to come to the buyer’s mind when the purchase is for a place of
work rather than for oneself or a close family member. And the numerous
colleagues that get involved in a B2B buying decision, and the workplace
norms established over time, filter out many of the extremes of behavior that
may otherwise manifest themselves if the decision were left to one person with
no accountability to others.
It is noticeable that the behavioral and needs-based segments that
emerge in business-to-business markets are frequently similar across different
industries. Needs-based segments in a typical business-to business market
often resemble the following:
 A price-focused segment, which has a transactional outlook to doing
business and does not seek any ‘extras’. Companies in this segment
are often small, working to low margins and regard the product/service in
question as of low strategic importance to their business.

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 A quality and brand-focused segment, which wants the best possible product
and is prepared to pay for it. Companies in this segment often work to
high margins, are medium-sized or large, and regard the product/service
as of high strategic importance.
 A service-focused segment, which has high requirements in terms of product
quality and range, but also in terms of after sales, delivery, etc. These
companies tend to work in time-critical industries and can be small,
medium or large. They are usually purchasing relatively high volumes.
 A partnership-focused segment, usually consisting of key accounts, which
seeks trust and reliability and regards the supplier as a strategic partner.
Such companies tend to be large, operate on relatively high margins, and
regard the product or service in question as strategically important.
6) Personal Relationships Are More Important In B2B Markets
An important distinguishing feature of business-to-business markets is the
importance of the personal relationship. A small customer base that buys
regularly from the business-to-business supplier is relatively easy to talk to.
Sales and technical representatives visit the customers. People are on first-
name terms. Personal relationships and trust develop. It is not unusual for a
business-to-business supplier to have customers that have been loyal and
committed for many years.
The importance of personal relationships is particularly pronounced in
emerging markets such as China and Russia, which have little culture of free
information, historic quality problems with local suppliers, and – in markets
where the concept of branding is still emerging – little other than their trust in
the salesperson on which they can judge the provenance of the product or
service they are buying.

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7) B2B Buyers Are Longer-Term Buyers
Whilst consumers do buy items such as houses and cars which are long-
term purchases, these incidences are relatively rare. Long-term purchases – or
at least purchases which are expected to be repeated over a long period of
time – are more common in business-to-business markets, where capital
machinery, components and continually used consumables are prevalent.
Furthermore, the long-term products and services required by businesses
are more likely to require service back-up from the supplier than is the case in
consumer markets. A computer network, a new item of machinery, a
photocopier or a fleet of vehicles usually require far more extensive after sales
service than a house or the single vehicle purchased by a consumer.
Businesses’ repeat purchases (machine parts, office consumables, for example)
will also require ongoing expertise and services in terms of delivery,
implementation/installation advice, etc that are less likely to be demanded by
consumers.
Finally, business customers tend to be regarded as long-term customers
more than consumers do for the simple reason that there are fewer business
customers about, and the ones that do exist are more valuable! The benefits
of retaining a B2B customer are often enormous, and the consequences of
losing them very serious.
8) B2B Markets Drive Innovation Less Than Consumer Markets
A look at the derived demand diagram (Figure 1) demonstrates that most
innovation is driven by consumer markets. B2B companies that innovate
usually do so as a response to an innovation that has already happened
further upstream. B2C businesses tend to be less risk averse, as they have to
predict and respond to the whims and irrational behavior of consumers rather
than the more calculated decision-making of businesses. B2B companies have

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the comparative luxury of responding to trends rather than seeking to predict or
even drive them.
This is not to say, of course, that companies in B2B markets are ‘worse’
innovators than those in consumer markets. Indeed, the opposite is repeatedly
the case, as innovations are often more carefully planned and successfully
commercialized in the B2B world, in which audiences are more clearly defined
and trends more easily identified.
9) Consumer Markets Rely Far More On Packaging
There has been a huge growth in the packaging of consumer products in
recent years, as marketers seek not only to protect and preserve their
products, but also to use the packaging as a vehicle through which aspirations
and desires are transmitted to the customer. Consumers being less rational
than business-to-business buyers, this approach has proved enormously
successful at adding perceived value to products.
Adding value through packaging – making packaging a key part of the
extended offer – is far more difficult to achieve in business-to-business markets,
where product is judged primarily on technical criteria and the extended offer is
built around relationships rather than dreams, aspirations or appearances.
10) Sub-Brands Are Less Effective In B2B Markets
We have frequently argued that the most neglected B2B marketing
opportunity is the building of a strong brand. In a world where it is becoming
increasingly difficult to distinguish one product from another, it is even more
important to have the support of a powerful brand.
The role of brand in the B2B buying decision is thought to have
increased over the past decade (it used to be said that its influence was 5% of

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the B2B buying decision against 30-40% of the consumer buying decision) and
there is plenty of scope for B2B companies to differentiate themselves further
through effective branding strategies.
It must be said, however, that B2B companies are generally far worse at
both developing and implementing branding strategies than are B2C
companies. B2B companies tend to be bad at recognizing that branding
strategy should envelop every customer touch point and aspect of the business
– an unknowledgeable technical sales-team can undo the work of a branding
communications campaign instantly.
In their rush to embrace branding strategy, many B2B companies have
over-compensated and developed huge numbers of sub-brands for every aspect
of their product range. This kind of approach can be effective in consumer
markets, where diversified companies such as Unilever recognize the need to
build relationships with segments and sub-segments of numerous target
audiences. In business-to-business markets, however, target audiences are
smaller and as explained above place more emphasis on relationships than
brand when it comes to making the purchase decision. Most importantly,
business-to-business buyers are generally more informed than consumers and
tend to regard multiple brands and sub-brands as pointless and confusing,
perhaps even insulting.
B2B Buyers Are More Demanding:
Simply business-to-business buyers are more demanding. They have a
responsibility to make the right decision when purchasing on behalf of their
companies. They take fewer risks and therefore need quality to be absolutely
right. They have the expertise to recognize a bad offering when they see
one. They are used to getting what they want. They are often paying more
than they would as a consumer and therefore expect more in return. They are

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likely to regard themselves as interacting with the product or service supplied to
them, rather than playing the role of passive recipient.
The business-to-business marketers are responsible to meet target
audience’s needs; we must therefore raise our game to ensure that our
product, services and intangibles meet and exceed customers’ requirements.
The fact is that business-to-business buyers are more predictable than
their consumer counterparts. This means that good quality market intelligence
and close attention to the target markets’ needs place business marketers in a
strong position to meet the needs of the market.
Strategies For B2B Marketing Success
Here are eight concepts to focus while developing the business to
business marketing strategies:
A) Short-Term Winning Strategies
1. Play The Volume Game:
Do your team members know exactly what they need to do to hit
your marketing team goals? High-performing marketing teams understand the
volume of marketing activity and precise actions they require to hit their
targets. In fact, the best marketing cultures rally around these numbers,
which are closely tracked and understood throughout the marketing
department.
It is not difficult to run numbers through a marketing funnel tool. Many
calculators exist for doing so, or your team can create its own using
conversions at all stages (either your internal conversion rates or published
averages). As a result, your team will be able to predict how much activity
is needed in order to hit revenue numbers and plan its activities, such as

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number of programs, contact data purchases, and programs spend. Beyond
running the numbers for the year and quarter, consider requiring team
members to run the funnel numbers prior to the launch of each individual
program. You’ll want to set the precedent that these figures will become the
success measures for programs and individual performance of marketing
team members.
2. Assess The Quality Situation:
Great marketing campaigns start with great contact data, yet all too
often the state of the marketing database is left to chance. In fact,
according to Sirius Decisions Research, between 10 percent and 25 percent
of B2B marketing database contacts contain critical errors. Imagine the net
impact on marketing programs of a database that is only 75 percent
marketable. A short-term fix is to assign someone on your team stewardship
of the data. Having that person get a handle on the current state of the
database and understand how to fix it quickly will prevent negative impacts
of incorrect data on your campaigns. Be forewarned, however, that
databases grow and change quickly, so your data quality efforts cannot be a
point-in-time fix. High-performing marketing departments have assigned
owners of the data, often part of the marketing operations function, and an
ongoing plan for assessing and repairing data quality. Make this part of your
long-term core strategy, and you’ll see positive results over time.
3. Take An Extra Step In Qualifying Your Leads:
Are all of your marketing leads going directly to sales? Fully qualifying
your marketing leads into sales-ready opportunities with the help of
teleprospecting could dramatically improve the quality and conversion of
leads that end up in your sales pipeline. Studies show that marketing leads
sent directly to sales may not receive follow-up (as much as 50 percent,
according to Miller Pierce (VOC) because sales folks responsible for closing
business may not have the cycles to fully qualify and convert marketing

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leads. Employing a teleprospecting effort, with a dedicated calling team,
ensures no marketing lead is left behind. This approach requires agreement
with sales leadership on the specific definition of a fully qualified sales-ready
lead and can be a great boost to help everyone meet their goals.
4. Get Feedback:
In addition to reviewing metrics from the sales automation tool, make
sure your team members are constantly engaging with sales to discuss their
perception on leads passed and opportunities created. The definition of
marketing success also includes the perception of sales, and it is important
for marketers to understand the perceived value of the leads they are
passing. Doing so will allow your team members to actively engage in
dialogue with the members of the sales team about the real (rather than
perceived) results and reset any misconceptions. The process will build the
relationship with sales, and your team will likely get some good feedback
about ways marketing can support sales through the selling process.
B) Long-Term Gain Strategies:
5. Assess The Targeting Situation:
Ensure that you have crossed the “T” in targeting. With a large
volume of marketing activity, both inbound and outbound, happening in your
department, it can be easy to lose resolution on the target. To ensure you
have all of the right target buyers in your database, encourage your team to
analyze historical purchase data. Your team should use data from sales
automation, marketing automation, and your CRM system to identify as
much as possible about the target buyer and other influencers who were
involved in the buying process. After all, the shortest path to a sale is to
involve all of the influencers from the beginning to get them aligned. In
addition, take note of the length of the buying cycle and average deal size.

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This information will help you frame the schedule and frequency for
marketing activity required to hit future goals.
Once target buyers and influencers are determined, your team should
evaluate your prospect database to confirm that it have these buyers--both
the primary targets and influencers--in the right volumes. Your team can
again leverage a marketing funnel calculator to determine the correct
database size and take steps to grow the database if needed. This is a
great time to append missing contact info (email/phone), add segmentation
criteria, such as demographic / firmographic info (industry/title), or include
behavioral data, such as installed technology data.
6. Personal Research:
The emerging trend of B2B buyers’ decreasing their engagement with
salespeople until they’ve narrowed their options to just a few solutions is not
going away.
Now more than ever before, your company’s success requires content
that is grounded in deep insight about buyers’ decision to choose you over
a competitor, or to do nothing at all. Marketers on your team need to
become experts in their target buyers, how they buy, and what is important
to them in order to be successful.
As a marketing leader, it is incumbent on you to instill the importance
of this in your team and move them away from a culture of creating stuff
that meets the sniff test of all the smart people on the team. Drive them to
understand what each of your buyers wants to know at every step in their
evaluation process and create relevant content to support it. Establish formal
programs and ongoing measurement for team members who are responsible
for researching, documenting, and communicating buyer persona information.
To reinforce the desired behaviors, add to their performance goals metrics

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for number of win/loss interviews conducted and number of sessions where
they communicate insights from the research across the marketing team.
7. Messaging Alignment:
Marketing creates a lot of stuff. And it is easy to get in the habit of
creating unnecessary new stuff to support new demand gen activity. One
way to combat that is through planning. Once your team is aligned around
the target buyer, conduct an inventory of the content you currently have.
Have team members review all content, checking to ensure it maps to the
messaging themes of the persona and establishing how the buyer expects
to use that content in his buying process. The results can be captured in a
simple matrix that will easily the identify gaps that exists and allow you to
plan for content creation.
To further align the team and ensure on-point messaging, consider
conducting a workshop where you identify all relevant messaging themes for
your target buyer, as well as important messages for your business (e.g., to
support product releases), and plot them on the calendar for the year,
aligning all of your team’s marketing activity, such as events, demand gen,
product launches, PR, social media, etc., under the messaging themes.
As your team works through the exercise, you’ll want to create
repeatable top-of-funnel programs for messages that are important to the
target buyer and can be repurposed throughout the year to net new
prospects. You’ll also want to build repeatable nurture programs for leads
that fall out of the funnel. Doing so will give economy of scale and remove
the need to create unnecessary content. Plus, your team will have a
messaging map that shows exactly what is planned for the year in terms of
activity and how the pieces fit together.
8. Measure, Analyze, And Hold Accountable:

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With the tools available today, there is no excuse for not being nimble
and adapting in real time, yet busy marketers can easily lose sight of
tracking the effectiveness of campaigns in real-time and miss the opportunity
to adjust to hit goals.
Today, marketing leaders need to foster a culture of numbers
accountability, expecting their teams to understand the performance of their
efforts and eventually be able to project results of future efforts based on
past performance. And while it may be a new direction for some marketers,
focusing on the quantifiable results will help them understand what tactics
work and what do not so they will become more strategic about their future
planning and decision-making. Make sure that your team formalizes around
what it measures, having metrics for both overall macro performance, such
as YTD numbers, as well as micro level metrics for individual program
performance.
Strategies B2B branding
B2B branding is different from B2C in some crucial ways, including the
need to closely align corporate brands, divisional brands and product/service
brands and to apply your brand standards to material often considered
“informal” such as email and other electronic correspondence. It is mainly of
large scale when compared with B2C.
I. Product (or service):
Due to the fact that business customers are focused on creating
shareholder value for themselves, the cost-saving or revenue-producing benefits
of products and services are important to factor in throughout the product
development and marketing cycles.
II. Target Market:

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B2B Buyer Decision Map: Problem, solution alternatives, decision support
quite often, the target market for a business product or service is smaller and
has more specialized needs reflective of a specific industry or niche. A B2B
niche, a segment of the market, can be described in terms of firm graphics
which requires marketers to have good business intelligence in order to
increase response rates. Regardless of the size of the target market, the
business customer is making an organizational purchase decision and the
dynamics of this, both procedurally and in terms of how they value the product
offered, differ dramatically from the consumer market. There may be multiple
influencers on the purchase decision, which may also have to be marketed to,
though they may not be members of the decision making unit. In addition the
research and decision making process a B2B buyer undertakes will be more
extensive. Finally the purchase information that buyers are researching changes
as they go through the buying process.
III. Pricing
The business market can be convinced to pay premium prices more
often than the consumer market if you know how to structure your pricing and
payment terms well. This pricing premium is particularly achievable if you
support it with a strong brand.
IV. Promotion
Promotion planning is relatively easy when you know the decision making
habits of your customer base and what they are looking for, not to mention the
vocabulary unique to their segment. Specific trade shows, analysts, publications,
blogs and retail/wholesale outlets tend to be fairly common to each
industry/product area. What this means is that once you figure it out for your
industry/product, the promotion plan almost writes itself (depending on your
budget) but figuring it out can be a special skill and it takes time to build up

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experience in your specific field. Promotion techniques rely heavily on marketing
communications strategies (see below).
V. Sales and distribution
The importance of a knowledgeable, experienced and effective direct
(inside or outside) sales force is often critical in the business market. If you
sell through distribution channels also, the number and type of sales forces can
vary tremendously and your success as a marketer is highly dependent on their
success.
VI. Communications Methodologies
The purpose of B2B marketing communications is to support the
organizations' sales effort and improve company profitability. B2B marketing
communications tactics generally include advertising, public relations, direct
mail, trade show support, sales collateral, branding, and interactive services
such as website design and search engine optimization. The Business
Marketing Association is the trade organization that serves B2B marketing
professionals. It was founded in 1922 and offers certification programs, research
services, conferences, industry awards and training programs.
a) Positioning statement
An important first step in business to business marketing is the
development of your positioning statement. This is a statement of what
you do and how you do it differently, as well as how it will be better and
more efficient than your competitors.
b) Developing messages
The next step is to develop your messages. There is usually a primary
message that conveys more strongly to your customers, what you do and
the benefit it offers to them. This is often supported by a number of

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secondary messages, each of which may have a number of supporting
arguments, facts and figures.
c) Campaign plans
Doesn't matter which form the B2B marketing campaign will take, you
need to build a comprehensive plan up front to target resources where
you believe they will deliver the best return on investment, and make
sure you have all the infrastructure in place to support each stage of the
marketing process - and that doesn't just include developing the lead -
make sure the entire organization is geared up to handle the inquiries
appropriately.
d) Briefing an agency
A standard briefing document is usually a good idea for briefing an
agency. As well as focusing the agency on what's important to you and
your campaign. It serves as a checklist of all the important things to
consider as part of your brief. Typical elements to an agency brief are:
Your objectives, target market, target audience, product, campaign
description, your product positioning, graphical considerations, corporate
guidelines, and any other supporting material and distribution.
e) Measuring results
The real value in results measurement is in tying the marketing campaign
back to business results. After all, you’re not in the business of
developing marketing campaigns for marketing's sake. So always put
metrics in place to measure your campaigns, and if at all possible,
measure your impact upon your desired objectives, be it Cost Per
Acquisition, Cost per Lead or tangible changes in customer perception.
f) Size
Hutt and Speh (2001) note that "business marketers serve the largest
market of all; the dollar volume of transactions in the industrial or
business market significantly exceeds that of the ultimate consumer

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market." For example, they note that companies such as GE, DuPont
and IBM spend more than $60 million a day on purchases to support
their operations.
Dwyer and Tanner (2006) say the purchases made by companies,
government agencies and institutions "account for more than half of the
economic activity in industrialized countries such as the United States,
Canada and France."
A 2003 study sponsored by the Business Marketing Association estimated
that business-to-business marketers in the United States spend about $85
billion a year to promote their goods and services. The BMA study
breaks that spending out as follows (figures are in billions of dollars):
 Trade Shows/Events -- $17.3
 Internet/Electronic Media -- $12.5
 Promotion/Market Support -- $10.9
 Magazine Advertising -- $10.8
 Publicity/Public Relations -- $10.5
 Direct Mail -- $9.4
 Dealer/Distributor Materials -- $5.2
 Market Research -- $3.8
 Telemarketing -- $2.4
 Directories -- $1.4
 Other -- $5.1
g) Growth
The tremendous growth and change that business marketing is
experiencing is largely due to three "revolutions" occurring around the
world today, according to Morris, Pitt and Honeycutt (2001).
First is the technological revolution. Technology is changing at an
unprecedented pace, and these changes are speeding up the pace of

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new product and service development. A large part of that has to do
with the Internet, which is discussed in more detail below.
Technology and business strategy go hand in hand. Both are correlated.
While technology supports forming organization strategy, the business
strategy is also helpful in technology development. Both play a great role
in business marketing.
Second is the entrepreneurial revolution. To stay competitive, many
companies have downsized and reinvented themselves. Adaptability,
flexibility, speed, aggressiveness and innovativeness are the keys to
remaining competitive today. Marketing is taking the entrepreneurial lead
by finding market segments, untapped needs and new uses for existing
products, and by creating new processes for sales, distribution and
customer service.
The third revolution is one occurring within marketing itself. Companies
are looking beyond traditional assumptions and they are adopting new
frameworks, theories, models and concepts. They are also moving away
from the mass market and the preoccupation with the transaction.
Relationships, partnerships and alliances are what define marketing today.
The cookie-cutter approach is out. Companies are customizing marketing
programs to individual accounts.
h) Impact of the Internet
The Internet has become an integral component of the customer
relationship management strategy for business marketers. Dwyer and
Tanner (2006) note that business marketers not only use the Internet to
improve customer service but also to gain opportunities with distributors.
According to Anderson and Narus (2004), two new types of resellers
have emerged as by-products of the Internet: infomediaries and
metamediaries. Infomediaries, such as Google and Yahoo, are search
engine companies that also function as brokers, or middlemen, in the

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business marketing world. They charge companies fees to find
information on the Web as well as for banner and pop-up ads and
search engine optimization services. Metamediaries are companies with
robust Internet sites that furnish customers with multiproduct, multivendor
and multiservice market space in return for commissions on sales.
With the advent of b-to-b exchanges, the Internet ushered in an
enthusiasm for collaboration that never existed before—and in fact might
have even seemed ludicrous 10 years ago. For example, a decade ago
who would have imagined Ford, General Motors and DaimlerChrysler
entering into a joint venture? That's exactly what happened after all three
of the Big Three began moving their purchases online in the late 1990s.
All three companies were pursuing their own initiatives when they
realized the economies of scale they could achieve by pooling their
efforts. Thus was born what then was the world's largest Internet
business when Ford's Auto-Xchange and GM's TradeXchange merged,
with DaimlerChrysler representing the third partner.
While this exchange did not stand the test of time, others have, including
Agentrics, which was formed in 2005 with the merger of Worldwide Retail
Exchange and GlobalNetXchange, or GNX. Agentrics serves more 50
retailers around the world and more than 300 customers, and its
members have combined sales of about $1 trillion. Hutt and Speh (2001)
note that such virtual marketplaces enable companies and their suppliers
to conduct business in real time as well as simplify purchase processes
and cut costs.
A Glance over Forging, Die Casting, Machining, Precision
Engineering And Stamping
What is forging?

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Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or
squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The
process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the metal to
a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the
forging process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry) process, as
metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured (as in the casting
process).
How big is the forging industry?
The forging industry is composed of those plants that:
a) Make parts to order for customers (referred to as custom forgings);
b) Make parts for their own company's internal use (referred to as captive
forgings); or
c) Make standard parts for resale (referred to as catalog forgings).
The largest sector - custom forging - accounts for over $6 billion dollars in
sales annually. These custom forgings are produced by about 250 forging
companies in approximately 300 plants across the U.S., Canada and Mexico.
What metals are forged?
Just about any metal can be forged. However, some of the most
common metals include: carbon, alloy and stainless steels; very hard tool
steels; aluminum; titanium; brass and copper; and high-temperature alloys
which contain cobalt, nickel or molybdenum. Each metal has distinct strength
or weight characteristics that best apply to specific parts as determined by the
customer.
What kind of equipment is used to make forgings?

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Although the styles and drive systems vary widely, a forging can be
produced on any of the following pieces of equipment.
Hammers with a driving force of up to 50,000 pounds, pound the metal
into shape with controlled high pressure impact blows.
Presses with a driving force of up to 50,000 tons, squeeze the metal
into shape vertically with controlled high pressure.
Upsetters are basically forging presses used horizontally for a forging
process known as "upsetting".
Ring Rollers turn a hollow round piece of metal under extreme pressure
against a rotating roll, thereby squeezing out a one-piece ring (with no
welding required).
Forging Processes
There are basically three methods (or processes) to make a forged part.
Impression Die Forging:
Impression die forging pounds or presses metal between two dies (called
tooling) that contain a precut profile of the desired part. Parts from a few
ounces to 60,000 lbs. can be made using this process. Some of the smaller
parts are actually forged cold.
Cold Forging:
Most forging is done as hot work, at temperatures up to 2300 degrees F,
however, a variation of impression die forging is cold forging. Cold forging
encompasses many processes -- bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining,
extrusions and more, to yield a diverse range of part shapes. The temperature

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of metals being cold forged may range from room temperature to several
hundred degrees.
Open Die Forging:
Open die forging is performed between flat dies with no precut profiles is
the dies. Movement of the work piece is the key to this method. Larger parts
over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in length can be hammered or pressed into
shape this way.
Seamless Rolled Ring Forging:
Seamless rolled ring forging is typically performed by punching a hole in
a thick, round piece of metal (creating a donut shape), and then rolling and
squeezing (or in some cases, pounding) the donut into a thin ring. Ring
diameters can be anywhere from a few inches to 30 feet.
Application of Forged Components
The forging process can create parts that are stronger than those
manufactured by any other metalworking process. This is why forgings are
almost always used where reliability and human safety are critical. But you'll
rarely see forgings, as they are normally component parts contained inside
assembled items such an airplanes, automobiles, tractors, ships, oil drilling
equipment, engines, missiles and all kinds of capital equipment - to name a
few
Automotive & Truck:
The characteristics of forged parts strength, reliability and economy are
what make them ideal for vital automotive and truck applications. Forged
components are commonly found at points of shock and stress such as wheel
spindles, kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms,
pitman arms and steering arms. Another common application is in the power

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train, where connecting rods, transmission shafts and gears, differential gears,
drive shafts, clutch hubs and universal joints are often forged. Although typically
forged from carbon or alloy steel, other materials such as aluminum and micro
alloyed steels are seeing great advances in forged auto and truck applications.
Agricultural Machinery & Equipment:
Strength, toughness and economy are also important in farm implements. In
addition to engine and transmission components, key forgings subjected to
impact and fatigue range from gears, shafts, levers and spindles to tie-rod
ends, spike harrow teeth and cultivator shafts.
Valves, Fittings, Oil Field Applications:
Because of their superior mechanical properties and freedom from porosity,
forgings are often associated with the high pressure applications of the valve
and fitting industry. Corrosion and heat-resistant materials are used for flanges,
valve bodies and stems, tees, elbow reducers, saddles and other fittings. Oil
field applications include rock cutter bits, drilling hardware, and high-pressure
valves and fittings.
Hand Tools & Hardware:
Forged has traditionally been the mark of quality in hand tools and
hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledges, wrenches and garden tools, as well as
wire-rope clips, sockets, hooks, turnbuckles and eye bolts are common
examples. Surgical and dental instruments are also often forged. Special
hardware for electrical transmission and distribution lines such as pedestal
caps, suspension clamps, sockets and brackets are commonly forged for
strength, dependability and resistance to corrosion.
Off-Highway Equipment/Railroad:
Strength, toughness, machinability and economy account for the many
uses of forgings in off-highway and heavy construction equipment, mining

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equipment, and material handling applications. In addition to engine and
transmission parts, forgings are used for a wide variety of gears, sprockets,
levers, shafts, spindles, ball joints, wheel hubs, rollers, yokes, axle beams,
bearing holders and links.
General Industrial Equipment:
Forgings of great size are often found in industrial equipment and
machinery used by the steel, textile, paper, power generation and transmission,
chemical and refinery industries to name just a few. Typical forged
configurations include bars, blanks, blocks, connecting rods, cylinders, discs,
elbows, rings, T's, shafts and sleeves.
Ordnance/Shipbuilding:
Forged components are found in virtually every implement of defense,
from rifle triggers to nuclear submarine drive shafts. Heavy tanks, missiles,
armored personnel carriers, shells and other heavy artillery are common
defense-related applications of forged components.
Aerospace:
High strength-to-weight ratio and structural reliability can favorably
influence performance, range, and payload capabilities of aircraft. Made of
various ferrous, non-ferrous and special alloy materials, forgings are widely
used in commercial jets, helicopters, piston-engine planes, military aircraft and
spacecraft. Some examples of where a forging's versatility of size, shape and
properties make it an ideal component include bulkheads, wing roots and spars,
hinges, engine mounts, brackets, beams, shafts, landing gear cylinders and
struts, wheels, brake carriers and discs and arresting hooks. In jet turbine
engines, iron-base, nickel-base and cobalt-base super alloys are forged into
components such as discs, blades, buckets, couplings, manifolds, rings,
chambers and shafts.

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Defects In Metal Forging
Inspection is an important aspect of metal forging manufacture. All parts
should be checked for defects after the manufacturing process is complete.
Defects of metal forged product include exterior cracking, interior cracking,
laps, cold shuts, warping of the part, improperly formed sections and dead
zones.
Cracking both interior and exterior is caused by excessive stress, or
improper stress distribution as the part is being formed. Cracking of a forging
can be the result of poorly designed forging die or excess material in the work
piece. Cracks can also be caused by disproportionate temperature distributions
during the manufacturing operation. High thermal gradients can cause cracks in
a forged part.
Laps or folds in a metal forging are caused by a buckling of the part, laps can
be a result of too little material in the work piece. Cold shuts occur when
metal flows of different temperatures meet, they do not combine smoothly, a
boundary layer, (cold shut), forms at their intersection. Cold shuts indicate that
there is a problem with metal flow in the mold as the part is being formed.
Warping of a forged part can happen when thinner sections cool faster than
the rest of the forging.
Improperly formed sections and dead zones can be a result of too little metal
in the work piece or flawed forging die design resulting in incorrect material
distribution during the process.
In general, defects in parts manufactured by metal forging can be controlled
first by careful consideration of work stock volume, and by good design of both
the forging die, (mold), and the process. The main principle is to enact the
right material distributions, and the right material flow to accomplish these
distributions. Die cavity geometry and corner radius play a large role in the
action of the metal. Forging die design and forging process design will be
discussed in later sections.

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Die Casting
Die casting is a versatile process for producing engineered metal parts
by forcing molten metal under high pressure into reusable steel molds. These
molds, called dies, can be designed to produce complex shapes with a high
degree of accuracy and repeatability. Parts can be sharply defined, with smooth
or textured surfaces, and are suitable for a wide variety of attractive and
serviceable finishes.
Die castings are among the highest volume, mass-produced items
manufactured by the metalworking industry, and they can be found in
thousands of consumer, commercial and industrial products. Die cast parts are
important components of products ranging from automobiles to toys. Parts can
be as simple as a sink faucet or as complex as a connector housing.
Die cast parts are found in many places around the home. The polished,
plated zinc die casting in this kitchen faucet illustrates one of the many finishes
possible with die casting.
These connector housings are examples of the durable, highly accurate
components that can be produced with today’s modern die casting
History:
The earliest examples of die casting by pressure injection - as opposed
to casting by gravity pressure - occurred in the mid-1800s. A patent was
awarded to Sturges in 1849 for the first manually operated machine for casting
printing type. The process was limited to printer’s type for the next 20 years,
but development of other shapes began to increase toward the end of the
century. By 1892, commercial applications included parts for phonographs and

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cash registers, and mass production of many types of parts began in the early
1900s.
The first die casting alloys were various compositions of tin and lead, but
their use declined with the introduction of zinc and aluminum alloys in 1914.
Magnesium and copper alloys quickly followed, and by the 1930s, many of the
modern alloys still in use today became available.
The die casting process has evolved from the original low-pressure
injection method to techniques including high-pressure casting — at forces
exceeding 4500 pounds per square inch — squeeze casting and semi-solid die
casting. These modern processes are capable of producing high integrity, near
net-shape castings with excellent surface finishes.
The Future:
Refinements continue in both the alloys used in die casting and the
process itself, expanding die casting applications into almost every known
market. Once limited to simple lead type, today’s die casters can produce
castings in a variety of sizes, shapes and wall thicknesses that are strong,
durable and dimensionally precise.
Cast metals
The main die casting alloys are: zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper,
lead, and tin; although uncommon, ferrous die casting is also possible. Specific
die casting alloys include: Zamak; zinc aluminium; aluminium to, e.g.
The Aluminum Association (AA) standards: AA 380, AA 384, AA 386, AA
390; and AZ91D magnesium. The following is a summary of the advantages of
each alloy:

Page 45 of 84
 Zinc: the easiest metal to cast; high ductility; high impact strength; easily
plated; economical for small parts; promotes long die life.
 Aluminium: lightweight; high dimensional stability for complex shapes and
thin walls; good corrosion resistance; good mechanical properties; high
thermal and electrical conductivity; retains strength at high temperatures.
 Magnesium: the easiest metal to machine; excellent strength-to-weight
ratio; lightest alloy commonly die cast.
 Copper: high hardness; high corrosion resistance; highest mechanical
properties of alloys die cast; excellent wear resistance; excellent
dimensional stability; strength approaching that of steel parts.
 Silicon tombac: high-strength alloy made of copper, zinc and silicon.
Often used as an alternative for investment casted steel parts.
 Lead and tin: high density; extremely close dimensional accuracy; used
for special forms of corrosion resistance. Such alloys are not used in
foodservice applications for public health reasons. Type metal, an alloy of
lead, tin and antimony (with sometimes traces of copper) is used for
casting hand-set type in letterpress printing and hot foil blocking.
Traditionally cast in hand jerk moulds now predominantly die cast after
the industrialization of the type foundries. Around 1900 the slug casting
machines came onto the market and added further automation, with
sometimes dozens of casting machines at one newspaper office.
The Advantages of Die Casting
Die casting is an efficient, economical process offering a broader range
of shapes and components than any other manufacturing technique. Parts have
long service life and may be designed to complement the visual appeal of the
surrounding part. Designers can gain a number of advantages and benefits by
specifying die cast parts.
High-speed production:

Page 46 of 84
Die casting provides complex shapes within closer tolerances than many
other mass production processes. Little or no machining is required and
thousands of identical castings can be produced before additional tooling is
required.
Dimensional accuracy and stability:
Die casting produces parts that are durable and dimensionally stable,
while maintaining close tolerances. They are also heat resistant.
Strength and weight:
Die cast parts are stronger than plastic injection moldings having the
same dimensions. Thin wall castings are stronger and lighter than those
possible with other casting methods. Plus, because die castings do not consist
of separate parts welded or fastened together, the strength is that of the alloy
rather than the joining process.
Multiple finishing techniques:
Die cast parts can be produced with smooth or textured surfaces and
they are easily plated or finished with a minimum of surface preparation.
Simplified Assembly:
Die castings provide integral fastening elements, such as bosses and
studs. Holes can be cored and made to tap drill sizes, or external threads can
be cast.
Die Casting Process Cycle
The process cycle for die casting consists of five main stages, which are
explained below. The total cycle time is very short, typically between two (2)
seconds and one (1) minute.

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1. Clamping:
The first step is the preparation and clamping of the two halves of the
die. Each die half is first cleaned from the previous injection and then
lubricated to facilitate the ejection of the next part. The lubrication on time
increases with part size, as well as the number of cavities and side cores.
Also, lubrication, the two die halves, which are attached inside the die casting
machine, are closed and securely clamped together sufficient force must be
applied to the die to keep it securely closed while the metal is injected. The
required to close and clamp the die is dependent upon the machine larger
machines (those with greater clamping forces) Will required more time. This
time can be estimated form the dry cycle time of the machine.
2. Injection:
The molten metal, which is maintained at a set temperature in the
furnace, is next transferred into a chamber where it can be injected into the
die. The method of transferring the molten metal is dependent upon the type of
die casting machine, whether a hot chamber or cold chamber machine is being
used. The difference in this equipment will be detailed in the next section.
Once transferred, the molten metal is injected at high pressures into the die.
Typical injection pressure ranges from 1,000 to 20,000 psi. This pressure holds
the molten metal in the dies during solidification. The amount of metal that is
injected into the die is referred to as the shot. The injection time is the time
required for the molten metal to fill all of the channels and cavities in the die.
This time very short, typically less than 0.1 seconds, in order to prevent early
solidification of any one part of the metal. The proper injection time can be
determined by the thermodynamics properties of the material of the material, as
well as the wall thickness will require a longer injection time. In the case where
a cold chamber die casting machine is being used, the injection time must also
include the time to manually ladle the molten metal into the shot chamber.

Page 48 of 84
3. Cooling:
The molten metal this is injected into the die will begin to cool and
solidify once it enters the die cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the
molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the sating is formed. The die cannot
be opened until the cooling tine has elapsed and the casting is solidified. The
cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the
metal, the maximum wall thickness of the casting, and the complexity of the
die. A greater wall thickness will require a longer cooling time. The geometrics
complexity of the die also requires a longer cooling time because the additional
resistance to the flow of heat.
4. Ejection:
After the predetermined cooling time has passed, the die halves can be
opened and an ejection mechanism can push the casting out of the die cavity.
The time to open the die can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the
machine and the ejection time is determined by the size of the casting’s
envelop and should include time for the casting to fall free of the die. The
ejection mechanism must apply some force to eject the part because during
coiling the part shrinks and adheres to the die. Once the casting is ejected, the
die can be clamped shut for the nest injection.
5. Trimming:
During cooling, the material in the channels of the die will solidify
attached to the casting. This excess material, along with any flash that has
occurred, must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or
sawing or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess
material can be estimated from the size of the casting’s envelope. The scrap
material that results from this trimming is either discarded or can be reused in
the dies casting process. Recycled material may need to be reconditioned to

Page 49 of 84
the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled
metal and reused in the die casting process.
Gravity Die Casting
Sometimes referred to as Permanent Mould, GDC is a repeatable casting
process used for non-ferrous alloy parts, typically aluminium, Zinc and Copper
Base alloys.
The process differs from HPDC in that Gravity- rather than high pressure-
is used to fill the mould with the liquid alloy.
GDC is suited to medium to high volumes products and typically parts are of a
heavier sections than HPDC, but thinner sections than sand casting.
There are three key stages in the process.
1. The heated mould [Die or Tool] is coated with a die release agent. The
release agent spray also has a secondary function in that it aids cooling
of the mould face after the previous part has been removed from the
die.
2. Molten metal is poured into channels in the tool to allow the material to
fill all the extremities of the mould cavity. The metal is either hand
poured using steel ladles or dosed using mechanical methods. Typically,
there is a mould “down sprue” that allows the alloy to enter the mould
cavity from the lower part of the die, reducing the formation of turbulence
and subsequent porosity and inclusions in the finished part.
3. Once the part has cooled sufficiently, the die is opened, either manually
or utilizing mechanical methods.
Advantages:

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 Good dimensional accuracy
 Smoother cast surface finish than sand casting
 Improved mechanical properties compared to sand casting
 Thinner walls can be cast compared to sand casting
 Reverse draft internal pockets and forms can be cast in using preformed
sand core inserts
 Steel pins and inserts can be cast in to the part
 Faster production times compared to other processes.
 Once the tolling is proven, the product quality is very repeatable.
 Outsourced Tooling setup costs can be lower than UK sand casting.
Mold or Tooling
Two dies are used in die casting; one is called the "cover die half" and
the other the "ejector die half". Where they meet is called the parting line.
The cover die contains the sprue (for hot-chamber machines) or shot
hole (for cold-chamber machines), which allows the molten metal to flow into
the dies; this feature matches up with the injector nozzle on the hot-chamber
machines or the shot chamber in the cold-chamber machines. The ejector die
contains the ejector pins and usually the runner, which is the path from the
sprue or shot hole to the mold cavity. The cover die is secured to the
stationary, or front, platen of the casting machine, while the ejector die is
attached to the movable platen. The mold cavity is cut into two cavity inserts,
which are separate pieces that can be replaced relatively easily and bolt into
the die halves.
The dies are designed so that the finished casting will slide off the cover
half of the die and stay in the ejector half as the dies are opened. This
assures that the casting will be ejected every cycle because the ejector half
contains the ejector pins to push the casting out of that die half. The ejector

Page 51 of 84
pins are driven by an ejector pin plate, which accurately drives all of the pins
at the same time and with the same force, so that the casting is not damaged.
The ejector pin plate also retracts the pins after ejecting the casting to prepare
for the next shot. There must be enough ejector pins to keep the overall force
on each pin low, because the casting is still hot and can be damaged by
excessive force. The pins still leave a mark, so they must be located in places
where these marks will not hamper the casting's purpose.
Other die components include cores and slides. Cores are components
that usually produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other
details as well. There are three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose.
Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies
(i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they are fixed, or permanently
attached to the die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way
than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the die
cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate
mechanism. Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form
undercut surfaces. The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the
cost of the dies. Loose cores, also called pick-outs, are used to cast intricate
features, such as threaded holes. These loose cores are inserted into the die
by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the
cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most
expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time.[9]
Other features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the
parting lines. These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or
0.005 in) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly
solidifies and minimizes scrap. No risers are used because the high pressure
ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate.
The most important material properties for the dies are thermal shock
resistance and softening at elevated temperature; other important properties

Page 52 of 84
include hardenability, machinability, heat checking resistance, weldability,
availability (especially for larger dies), and cost. The longevity of a die is
directly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal and the cycle time.
The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened tool steels,
because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved, therefore the
dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up costs.[15]
Metals that are cast
at higher temperatures require dies made from higher alloy steels.[16]
Machining
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material
is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal
process. The processes that have this common theme, controlled material
removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction
from processes of controlled material addition, which are known as additive
manufacturing. Exactly what the "controlled" part of the definition implies can
vary, but it almost always implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just
power tools and hand tools).
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also
be used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites.[1]
A
person who specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or
company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Machining can be
a business, a hobby, or both.[2]
Much of modern day machining is carried out
by computer numerical control (CNC), in which computers are used to control
the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.
Machining operations:
The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling
and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include
shaping, planning, boring, broaching and sawing.

Page 53 of 84
 In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove
material from a rotating work piece to generate a cylindrical shape. The
primary motion is provided by rotating the work piece, and the feed
motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece.
 Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating
tool that typically has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in
a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the work piece to form the
round hole.
o In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a
roughly made hole in a spinning work piece to slightly enlarge the
hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used
in the final stages of product manufacture.
o Reaming, is one of the sizing operation that removes a small
amount of metal from a hole that already drilled.
 In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly
relative to the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The
direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation.
The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two
basic forms of milling are:
o Peripheral milling
o Face milling.
 Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planning,
broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are
often included within the category of machining.

Page 54 of 84
Precision Engineering
Precision engineering is a sub discipline of electrical engineering,
software engineering, electronics engineering, mechanical engineering, and
optical engineering concerned with designing machines, fixtures, and other
structures that have exceptionally low tolerances, are repeatable, and are stable
over time. These approaches have applications in machine tools, MEMS,
NEMS, optoelectronics design, and many other fields.
One of the fundamental principles in precision engineering is that of
determinism. System behavior is fully predictable even to nanometer-scale
motions.
"The basic idea is that machine tools obey cause and effect relationships
that are within our ability to understand and control and that there is nothing
random or probabilistic about their behavior. Everything happens for a reason
and the list of reasons is small enough to manage.
By this we mean that machine tool errors obey cause-and-effect
relationships, and do not vary randomly for no reason. Further, the causes are
not esoteric and uncontrollable, but can be explained in terms of familiar
engineering principles."
The following are goals for precision engineering:
1. Create a highly precise movement.
2. Reduce the dispersion of the product's or part's function.
3. Eliminate fitting and promote assembly, especially automatic assembly.
4. Reduce the initial cost.
5. Reduce the running cost.
6. Extend the life span.
7. Enable the design safety factor to be lowered.

Page 55 of 84
8. Improve interchangeability of components so that corresponding parts
made by other factories or firms can be used in their place.
9. Improve quality control through higher machine accuracy capabilities and
hence reduce scrap, rework, and conventional inspection.
10.Achieve a greater wear/fatigue life of components.
11.Make functions independent of one another.
12.Achieve greater miniaturization and packing densities.
13.Achieve further advances in technology and the underlying sciences."
Surface Treatment of metals
Treatment of metals can be of essential importance in many industries. It
is not a new process, but a process that dates back as early as mankind
started using gold decoratively before 4000 BC.
Today there can be several reasons why it is necessary to change the
surface properties of metals. For example is surface treatment of metals used
for:
 Decoration and/or reflectivity
 Improved hardness (eg. for resistance to damage and wear)
 Prevention of corrosion
Treatment of metal surfaces plays an enormous role in extending the life
of metals, such as in automotive bodies and construction materials; an often
seen application is cleaning of stainless steel bodies for windows, etc.
Almost every industry will have a need for metal surface treatment
equipment. Among the industries who today use metal surface treatment
include the following; the automotive industry, the construction industry, the
Container industry, the electrical industry, the medical industry, industrial

Page 56 of 84
equipment, industries using laboratory equipment, aerospace, and several
other industries. The range of components treated varies from: spectacle
frames, components for automotive, screws, nuts, bolts, different tools and
many others.
Understanding the Surface Treatment of Metal:
Compared to other surfaces that need treatment prior to coating, printing,
or adhesion etc. there are a number of different methods available for the
surface treatment of metal. Surface treatment of metal is a process in which
parts or components made out of metal or plastic are treated before any actual
coating takes place.
The purpose of this treatment is increasing the surface energy level of a
particular metal surface so that it can easily adhere to the printing or coating
that is about take place. This type of treatment is usually known as the
coatings pretreatment. Surface treatment of metal involves the creation of a
barrier that acts like a wall protecting the metal in an environment that’s
corrosive.
The surface layer forming on a metal that is scheduled for chemical
coating is created due to a chemical reaction that’s non-electrolytic in nature.
The reaction occurs between a solution and the metals surface. These layers
are amorphous and adherent. For allowing the surface treatment of metal to
form a shielding layer, the metal being used as a base should be converted
into a component that’s less reactive towards corrosion in comparison to the
metal surface being used in the first place.
In order to conduct a successful surface treatment of metal, the layer
formed on the metals surface should be able to pass on the same amount of
potential throughout. The layer should also be able to neutralize any areas
showing signs of cathodic or anodic corrosion. Only then can surface treatment

Page 57 of 84
of metal provide a base that’s absorptive for adhesion to paints and other
finishes.
The process of metal surface treatment involves more than a few steps.
Firstly, the stamping compounds and mill oils are cleaned away from the
surface leading to rinsing post phosphates. This is followed by the application
of an organic-inorganic sealer. And finally, the surface is rinsed with water
that’s free of contaminants e.g. water obtained through reverse osmosis or
deionization. After being rinsed, the surface is taken to an oven that dries off
the surface. Here, all the moisture is completely removed before a metal can
enter the painting process.
Types of Conversion Coatings:
There are several types of conversion coatings used in the surface
treatment process. Some of these are given below.
1. Coating with Oxides:
Coatings done by the help of oxides are actually corrosion products that
include an oxide with negligible thickness leading to good adhesion. These
treatments are usually done through electrochemical reactions, heat, or
chemicals.
2. Chromate Coating
These coatings involve the process of chemical conversion formed by a
reaction occurring between chromium salts or chromic acid water solutions.
Chromate coatings can be applied on cadmium, zinc, magnesium and aluminum
because of their resistance towards atmospheric corrosion. These coatings are
extensively used for protecting hardware items used as household products.

Page 58 of 84
3. Phosphate Coating
These coatings also involve chemical conversion of metal surfaces.
Phosphate crystals are formed on material surfaces containing zinc, manganese
or iron phosphates. Generally, phosphate coatings are applied on cast iron,
low-alloy steel and carbon steel. Though, these can be applied on cadmium,
tin, aluminum and zinc too.
Which materials can be successfully treated?
Almost all commonly used base materials are easily treated. The material
list below includes materials both plastic and metals:
PP PE PES Teflon (PTFE)
Polymers PC ABS PS
EPDM TPF TPE Stainless Steel
Aluminium And
Many other metals
Surface Finishing
Surface finishing is a broad range of industrial processes that alter the
surface of a manufactured item to achieve a certain property. Finishing
processes may be employed to: improve appearance, adhesion or wettability,
solderability, corrosion resistance, tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear
resistance, hardness, modify electrical conductivity, remove burrs and other
surface flaws, and control the surface friction. In limited cases some of these
techniques can be used to restore original dimensions to salvage or repair an
item. An unfinished surface is often called mill finish.

Page 59 of 84
Surface finishing processes can be categorized by how they affect the
work piece:
 Removing or reshaping finishing
 Adding or altering finishing
Mechanical processes may also be categorized together because of
similarities the final surface finish.
Mechanical finishing
Mechanical finishing processes include:
 Abrasive blasting
o Sandblasting
 Burnishing
 Grinding
 Mass finishing processes
o Tumble finishing
o Vibratory finishing
 Polishing
o Buffing
o Lapping
The use of abrasives in metal polishing results in what is considered a
"mechanical finish".
Metal finish designations:
#3 Finish:
Also known as grinding, roughing or rough grinding. These finishes are
coarse in nature and usually are a preliminary finish applied before

Page 60 of 84
manufacturing. An example would be grinding gates off of castings, deburring
or removing excess weld material. It is coarse in appearance and applied by
using 36–100 grit abrasive. When the finish is specified as #3, the material is
polished to a uniform 60–80 grit.
#4 Architectural Finish:
Also known as brushed, directional or satin finish. A #4 architectural finish is
characterized by fine polishing grit lines that are uniform and directional in
appearance. It is produced by polishing the metal with a 120–180 grit belt or
wheel finish and then softened with an 80–120 grit greaseless compound or a
medium non-woven abrasive belt or pad.
#4 Dairy or sanitary finish:
This finish is commonly used for the medical and food industry and
almost exclusively used on stainless steel. This finish is much finer than a #4
architectural finish. This finish enhances the physical appearance of the metal
as well as increases the sanitary benefits. One takes great care to remove any
surface defects in the metal, like pits, that could allow bacteria to grow. A #4
dairy or sanitary finish is produced by polishing with a 180–240 grit belt or
wheel finish softened with 120–240 grit greaseless compound or a fine non-
woven abrasive belt or pad.
#6 Finish:
Also known as a fine satin finish. This finish is produced by polishing
with a 220–280 grit belt or wheel softened with a 220–230 greaseless compound
or very fine non-woven abrasive belt or pad. Polishing lines will be soft and
less reflective than a #4 architectural finish.
#7 Finish:

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