Making India a scientific and intellectual powerhouse FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdf

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Copyright@Sujay Rao Mandavilli, all rights reserved
Making India a scientific and
an intellectual powerhouse: Why
we should also help everyone else
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Published in Google books, April 2024

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Introduction

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Humans have let their creative juices flow since early times; the invention of fire, proto-writing, pottery,
arts and crafts, agriculture and metal-making would bear ample testimony to this. Among early
contributions to science and technology, the contributions made by early Mesopotamians are highly
impressive. They made stellar contributions to metal-working, glass and lamp making, architecture, the
production of textiles and weaving, flood control, water storage and irrigation. They also invented the
earliest form of true writing, namely Cuneiform in the middle of the fourth millennium before Christ.
Writing was usually mastered by scribes who were small in number in relation to the total population,
and was composed on clay tablets. The Epic of Gilgamesh is among the world’s earliest literature, and is
attributed to ancient Mesopotamia. Libraries are also believed to have existed in Ancient Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamians made stellar contributions to mathematics, map making, medicine and astronomy too,
though true intellectualism in the modern sense of the term probably did not exist then.
Egyptians made important contributions to new technologies and concepts such as mummification,
medicine, irrigation, agriculture, glass-making, engineering, astronomy and grand architecture. They also
invented paper, their own form of hieroglyphic writing, and built libraries, too. Indian science too took
off in a big way in early ancient times, and Indian innovation can be traced back to Mehrgarh, a pre-
Indus valley civilization site, now in Pakistan. Harappans developed metallurgy, irrigation, agriculture,
architecture, their own form of writing besides other inventions and innovations such as weights and
measures. Alphabetic scripts and iron-making took off in Post-Harappan cultures in the Gangetic plains,
where there was some continuity with Harappan cultures, and Ancient Indians made contributions to
mathematics, astronomy and medicine too. In the fifth century BC, the grammarian Panini made
important contributions to the study of Sanskrit grammar. An account of Ancient India is provided by
Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to
philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum,
Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya,
Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and
unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Ancient Indian scholars
and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.
The ancient Chinese too made significant technological advancements. Their innovations included
numerous advancements in the fields of mathematics, natural sciences, engineering, medicine, military
technology, geology and astronomy. Their important inventions include paper making, the abacus, the
sundial, and the Kongming lantern. Their four great inventions are compass, gunpowder, paper making
and printing. The Chinese also developed their own writing system, and contributed to literature in a big
way. In imperial China, intellectuals were termed as scholar officials or scholar gentlemen who made
important contributions to society. They had to pass examinations conducted by the king, and were
then granted academic degrees.
Ancient Greece was a major centre of analytical thought and intellectualism, and intellectualism
particularly flourished there between the fifth century before Christ to around the second century after
Christ. Greek intellectual traditions were even superior to, and easily eclipsed later Roman traditions.
Inventions that are often attributed to the ancient Greeks include the gear, screw, the watermill, metal
casting techniques, the water clock etc. Greeks also made contributions to historiography, geography,

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and cartography. Greek thinkers have included Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus, Archimedes, Epicurus, Thales
of Miletus, and many, many others. Roman intellectualism was not as sophisticated as that of the
Greeks, though they made some important contributions to military technology and the art and the
science of warfare. Some time before the rise of contemporary Western civilization, the Islamic golden
age was a golden age of science and culture when polymath such as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Sina were born.
Baghdad was then the centre of Islamic scientific traditions. Many ancient works particularly from
Greek, were translated into Arabic and Persian during this period. Algebra, geometry, and calculus were
developed during this period. This age is also characterized by moderate Islam, government sponsorship
of intellectualism, the adoption of new technology, and an openness to diverse influences.
The modern glorious Western age of science, technology and intellectualism began with the renaissance
and the enlightenment. “Renaissance” is a French word which means “rebirth.” This term refers to a
period in European civilization typically covering the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and following the
dark middle ages that was characterized by a revival of classical learning and wisdom, and the desire to
revive and surpass a golden past. The renaissance is believed to have begun in Florence, Italy, and then
spread across Europe. The intellectual basis of the Renaissance movement was an early version
of humanism, derived from the Roman concept “humanitas” and the rediscovery of Ancient Greek
philosophy and values. This period is marked by a flourishing of art, architecture, literature, science and
politics. The extended renaissance period saw great scientists and thinkers such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac
Newton, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Tycho Brahe emerge. Leornado Da Vinci and
Michelangelo were also important polymaths of this era.
The Age of Enlightenment also commonly known as “the Age of reason”, was an important intellectual
and philosophical movement that began in Europe, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and
had far-reaching implications worldwide. This period saw the emergence of contemporary values such
as liberty, equality, fraternity, religious tolerance, individual rights, progress, scientific temper and a
separation of the church from the state. This period was preceded by the scientific revolution, and the
works of important philosophers such ad Francis Bacon, Montesquieu, Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant,
Rene Descartes, Adam Smith and John Locke. These were the important intellectuals of the period who
also made several important contributions to human advancement. Important published works during
this era were the “Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progres de l'esprit humain”, “L’encyclopedie”,
“Letters on the English”, “The wealth of nations”, “A treatise of human nature”, and the “spirit of the
laws”. 1 2
Since then most important intellectuals have tended to be Western-based (intellectualism has also been
western-centric, and most important technological advancements have occurred there) even though the
East has already partly risen. Western intellectuals like Karl Marx and Noam Chomsky have exhibited
decidedly Eurocentric approaches and tendencies, and this may partly stem from a lack of
understanding or appreciation of other cultures. Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have
1 Assis, Arthur Alfaix (2021). "History of Ideas and Its Surroundings". In: Bloomsbury History: Theory and Method. London: Bloomsbury
Publishing
2 Horowitz, Maryanne Cline, ed. (2004). New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0684313771.

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taken off in a big way beginning from the end of the twentieth century particularly in varied fields of
technology. They have however lagged behind in true science and true intellectualism. Non-western
scholars and thinkers have blindly copied western concepts and paradigms in their own contexts
without modification or alteration, and this holds true even for relatively much less intellectual pursuits
such as the development of new local-specific economic models. India produced some great scientific
minds in the early part of the twentieth century. Examples were Sir CV Raman, Srinivasa Ramanujam,
Jagadish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray, Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad Saha, Har Gobind
Khorana, Subramanyan Chandrashekar, and Yellapragada Subbarao. However, India’s scientific output
suffered a stagnation in the opening decades of India’s independence. It is only in the past one decade,
that we have seen positive winds of change blow. India now stands at number three in the world in term
of the number of scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals, though the quality of academic
scholarship may leave something to be desired in many cases.
Indian thinkers are mainly classified into left-leaning thinkers and right-leaning thinkers. We may note
here that the idea of the left and right arose from a seating arrangement in the French assembly in 1789
(around the time of the French revolution); it is from here that these terms spread to other parts of the
world, and the concept is similar in different countries across and around the world, though there are
indeed some differences and variations from context to context. There is also some consistency of
interpretation with regard to the terms left and right in the popular imagination, even though variations
and misunderstandings sometimes still persist. Others have sought to measure left-right orientation
through the use of measurement techniques, but such efforts may essentially be pointless. (Laponce
1981)
The far right is often associated with pre-scientific construct or non-scientific constructs in India.
Therefore, we have Pushpak Vimanas and Ganesha statues drinking milk. Most of these ideas and
approaches are naturally brushed away and shrugged away by any serious scientist worth his salt. While
we do understand that left-leaning intellectuals and other intellectuals from the non-left have also
attempted to evolve and change with the times particularly in the recent past (we owe a mountain of
debt and gratitude to them for all their endeavours and contributions), we will still argue that the idea
of intellectualism in general still needs a reboot, and that the present state of affairs is far from
satisfactory. These are still too many ideological positions taken, and all current dispensations must
gradually come to an end as a new generation of scholars and researchers take over the field and
provide their crucial and critical inputs. Much of present-day intellectualism is also based on obsolete
paradigms like a blind and a dogmatic opposition to globalization and capitalism regardless of whether it
suits one’s own interests or not. This is particularly true of countries like France and India. Secondly, we
also observe that the field is driven largely by the pursuit of individual interests, and more collective
thought and robust back-to the basics theorization is required which must override all forms of vested
interests.
We also emphasize the need for building robust intellectualism and scientific prowess in India and other
developing countries such that their own causes and interests are advanced. This is somewhat lacking
at the present day and time and the kind of intellectuals revolutions, renaissances and enlightenments
that the Western world has witnessed have not replicated themselves in the rest of the world.

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Sometimes, concepts and ideas are borrowed from the first world slavishly, and without any
modification, adaptation or reconsideration for local conditions. Therefore intellectualism is still widely
driven by Eurocentric considerations and interests. All these factors have apparently therefore stymied
progress in other parts of the world, and in some cases, prevented these regions from regaining their
past glory. The concepts, ideas and ideals presented in this book would overlap with our previously
published papers, and other scholars and researchers must also drive this process forward; they must
also collaborate with other developing countries through horizontal collaboration. Globalized science
activity will also naturally benefit science in general. It is also allow for fundamentally better science to
be birthed and gestated. This is yet another reason why we call for an “Indian enlightenment”, and
enlightmements in other developing countries. We still have some way to go, and some distance to
cover, so when will we see the Raman effect? Direction is also everything, hence we hope that we will
make a humble contribution in setting a tempo and a direction. As an old proverb goes,” The youth may
walk fast, but it is the elders who know the road.”

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Chapter 1
Science in Ancient India

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The Indus Valley Civilization or the IVC in short, also commonly, widely and popularly known as
the Harappan Civilization, was a large Bronze Age civilization which flourished in the northwestern
part of South Asia, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC, though its mature period was between 2600 BC to
1900 BC. Along with Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, it was one of the oldest civilizations in the
world, and spatially the most spread out. This civilization was an ancient river valley civilization, and
flourished along the course of the Indus river and the now dry Ghagra Hakkar river, sometimes also
known as the Saraswathi river. The civilizations most important sites, Mohenjodaro and Harappa were
excavated in the 1920’s, though its ruins were noted as early as the middle of the nineteenth century.
The cities of the Indus valley civilization were well-planned, had baked brick houses and multi storey
tenaments, underground drainage and sewerage systems, external water supply systems, irrigation
systems etc, besides metallurgy, and long-distance maritime trade. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may
have had over fifty thousand individuals, and the civilization may have contained between one and five
million individuals during its peak.
The people of the Indus civilization also achieved an impressive accuracy in measuring length, mass, and
time. The people of the Indus valley civilization are also believed to have developed an elaborate system
of weights and measures based on cubical stone weights, with a fairly high level of standardization,
though differences from region to region were also noted. These weights and measures were believed
to have been used in trade, commerce, and construction. According to the site Harappa.com, Harappan
weights conformed to a standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in almost all the
settlements. The smallest weight in this series is thought to be 0.856 grams and the most common
weight weighs approximately 13.7 grams, in a 1:16 ratio. However, decimal increases were noted in case
of the larger weights. Chert weights were in multiples of 28 grams, similar to the English imperial ounce,
or the Greek unia. Bricks were in the ratio of 4:2:1. It is obvious therefore, that Harappans had some
knowledge of geometry.
Ivory rulers were also used. Harappans also were expert metalworkers, and used a wide variety of
metals such as copper, bronze, tin, silver and gold, besides other types of precious stones. They also
produced and developed a wide variety of ceramics. They also developed new techniques in metal
working, and could even test the purity of gold. Interestingly, they also developed polished metal
mirrors, and used furnaces, kilns and hearths to attain controlled temperatures of several hundred
degrees centigrade. The Harappans also built docks and ports such as Lotha, and elites even traded with
West Asia. They also therefore possessed knowledge of the tides and ocean currents. Complex canal
systems were also used for irrigation, along with dams. Farms were ploughed used oxen and ploughs. 3
Science in Post-Harappan India
In Vedic, we have evidence of use of basic geometrical concepts, as evidenced from the Shatapata
Brahmana, a text published in the ninth century before Christ, and from the works of Baudhyana who
lived in the eighth century before Christ. Large numbers and relatively complex calculations were also
being routinely employed and used. By the time of the Yajur Veda which is the last Veda, numbers as
3 Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.

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high as ten to the power of eighteen are believed to have been used. It is even claimed that concepts
similar to Pythogorean statements were used, and some formulas were provided by Baudhayana, and
others. The earliest Indian astronomical text was the Vedanga Jyotisa and and dated back from 700 to
600 BCE, though it was perhaps only compiled in the final centuries of the pre-Christian era, according to
more conservative scholars like Witzel, and others. This text contained both astronomical calculations,
as well as calendrical studies. The Sushruta Samhita was an ancient Sanskrit medical treatise penned by
Sushruta. It describes several medical illnesses, and proposes treatments for them, including treatments
from plant and animal sources. It also contains descriptions of different forms of surgeries. Additionally,
the Atharva Veda also contains a description of some medical treatments. Metal currency was also
minted in ancient India by the fifth century before Christ. Chariots were also used in ancient India, and
these have been archaeologically attested since 1500 BC in places such as Sinauli. The Harappan did not
know the use of iron; however, the use of iron is attested in the Gangetic plains from around 1800 BC,
implying a complex acculturation process.45
Some other scholarly fields of study such as linguistics also flourished in Ancient India. During the fifth
century before Christ, the grammarian and philologist Panini made several advances in the fields
of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. He also wrote the first treatise on Sanksrit grammar. The
most important of Panini's works, the Astadhyayi is a grammar that details the features of the Sanskrit
language. Though this largely deals with classical Sanskrit, the text also describes some characteristics of
the much older Vedic Sanskrit. The Tamil grammar Tholkappiyam was penned by Tholkappiyar in circa
500 BC. Nalanda was an early centre of learning and was believed to have been founded around 2000-
1500 years ago, or so. It ruins occupy a total areas of fourteen hectares, and scholars from different
parts of the subcontinent may have come here to study. Scholars such as Aryabhatta are also believed
to have taught there. Taxila is believed to have been another centre of learning. This is believed to have
been around 2500 years old.
An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to
be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the
Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or
Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga
and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and
Jaina traditions. The Mimimsa school of thought employed rational and critical thought and investigative
analysis. The Charvaka school of thought did not believe in the existence of God, or a supernatural
entity. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta,
Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.
Sushruta was the listed author of the Sushruta Samhita, a treatise that is considered to be one of the
most important surviving ancient treatises on medicine and is considered a foundational text
4 Allchin, F. Raymond, ed. (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
5 Yajus recension, non-Yajus verses of Rk recension, edited: G. Thibaut, "Contributions to the Explanation of the Jyotisha-Vedánga", Journal of
the Asiatic Society Bengal Vol 46 (1877)

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of Ayurveda. He probably lived in Kasi, Benares, or Varanasi one of the Mahajanapadas around 800 to
700 BC. Baudhayana who lived around the same period, i.e. 800 BC to 700 BC is credited with having
made many important contributions to mathematics. He is also often credited for authoring the earliest
Sulba Sutras. Charaka was another important physician who lived in the fourth century before Christ
probably in Kashmir. He is the author of Charaka Samhita which is one of the foundational medical texts
from Ancient India. Likewise, Agnivesha may have also contributed to Ayurveda at an earlier date, but
this is disputed.
Brahmagupta who lived in the seventh century after Christ, was an important
Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was the author of two very early works
on mathematics and astronomy, namely, the Brahmasphuta siddhanta , and the Khandakhadyaka .
Brahmagupta also is believed to have been the first to describe gravity, and used the Sanskrit term
gurutvakarsanam to describe it. Bhaskara II, was another important mathematician and astronomer
from the twelfth century. He is known was his work Siddhanta Shiromani which was written in 1150 AD,
and is a treatise on algebra. He must be distinguished from Bhaskara I who lived in the seventh century.
Vaisesika Sutra or Kanada Sutra was authored by the philosopher Kanada before the second century BC,
and was an important philosophical and scientific treatise. Nagarjuna was an important Buddhist
philosopher of the second century after Christ. Varahamihira was an important philosopher who lived in
Ujjain in the sixth century after Christ. He is known for works such as Pancha-siddhantika, Brhat-samhita,
and Brihajjataka. Chanakya of the fourth century before Christ was a political strategist and a well-read
polymath. He is known for his work Arthasastra.
Aryabhata, or Aryabhata I was another extraordinary and brilliant astronomer and mathematician that
India has produced. He lived in the fifth century, and is sometimes called the “Father of Indian
Mathematics.” His seminal work, Aryabhatiya, introduced the concept of zero, decimal notation, and a
precise approximation of the value of pi. He also furnished calculations of the planetary positions,
eclipses, and the rotation of the Earth. Aryabhatta II was less influential and lived in the tenth century.
He authored the book Maha-Siddhanta. In the Seleucid era and the Sassanid period, there were cross-
cultural exchanges between India, Persia and Greece, and a flow of ideas often took place between
disparate geographical territories. In the twelfth century, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed
account of irrigation networks and hydraulic engineering.
In the 1190’s, forces led by Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed Nalanda and laid waste to most of its books. India
subsequently came under Islamic rule. Islam also saw and witnessed a growth in science with Baghdad
as its epicenter. However, the statement that the Arabs were somewhat indebted to the Indians, is an
understatement. Ibrahim al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn Tariq translated several Indian scholarly works into
Arabic, and works by Indian scholars such as Bramhagupta were highly sought after. Under Caliph Harun
al-Rashid in the eighth century, Sushrutha's work Sushruta Samhita was translated into Arabic.
Furthermore, the notable Arabic medical work Kitab al-hawi and other contemporary texts also showed
several Indian influences. There was some scientific progress in Islamic India. The Mughals encouraged
many different scientific disciplines, such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. They are also
known for the development of military technology and cannons. Many architectural marvels are
attributed to the Islamic period.

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Chapter 2
Science in Colonial India

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Several colonial powers such as the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the English, competed for
trading rights in India, and even eventually became very deeply involved in political and military rivalries
in India. These colonial powers would eventually go on to rewrite the political history of the Indian
subcontinent. The Portuguese were the first to land on Indian soil, and the first Portuguese to land in
Indian soil was Vasco De Gama in the year 1498. They would thrive and flourish in their own small
colonies, but Portuguese power was soon eclipsed by English power. The Portuguese held on to Goa till
1961. The Portuguese traveler Filippo Sassetti also became the first to speculate on the grammatical
relationships between European and Indian languages. The Dutch East India Company was formed in
1602 and the Dutch arrived in Indian soil a few years later. The Dutch first landed in Machilipatnam on
the Coromandel coast in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Their presence in the Indian
subcontinent lasted till the year 1825. The French adventure in India began in the year 1673 with the
establishment of the French East India Company and had five small colonies in Pondicherry, Mahe,
Karaikal, Yanam and Chandranagore. Their presence continued until 1962 when these French territories
ware handed over to India.
The British East India Company emerged as the dominant trading company. This was also known as the
East India Company or the EIC in short, and was an English joint-stock company founded in 1600 and
dissolved in 1874. It was formed with the intention to trade in the Indian Ocean region, including India
and South East Asia. India, however, was the jewel in their crown. The company eventually
gained control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent and colonised parts of Southeast Asia and Hong
Kong, and at its peak, was the largest corporation in the world on several counts. The British rule
gradually expended in India after the battle of Plassey in 1757, and they left India only in the year 1947,
when the subcontinent was also partitioned. India was formally passed on the British crown, after the
Sepoy mutiny, or the first war of Indian independence in 1857. India’s scientific output in the British era
was limited; however, the British studied the Indian customs and traditions, and established several
eminent institutions of repute. The British also recognized the role and importance of science in empire-
building, and formulated their policies accordingly. WHR Rivers, Verrier Elwin, Herbert Hope Risley were
some of the famous British anthropologists to have studied India during that period. A colonial charter
of 1813 also called for 'the introduction and promotion of knowledge of science among the peoples
India, though its ideals were never realized.
Edgar Thurston conducted research studies in the fields of zoology, ethnology and botany of India, and
published many articles as well. Robert Bruce Foote was a geologist and archeologist of eminent repute,
and carried out surveys at several prehistoric sites in India, including peninsular India. The British also
made substantial investments in botanical, zoological, trigonometrical, and geological surveys (set up in
1912, 1911, 1818, and 1851, respectively) in order to derive direct and substantial economic and military
advantages. However, other fields such as Physics and Chemistry were neglected. India was considered
to be only a source of raw materials and a market for a diverse array of articles manufactured in Britain,
and they considered it dangerously counterproductive to encourage a domestic industrial revolution, or
a domestic scientific and a technological revolution. However, the setting up of some scientific bodies
and museums was a positive step, and these were established simply to showcase the cultures and

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traditions of the region. These were indeed established for the first time on Indian soil, as pre-British
India had no such institutions.
William Jones, a judge of the Supreme Court of Calcutta and a self-declared philologist, along with a few
other prominent intellectuals founded the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784 with the aim an objective
to enrich an understanding of India and its past. This society soon became an important focal point of
scientific activity in India, and brought out books, papers and monographs as well on subjects as far
apart as medical sciences, metrology, and tidal observations. Rajendra Lal Mitra, and other prominent
researchers were also members of the Asiatic society. Soon, other eminent institutions and scientific
establishments followed such as the Agricultural-Horticultural Society of India (in 1817), Calcutta
Medical & Physical Society (in 1823), Madras Literary and Scientific Society (in 1818), and the Bombay
Branch of the Asiatic Society (in 1829). These institutions and establishments also launched scientific
journals which did yeoman services to science. Institutions like the Geological survey of India were also
eventually created. (In the year 1851) The Calcutta School Book Society was established in 1817 to
prepare and publish school textbooks that imparted education from a western perspective.
In 1835, a bill by Thomas Babbington Macaulay made English the medium of instruction in most Indian
schools. Macaulay also recommended English as the official language of secondary education instruction
and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers to produce “a class of Indians possessing
western tastes and a western intellect”. William Bentinck, the then Governor general of India, approved
Macaulay’s minute on March 7, 1835. Some critics of his policy essentially saw his approach as a
civilizing mission of sorts, as he even ridiculed Indian contributions to science stating, “…a single shelf of
a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.” This statement is
however true for the last couple of hundred years or so, as none of the Old world civilizations were
Caucasian. India and other countries must now regain their scientific and intellectual power, as
intellectual multipolarity is good for science itself. However, Macaulay himself was not greatly
interested in science and did not recommend the setting up of any scientific establishments. It was only
in 1857 that the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up on the lines of western
universities. Science initially languished in these universities though it subsequently increased.
Independent creative thought and a questioning of western paradigms was also not promoted or
encouraged at these universities, and a multicultural perspective of science was, and is still sorely
lacking. This approach led to growing cultural schisms which are present even to this day.
However, quite a few scientific works were carried out in this period by the British people. Ronald Ross
did important work to eradicate malaria in India. Surgeon Major NC Macnamara worked on cholera,
Waldemar Haffkine on plague and Leonard Rogers on kala-zar, or black fever. The famous medical
scientist, Robert Koch also visited India to work on cholera. Bacteriological laboratories were set up in
Bombay, Madras, Kasauli , Coonoor, and Mukteswar. The great Indian reformer and thinker Raja Ram
Mohan Roy's even petitioned Lord Amherst, on December 11, 1823, the Governor General of India,
asking for improved science education in the subcontinent. Aukhoy Dutt in Calcutta , Bal Gangadhar
Shastri and Hari Keshavji Pathare in Bombay, Master Ramchander in Delhi, and Shubhaji Bapu and Onkar
Bhatt Joshi in Central Provinces, also worked extensively for the popularization of science in modern
Indian languages. In 1864, Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh Scientific Society and called for

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introduction of modern technology in the realms of agricultural and industrial production. Syed Imdad
Ali also founded the Bihar Scientific Society in 1868 in Muzaffarpur. In 1876, M.L. Sarkar established the
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science which exists to this day. In Bombay, Jamshedji Tata
drew up a similar scheme for higher scientific education and research. This led to the establishment of
the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore in 1909. The Indian academy of sciences was founded by Sir
CV Raman in 1934. The National Academy of Sciences of India was set up in Allahabad in 1930, and the
Indian National Science Academy in Calcutta in 1935. The Indian Council of Medical Research was
founded in 1911, and the Indian Council of Agricultural research in 1929. There was, thus, much greater
awareness about science in India at the dawn of the twentieth century. This was also loosely coupled
with the movement to gain freedom from colonial rule which had become very strong at around that
time. However, it appears that scientific output has languished in the decades after India’s
independence despite a plethora and a slew of well-meaning policies. This could be partly attributed to
India’s socialist policies from our perspective, as individual talent was not recognized, and private capital
was not properly or appropriately channelized. There was also a resultant brain drain from India at that
time. However, the winds of change now appear to be blowing, as we see a gradual turnaround in
India’s scientific story. 6 7 8
The following were the brightest Indian scientists from the colonial era:
Sir CV Raman was an Indian physicist known for his work in the field of light scattering and the Raman
effect. Raman received the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics and was the first Asian to receive a Nobel Prize in
any branch of science. He became the first Indian director of the Indian institute of science in 1934.
Srinivasa Ramanujam was a famous Indian mathematician, and a genius and a prodigy. Though he had
very little formal training in mathematics, he made major contributions to various fields of mathematics,
and compiled nearly 3,900 results. Ramanujan initially developed his own mathematical research in
isolation, but later collaborated with GH Hardy, and others. He travelled to Cambridge, and died
prematurely upon his return to India due to ill-health. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose was a polymath with
diverse and wide-ranging interests in biology, physics, and botany. He was a pioneer in the investigation
of radio microwave optics, made significant contributions to botanical studies, and was a major force
behind experimental sciences in India.
Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray, donned many hats, and was an eminent Indian chemist, educationist,
historian, industrialist and philanthropist. He established the first modern Indian research school in
chemistry and is widely regarded as the Father of modern Indian Chemistry. Satyendra Nath Bose was
an Indian theoretical physicist and mathematician. He is best known for his work on quantum
mechanics in the early 1920s, in developing the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of
the Bose–Einstein condensate. A class of particles called Bosons, were named after him. Meghnad
Saha was an Indian astrophysicist who helped devise the theory of thermal ionisation, and developed
the Saha ionisation equation which is considered one of the ten most outstanding discoveries
6 Science in pre-independent India: a scientometric perspective Swapan Kumar Patraa and Mammo Muchieb, Tschwane University of
Technology, South Africa
7 Peabody, Norman (2003), Hindu Kingship and Polity in Precolonial India, Cambridge University Press
8 Seaman, Lewis Charles Bernard (1973), Victorian England: Aspects of English and Imperial History 1837–1901, Routledge

15
in astronomy and astrophysics. Har Gobind Khorana was an Indian-American biochemist who shared the
1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for
research that showed the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell
and control the cell's synthesis of proteins. Subramanyan Chandrashekar is known for his work on stars
and black holes. He famously disagreed with Sir Arthur Eddington on black holes, but was awarded the
Nobel prize in 1983 for his discoveries. Yellapragada Subbarow was an Indian American biochemist who
discovered the function of adenosine triphosphate as an energy source in the cell. Shy and reticient, he
was not recognized during his own lifetime. He died prematurely in 1948.

16
Chapter 3
Science in Modern India

17
India won its long battle for independence only in 1947. It had not been an easy fight, and thousands of
freedom fighters gave up their lives for the freedom movement. Britain also was in a seriously
weakened and a compromised position after the end of the Second World war, and had to concede the
demand for Indian freedom. This also naturally led to a ripple and cascading effect, and many other
nations in Asia and Africa began to demand their freedoms. The end of colonialism is therefore one of
the highlights of the 1950’s, and it paved the way for a new world order. This process of
decolonialization also put a tremendous strain on the economies of the newly independent countries as
they had to rebuild their economies from scratch. This aspect of human history is also probably as
important as globalization (aided in part by new technologies such as the internet) that emerged a few
decades later after the end of the Cold war. Science and technology progressed tremendously in the first
few decades of the twentieth century. India and other newly independent countries also naturally had
to invest large sums of money on science, but this was far from easy, as there were more pressing and
urgent problems to be solved, and other issues to invest money on. There were also very few
institutions that could be used to leverage science and scientific development. Of course, developing
countries could not even hope to compete with the west in science and technology, though countries
like Japan eventually took the lead in changing this perception.
The role of science and technology was realized to be crucial and critical for national development and
this was clearly expressed in the "Scientific Policy Resolution" adopted by the Indian Parliament in 1958
under the leadership of the first Indian Prime minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to "foster, promote and
sustain the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects". This was expected to have a
ripple effect on technology as well, and new technologies were also expected to be adopted by the
nation in due course. Eventually Indian institutes of technologies were also built in collaboration with
other more developed nations. These institutes were conceived by a twenty two member committee of
scholars and entrepreneurs to promote high-quality and world class technical education in India, and
have largely fulfilled their promise. India now has well over two hundred universities including six In-
Institutes of Technology, over eight hundred engineering colleges and over one hundred medical
colleges, a few hundred scientific research laboratories under the Central and State governments, as
also research and development units in private industry. Regional REC’s and National institutes of
technology (NIT’s) have also been set up along with IIM’s or Indian institutes of management. The
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research is India’s largest science agency. The Defense Research and
Development Organization (DRDO) was also set up in 1958 to promote research in defense, and has
since been completely and thoroughly restructured.
Many global research and manufacturing giants are now making a beeline to India to set up their
research and development facilities there. However, India-birthed corporations have not yet set up large
R&D house to any degree of measure, and this is a flaw we would like to see remediated. Indian
scientists have also been successful in various fields such as atomic energy, space research and
agriculture. Homi Jehangir Bhaba, Raja Ramanna and other were important atomic energy scientists
produced by India. The name Abdul Kalam is indelibly associated with Indian space research, and MS
Swaminathan spearheaded the green revolution, just as Kurien Verghese spearheaded the White
revolution. These two gentlemen made life infinitely better for hundreds of millions of Indians. The

18
Indian space research organization or ISRO has also begun to play a major role in international space
research, and has even sent missions to Mars. It has facilities in Sriharikota and Thumba, both in
Southern India. India put its first man Rakesh Sharma into space in 1984, and much before many other
developing nations. India has the world’s largest constellation of remote-sensing satellites. India has also
sent missions to Antarctica. India also designed the PARAM which is a series of Indian supercomputers
designed and built by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing or CDAC. India also
conducted a nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974, though this news was not well-received by the
international media. India has made giant strides in software and services, and also in biotechnology.
India has however lagged behind many developed and developing nations in many other fields of
science in the past few decades, particularly in the social sciences, and is only now playing the catch up
game. In the year 2022, India lagged only behind China and the USA in terms of number of scientific
publications in peer-reviewed journals, though there may not be an absolute quality parity. More
recently, the Indian parliament approved a bill authorizing the establishment of a funding agency, the
Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) as a part of the National education policy, 2020, for
stepping up investment in basic research, and fostering a culture of innovations in Indian universities
and research houses. The foundation is envisaged along the lines of the United States’ National Science
Foundation and largely borrows from other national science councils as well. However, India still has
only 140 researchers per one million population, compared to 4,651 in the United States. This is an
unnaturally large gap. Major breakthroughs still come mostly from developed nations or people working
in developed nations, though countries like China continue to challenge western hegemony.
One way out for this malaise is to let individual talent and creativity flourish. Another but much more
important way out is to let India’s booming, flourishing and thriving private education system play its
part, and do the trick rather that to put a millstone around its neck by imposing Draconian laws such as
language teaching laws. India is now slowly but surely boarding the scientific bandwagon, and more and
more individuals take up research as a career mostly driven by individual ambition and passion. The
fields Indian researchers are currently engaged in is also interesting. Other than leading and world
famous Indian researchers such as Vikram Sarabha and APJ Abdul Kalam, we also have many less well-
known scientists. For example, Srinivasa Chakravarthy is actively engaged in brain research, Budhi Sagar
Tiwari on plant cells, Subba Rao Gangi Setty on human cells, etc.
Many Indians are also engaged in groundbreaking research in American universities, and their number is
only increasing. As per an interesting and a recent newspaper report, there is a growing Indian pool of
tech talent even in Japan. Foreign universities are also being encouraged to set up campuses in India,
and Indian universities are also slowly but surely setting up campuses abroad. An example is IIT Madras
which is setting up a campus in Zanzibar. Universities in Germany are actively seeking Indian students,
and are scouting for Indian talent as well. We would also like to see how Indian and foreign business and
corporate houses can be encouraged to set up quality schools, colleges and universities preferably
through the mechanism of tax rebates and tax concessions. This is something that still needs to be
discussed thoroughly and threadbare. We still of course have a very long way to go, as can be gauged

19
from the brevity of this chapter in relation to other chapters. We however hope we will make a small
contribution, in this chapter, and others.9
9 India’s sciences, and the problems they are solving by Archana Sharma and Spoorthy Raman, Juggernaut books, 2022, New Delhi India

20
Chapter 4
Education and pedagogy as the
basis

21
In the field and realm of education, the techniques of which are formally known as pedagogy, (Pedagogy
may be defined as the method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject. The Merriam-
Webster dictionary defines it simply as “the art, science, or. profession of teaching”, though other
experts have provided other definitions as well) a learned individual, often worthy of emulation, acts as
a preceptor or a teacher, and seeks to create an impression in the minds of a naive observer known as a
student. In teaching, (1) the knowledgeable individual must modify his behaviour in the presence of a
naïve observer, (2) incurring a cost (or at least gaining no immediate benefit) from doing so, and (3) the
observer must acquire knowledge or skills more efficiently than it otherwise would. (Caro and Hauser,
1992) These characteristics are predominantly available in human teaching, and set the state for a
scientific and a structured approach to teaching. There was an increasing interest in educational
methods and techniques throughout the Eighteenth and the Nineteenth centuries and attempts were
also made to evaluate, compare and rank different teaching methods and create academic rationales for
teaching methods. However, it is only from the second half of the twentieth century that pedagogy has
begun to show irrefutable signs of morphing into a true science as it is admitted by the German
philosopher Woftdeitrich Schmied-Kowarzik, Italian educationalist Franco Frabboni and Giovanni
Genovesi. Indeed the term pedagogy is now an all-encompassing term covering a breadth of topics such
as content, teacher training and motivation, learning psychology and student motivation. It is both a
theoretical and an applied science. 10
According to Giovanni Genovesi, “Pedagogy is an autonomous science because it has its own language
and is aware of how to use it according to its own method and its own ends and, by this language,
pedagogy generates a body of knowledge, a series of experiments and techniques without which any
construction of education models would be impossible.” Different learning theories and models have
been applied during various periods in the history of pedagogy, according varying importance to theory
and practice, often subordinating one of the two to the other. We have discussed all these approaches
in our papers and book on pedagogy. 11
In the 20th century, new trends in education have included Montessori schools developed by Maria
Montessori based on a child-centric approach and development of Waldorf education first proposed by
Rudolf Steiner. This approach seeks to stimulate intellectual and artistic creativity. Pedagogy must
provide a consistent and a seamless framework across sub-disciplines providing a cogent experience to
the learner, but alas, well into the Twenty-first century, this appears to be nowhere close to fruition: the
blame for this must probably be laid squarely on both inadequacies in theory and frameworks and gaps
in implementation. According to work by Hofstetter and Schneuwly, pulls and pressures of, and the non-
convergence of ideas and attitudes of theorists, professionals and policy makers may be responsible for
some of the mess. The German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer also laments the fact that sound
theorization and the development of new and relevant frameworks have lagged behind praxis in recent
times. (Gadamer, 2000).
10 Theories of Learning Ernest R. Hilgard Surjeet Publications, 2011
11 Gert Biesta, “Disciplines and Theory in the Academic Study of Education: A Comparative Analysisof the Anglo-American and Continental
Construction of the Field,” Pedagogy, Culture & Society 19, no.2 (2011): 188–189

22
Most education planners and thinkers think that the field of pedagogy is already now badly outdated,
and that new and novel paradigms and concepts are required. There are many new papers advocating
pedagogical reform, though there is an absence of a broad direction. There are however, several new
promising trends in the field of pedagogy; these include concepts such as socio-emotional learning
which includes self-awareness, self-management, adaptivity, social awareness, relationship building and
responsible decision making, adaptive learning which includes tailor-making education to suit the needs
of each individual, nanolearning including brief and crystal clear instruction, open education, digital
education, online education, practical education through field visits or industry visits including
preparation of dissertations and project reports, and gamification or game-based learning including role
play and focus group discussion. While these trends are extremely promising and stand to benefit a wide
array and assortment of individuals across the cultural spectrum, (this is a small sample of the vast
portfolio of new promising trends, too) there is a serious dearth of intellctuals from the non-western
world; hence, the needs of people of non-western societies may not be fully or completely addressed
other than though chance or coincidence. We had also proposed a new class of theories called theories
of pedagogical content, and look forward to contributions from other scholars in the field.
After India won its independence in 1947, the government introduced many different schemes to
address the low levels of education, and stamp out illiteracy. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, India's first
Minister of Education, wanted strong central government control over education throughout India, with
uniformity and consistency as a guiding pillar, and a foundational basis. The Indian government also
established the University Education Commission, the Secondary Education Commission, the University
Grants Commission or the UGC in short, and the Kothari Commission to develop methods and
techniques to streamline and modernise India's education system. Several important resolutions on
scientific policy were also adopted by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, Kendriya
Vidyalayas, Indian Institutes of Technology or IIT’s were setup, All India Institutes of Medical sciences,
(and later, Indian institutes of Management) as also were the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (or NCERT) and the National skill development agency to advise the central government on
issues pertaining to education. Nehru apparently understood the importance of education to national
progress; however, most of the programs and policies he had envisaged and dreamed of, did not
materialize or fructify until decades later; enrolments in schools continued to remain abysmally low in
the first few decades of India’s independence. Until 1976, education was a state subject, however with
the passage of the forty second amendment, it was put on the concurrent list.
Education in India today is run both by the government in government schools, and by the private sector
in private schools; the medium of education varies from school to school, and so does the quality of
education. In the first few decades after India’s independence, adult education programs and adult
literacy campaigns were also launched. Vocational education has also been administered by Vocational
training institutes. Indian Vocational Training Institutes (IVTI) were also established in accordance with
National Vocational Education Qualification Framework ( NVEQF). The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Hindi
word which means 'Education for all campaign', is an Indian Government programme based on earlier
District primary education program and other programs aimed to universalize enrolment in elementary
education was based on the 86th Amendment to the Constitution of India; it aimed to put over two

23
hundred million Indian children in school in a time-bound manner. This program was based on the vision
of the former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. While undoubtedly successful, this mission has
not achieved its aims and objectives completely.
The World bank, the UNICEF, and the Department for International development have also supported
the Indian government’s initiatives. Some years later, the Right to Education Act or the RTE, came to
force in 2010; this act provided the central government with the teeth to enforce its various literacy
campaigns.Other Indian government schemes have included the midday meal program introduced by
the former Tamilnadu Chief minister late Dr MG Ramachandran, the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan,
the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan for the development of secondary education launched in
2009, the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme launched in 2015, and focused on North India, and the
National Digital Education Architecture launched as recently as 2021 to boost digital infrastructure for
education. It is also supported by various external and international stakeholders and partners, such
as UNICEF, UNESCO, World Bank, civil society organizations, academic institutions, private sector
entities, and media outlets. While we are yet to stand on the threshold of universal literacy, more and
more parents are recognizing the importance of education; the demand for English education has also
skyrocketed. 12
In the financial year 2022, gross school enrolment stood at 2.65 million children with another 1.94
million additional children enrolled in primary to higher Secondary schools. According to the Annual
Status of Education Report (ASER) of 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between the ages of six to
fourteen were enrolled in school. This marks a big leap in enrollment over the previous decades. School
enrollment in urban India is near one hundred percent, and enrollment of girls is likewise very high.
India has maintained an average enrolment ratio of over 95% for students in primary schools from the
year 2007 to 2014. In spite of all this, the quality of education imparted in both government and private
schools has been questions; it was found recently that many English teachers in Bihar did not know
English spellings; this is pathetic and shocking indeed, but this incompetence extends to many subjects
besides English. Teacher and student absenteeism is also high. In 2019, India had over 900 universities
and 40,000 colleges, but the quality of teaching imparted leaves a lot to be desired. However, there is
some improvement because as many as ninety one Indian universities have been included in the Times
Higher Education's World University Rankings for 2024. The quantum of research conducted in Indian
universities is still low though, and Indian students continue to flock the USA and Europe for higher
education. In 20220-23, 269,000 Indian students were enrolled in USA, and over 50,000 in Europe. This
also goes on to show that Indian interest in education is very high. This is next only to China, and Indian
students exceed Chinese students in some courses. The syllabus in Indian schools is set by the CBSE or
the Central Board of Secondary Education and the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations
for ICSE schools. Indian universities also set syllabi for colleges affiliated to them.
In 2020, the Central government launched the National Education policy of 2020 or the NEP 2020 based
on work that was begun from 2015 onwards by TSR Subramanian, Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan, and
12 Moir, Martin and Lynn Zastoupil, eds. The Great Indian Education Debate: Documents Relating to the Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy, 1781-
1843 ( 1999 )

24
others. This policy sought to replace the National policy on Education of 1986, and sought to transform
India’s education system by 2030. This policy is seen as a mixed bag, with critics accusing it of foisting as
Hinduvta agenda on the people. The central government however, denies it. This policy promotes,
among other things, education in vernacular languages or the mother tongue, with over twenty eight
languages to be used. There is however, no forceful shift of the medium of instruction from English to
any other language. As a matter of fact, the learning of foreign languages is also sought to be
encouraged. The guidelines in this policy are therefore, only recommendatory, and the process itself
was birthed through a consensus building process, with a large number of suggestions received from the
general public.
However, if there is a major flaw in the policy, it is that it does not recognize the role of English as a
neutral language in a multi-lingual society; it does not take into account language dynamics or the legal
status of languages in India. It would at times appear to play second fiddle to the “Hindu, Hindi,
Hindustan” rhetoric of the RSS. The implementation of the NEP is left to the states; hence, many checks
and balances are provided. Some states as such, have indicated that they would not implement the NEP.
The policy also focuses on foundational literacy and numeracy, and proposes to set up a national
mission on foundational literacy and numeracy, and the NIPUN Bharat Mission or the National initiative
for proficiency in reading with understanding and numeracy. A higher education grants council is also
sought to be established. The 10+2 structure is sought to be replaced with the 5+3+3+4 model, though
this would appear to be more tinkering, rather than anything else. The admission age to class one is
sought to be increased from five years to six years. Why erode India’s competitiveness? If required, the
syllabus can be modulated accordingly. The changes in examination frequency and pattern are also
dubious and debatable. The adoption of coding and experiential learning is however welcome. The
thrust on inter-disciplinarity is also welcome, but there must be cohesion between subjects. More
holistic report cards are proposed. Midday meals will also be extended to include breakfasts.
Foreign universities (Foreign higher education institutions or FHEI) are also sought to be encouraged in
India. The regulations and eligibility criteria for this have been established by the UGC. These regulations
also require foreign universities to obtain approval before offering any diplomas or courses at various
levels. It is likely that British, American and Australian universities will set up shop in India very soon.
Indian universities and institutes such as the Indian institutes of technology are also planning to set up
campuses abroad. One such campus is stated to come up in Zanzibar. Other bodies proposed include the
National Mission for Mentoring, and National Book Promotion Policy. Besides, the gender inclusion
fund, and special education zones for education will also be set up. Institutions for the teaching of Pali,
Prakrit and Persian are also proposed to be set up. There are many advantages of the Indian education
system; for example, it promotes a balanced approach to education with an emphasis on both academic
excellence and extracurricular activities. Character building and value based education is also
encouraged. Bilingualism is practiced in a way it is not in other developed nations. Skill development and
vocational training is sometimes encouraged.
However, there are many drawbacks and limitations of the Indian education system. From the point of
view of the union budget for 2023-24, the allocation for the education and the higher education sector
was just about 2.9 per cent of the country's GDP. This is much less than the amount spend on education

25
in other countries. China spends a marginally higher percentage of this GDP in education with
percentages varying between three and four percent. The world average spend on education as a
percentage of GDP in 2021 based on an average of 141 countries was 4.42 percent. The major problem
in the Indian education system is the promotion of rote learning and the near absence of creativity. Rote
learning may be defined as the process of memorizing information based on oral or internal repetition.
There are some benefits of rote learning. For example, rote learning enhances a student’s ability to
recall basic facts and helps develop foundational knowledge of a topic which can then be built upon
using further knowledge. It also develops a student’s memory and retention abilities.
However, excessive rote learning may hamper with a student’s thought processes and hinder his
creative thinking ability. In some cases, rote learning is not accompanied by a thorough understanding
or grasp of a subject. In some other cases, students cannot correlate knowledge and relate newly
acquired knowledge with previous knowledge, or understand practical applications of knowledge. They
have no experiential knowledge of any kind. They store information, but do not know how to use it.
Therefore, rote learning must be promoted along with other aspects of learning such as analytical ability
and creative thought. This syncretic approach is however rarely implemented as a pedagogical
technique, not only in India but also elsewhere. Students are still seen a containers that need to be filled
up with useless facts and disconnected and disjointed pieces of information.
There is no need for more developed nations to take the lead; the lead can be taken by so-called
developing nations too. Practical application of knowledge and real-world relevance of knowledge is not
taught, and students cannot correlate what is taught in the classroom with experiences in the real-
world. There is no inter-disciplinary approach. There is also too much pressure on grades, and too little
emphasis on holistic development. Indian education also constitutes a multi-speed system; there is a
wide variation in the quality of education imparted form school to school. The quality of education is
often poor in many rural areas. School infrastructure is often pathetic, and the quality of teachers leaves
a lot to be desired, particularly in rural regions. There is also always a confusion among planners,
parents, teachers and students about the ideal medium of education (language); we will discuss this
elsewhere. While the younger generation in India is move education savvy and technologically savvy,
most fields of the social sciences have failed to keep up with technology. This constitutes a lag which we
had discussed in a previous paper. Another solution is to promote technology-based on computer-
based automated teaching, but for this infrastructure has a long way to go, particularly the quality of the
power delivery system and electricity supply. 13
The field of pedagogy has also not largely invented itself after the coming of the internet where
knowledge on a diverse array of topics can be acquired readily and easily, and often for free. There is no
longer a need for a great deal of rote learning. Topics such as scientific method, a demarcation between
science and pseudoscience, and innovative a creative thinking must be taught. Ideology and rigidity of
thought must also be eschewed at all times. Time and space encapsulation must be taught as students
are not even aware of the basics of evolution or possess a basic knowledge of facts such as the age of
13 Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental
Right", International Journal of Constitutional Law

26
the earth. The field of historiography must also be brought uptodate. Interdisciplinary knowledge must
be provided, and the gap between the physical sciences and the social sciences bridged. We also look
forward to developing India as a major research power in the field of pedagogy, and look forward to
helping other developing nations as well.
This must happen because the circumstances and situations in developing countries are different from
that of more developed ones. First language acquisition theories and second language acquisition
theories must be tweaked to Indian conditions, and to the conditions of other developing countries. Life
skills must also be taught to students, as well as the importance of ambition, achievement, and life
orientation. Religious education must be phased out, and secular and non-religious human values
instead. Our concepts of ethnography of enculturation, cultural frames of reference, cross-cultural
frames of reference, and structured apperception tests for socio cultural change can also be used in the
field of pedagogy with great attendant benefits.
For further information, read our book "Rebooting Pedagogy and Education systems for the Twenty-first
Century: Why we need course-corrections immediately". Also read our papers on Anthropological
economics and the sociology of science which were published in 2018 and 2021 respectively. A reading
of our papers on language dynamics and the empowerment of linguistic have nots will also help. The
latter was published by us in the year 2023. We had also opposed mindless tinkering with the
education system where it does not make sense to do so, and continue to reiterate our stance. For
example, we have new four year graduation course requirements, and the need for students to be six
years old before they can be admitted to grade one. All these ideas are dangerously counterproductive
(also copied blindly and mindlessly from the west), and demonstrate an absence and dearth of ideas.
There are other issues to be probed such as the lexical development of Indian languages for which the
central government does not have a policy at all unlike Malaysia or Indonesia. We have probed this issue
extensively in our papers. Along with science education, we must also have science communication. We
have dwelt on this in the past, and this must be explained as simply and effectively as possible to the
masses.

27
Chapter 5
Nurturing intellectuals

28
An intellectual is an individual who engages in activities relating to the intellect or the understanding of
complex issues that a layperson cannot even understand or is not commonly interested in engaging in,
or analyzing in the normal course of events. An intellectual therefore, exercises and employs his mental
faculties and his critical thinking power much more than other individuals do. An intellectual is also an
individual who possesses an intellect or intellectual abilities to a very high degree: and is engaged in or
given to learning and thinking. He is also an individual who thinks differently from other individuals, and
is engaged in different and non-trivial or non-mundane pursuits. The term “intellectual” is usually traced
to a Latin origin, though in a modern sense has been reinterpreted and recast by Bertrand Russell,
Arthur C. Clarke and other modern critical thinkers.
The term “intellectual” was first used in the English language in the year 1813. The term also began to
be used in other European languages at around the same time. According to the Greek
philosopher Socrates, who provided a very interesting definition of the term, intellectualism allowed
"one will do what is right or what is best, just as soon as one truly understands what is right or best".
According to Thomas Sowell, an intellectual was an individual whose primary occupation was to deal
with ideas. This is their primary pursuit and occupation as opposed to other individuals like teachers,
doctors and lawyers who also employ some creative thought. According to him, an intellectual had to be
highly educated and erudite. He had to be productive in order to create cultural capital for society. He
had to be artistic to a certain degree too, and possess creative abilities.
According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, intellectualism is,“ The power of knowing as distinguished
from the power to feel and to will; the capacity for knowledge; it is the capacity for rational, intelligent,
complex and erudite thought. The power of intellectualism to a great degree manifests itself in a person
with great intellectual powers.” Thus, intellectuals must be “public intellectuals” to a certain degree.
They must not live in self-imposed exile on the margins and fringes of society, but actively participate in
it. The term “man of letters” was sometimes used (as also the term “literati”) to describe intellectuals,
though these terms have now more or less fallen into disuse. The term intelligentsia in another term
that is widely in use even today to describe intellectuals. Intellectual history, and the history of ideas
have also been widely studied for some one hundred and fifty years; Voltaire and Sir Francis Bacon were
pioneers in this regard.
Intellectualism must also be measured in relation to output, and must not be hidden, unexercised,
unmanifested or latent. It must also ideally be of some use to science and to society, and must reflect
the active powers of the mind and intellect. In sum, intellectualism is a blanket, omnibus and an
umbrella term for all kinds of intellectual activity and creative thought. The eminent thinker Vitaly
Tepikin emphasized the importance of creativity, output, and service and utility to society as important
criteria of productive and useful intellectualism. Intellectualism is also often guided by epistemology,
which is the branch, theory, and a science of knowledge, which promotes what is known as “justified
true belief”, (as opposed to personal unfounded opinions or blind, unjustified and irrational beliefs)
rationality and the employment and use of a clear, and an undiluted stream of reason.

29
Intellectuals usually comprise of a small elitist group within a society, and the percentage of intellectuals
in relation to the total society is typically very small. More evolved and scientifically aware and literate
societies may also have a larger percentage of individuals, who may also be heterogeneous in nature; in
contrast, the number of intellectuals in less developed societies may be small. Intellectuals are also
freethinkers, and may shun the imposition of values, norms and diktats by force of authority. As such,
they may be anti-establishment and anti-authority, (and in extreme cases rebellious and revolutionary)
though this may not always be the case. They often possess superior observation power, and the ability
to process thoughts and ideas effectively, efficiently, and often in unique ways including different types
of knowledge such as knowledge-how, knowledge-where, knowledge-when, knowledge-which and
knowledge-that. Intellectualism may often have a negative connotation, and may be associated with
nerdism, aloofness, impracticality, or lack of an emotional quotient, empathy and social skills.
Intellectualism is often tied to Intelligence quotient tests, though this is not necessarily a reliable
yardstick, parameter or indicator. Intellectuals are said to possess a higher IQ or an intelligence quotient
and a lower EQ, or an emotional quotient, and lower social skills or lower social adaptability. This is a
general observation, and has been observed in the case of many intellectuals like John Forbes Nash, Karl
Popper and Albert Einstein, though it is not a rigid rule.14 15
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of the Bramho Samaj, emerged as one of the leading intellectuals in
the nineteenth century; is called the father of the modern Indian Renaissance due to the changes he
instituted in India. He is also sometimes known as the ‘Father of Modern India’ or ‘Father of the Bengal
Renaissance’ for his lasting contributions to education; Roy believed that English-language education
was superior to the traditional Indian education system, and suggested that Indians learn English and
acquire a western education. From the 1820’s, he founded many schools to educate Indians in Western
scientific education through the medium of the English language. Roy also supported the Scottish
watchmaker and philanthropist David Hare’s efforts to found the Hindu College in 1817, and in 1825, he
established Vedanta College where courses in both Indian learning and Western social and physical
sciences were offered.1617
From our perspective, intellectualism would also be related to mind-orientation, and this is one type of
mind-orientation we had proposed in our papers. Intellectualism may be fairly simple in most cases, or
may be complex, sophisticated, and variegated in a few cases, and may pertain to the processing of
highly complex thoughts and ideas. Intellectualism always requires critical thinking skills, vision, clarity,
logical analysis, depth of thinking, breadth of though, and ability to mentally process large tomes of
complex information. Intellectualism is also therefore the science of the gestation of ideas.
Intellectualism may be natural or innate to the individual (Gilbert Ryle and some others have argued
against the idea of intellectualism itself) (Ryle 1949)), or acquired through parenting, association with
other individuals, or superior education; as such, there is no hard and fast rule in this regard. The latter
14 Critical Thinking: Intellectual Standards Essential to Reasoning Well Within Every Domain of Human Thought, Part Two By Richard Paul and
Linda Elder
15 A Practical Guide to Intellectualism Yuri Cath, 2008
16 Reverend Krishnamohan Bandyopadhyaya (in Bengali) by Mayukh Das, Kolkata:Paschimbanga Anchalik Itihas O Loksanskriti Charcha Kendra
(2014)
17 Caton, Alissa. "Indian in Colour, British in Taste: William Bentinck, Thomas Macaulay, and the Indian Education Debate, 1834-1835." Voces
Novae 3.1 (2011): pp 39–60

30
point of view is supported and endorsed by Jason Stanley, Timothy Williamson, John Bengson, Marc
Moffett, Paul Snowdon and others. (Stanley 2001) (Williamson 2001) (Snowdon 2004) We also support
the latter view, in that there is not strong and substantive evidence for intellectualism being latent; on
the other hand, it can be acquired thorough parenting, education, observation, and training.
Other theories to explain intellectualism have been proposed, and these include the ability hypothesis
proposed by David Lewis and Lawrence Nemirow. Physicalists argue that physical factors play a major
role in the development of some aspects of knowledge, though this does not constitute intellectualism
in our view. Other thinkers have proposed novel concepts. For example, Noam Chomsky spoke of
“mental organs”, (Chomsky 1983) and Jerry Fodor spoke of the “modules of the mind”. (Fodor 1983)
Jacques Barzun differentiates between intelligence and intellect; while the former is an individual trait,
the latter is collectively acquired in relation to society, and can even be handed down from generation.
(Barzun 2002) Intellectualism must also become practical, real-world orientated and solutions-driven
rather than theoretical and abstract. We would like to see this kind of a change assert itself as well in
the years and decades to come, in all parts of the world, including the west which should ideally be a
role-model in this regard.
On the other hand, cultural factors can play a major role in determining the extent and degree of
intellectualism prevalent in a society, and cultural factors would include linguistic factors (and
proficiency) and religious factors too (and other factors such as the prevalence of (and tolerance and
appetite for) freethought)) These factors may undoubtedly change over a period in time; but for
example there is hardly any intellectualism to speak of in countries in South Asia, Africa and the Middle
East, and dissent and non-conformity there is often cruelly, brutally, and wickedly suppressed,
oppressed and crushed. However, new thinkers like Wafa Sultan, Harris Sultan and Ayaan Hirsi Ali have
emerged as strong anti-establishment and anti-religious forces; we would like to see what changes
manifest themselves in a generation or two there.
Intellectualism is also a mirror of qualitative and quantitative research output, (and also other metrics
such as the generation of intellectual property rights) which for all practical purposes remains low in
those societies. In some societies, anti-intellectualism is often prominent, and intellectuals often find
themselves in the line of fire. In many societies, McCarthyism and witch-hunting is also practiced against
intellectuals, and in many different forms. Intellectuals were targeted by the Khmer Rouge regime
during the time of Pol Pot, and dissidents were targeted in the former and erstwhile USSR as well. In
Cambodia, intellectuals were routinely targeted, hounded, tortured, and made to work on the fields.
Imposing equality through artificial external mechanisms can be dangerously counter-productive
because we are living in a multi-speed civilization. What we need is equality of opportunity enforced
through the extent practicable in the long-term, and not absolute equality. One related aspect is the
continuance of English medium education; we expect that this will be allowed to continue as long as it
benefits Indian society; some Indian language chauvinists have however, opposed this. We are a
multispeed civilization; let us realize this and bridge the gaps between linguistic have-nots and the
linguistically empowered and advantaged through other pragmatic methods,

31
We also have other concepts such as that of a cancel culture where dissidents are routinely targeted,
and non-conformism is frowned upon. Thus, we must also understand the concepts of intellectual
tradition and intellectual history, and these have varied widely from culture to culture and from society
to society. Thus, there is clearly a cultural lag in an overwhelmingly large number of cases; while
technology has progressed enormously in the past several decades, driven largely by western enterprise,
(Technology is now widely used all over the world even among remote and peripheral groups such as
the Bedouins, and in varied and interesting ways) social sciences in general, and intellectualism in
particular, have failed to play the catch-up game, particularly in lag or less developed societies.
In India, the left is frozen and fossilized in a time-warp, and the right also has nothing new to offer either
for India or for the world. All they can think up of are topics such as the ancient Indian practices of Yoga
and Ayurveda or India’s real or imagined past glory; (though some glory cannot of course be denied) The
idea or prospect of making India (or the rest of the developing world) intellectual, scientific, technical, or
technological tour-de-forces (and then using it to promote global well-being) in not even on their radar.
The right both in India and elsewhere is reactionary and arose as a result of the often illogical and
irrational tendencies of the left (remember the “one kind of bias energizes every other kind of bias”
analogy). But the left is either already dead or doomed to oblivion. Hence, the rationale and basis for
the more modern and contemporary concepts of centrism or neo-centrism. Let us bear in mind the fact
that the rest of the world will only admire and appreciate India for its present-day scientific prowess,
achievements and accomplishments. Intellectualism in countries like India must reach a critical mass,
but unfortunately, we see no signs of that happening. When will the revolution begin? Why will Indians
stop seeing themselves as Brahmin, Dalit, Hindu, Muslim, North Indians and South Indians, and see
themselves as crusaders for science? Why is nobody talking about this?
Rationalism is a movement which gathered steam during the Age of Reason in the seventeenth Century.
It is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy and the
formulation of intellectual thought. This school of thought discounted faith, tradition and religious
dogma. Several thinkers like Spinoza advocated rationalism, and institutions were founded to promote
rational thought. In India, the Indian Rationalist Association was founded to promote rational thought
and scientific skepticism. Its founding president was RP Paranjpya, and other important members have
included RS Yadav, Joseph Edamaruku, Sanal Edamaruku and others. Their intentions are of course
excellent; but we believe they must take into account and consideration people’s thought worlds,
worldviews, cultural orientation and proceed accordingly. This is naturally an essential pre-condition for
success. The twin ideas of ‘Cultural frame of reference’ and ‘’Cross cultural frame of reference’ must also
be borne in mind. We wish them all success in their endeavours, but we strongly believe that their
movement requires some kind of an ideological reboot, and must take into consideration people’s
sensitivities. It must also take into consideration twenty-first century realities.
Research particularly in the social sciences and historiography unfortunately (even to this very day) is
driven by obsolete (but still dearly cherished and not abandoned) notions of sectarian pride, even when
it compromises scholarly objectivity. Obsolete ideas of “Aryan” “Dravidian”, “North Indian”, “South
Indian”, ”Brahmin”,” Dalit” etc still overwhelm people, and lead them to a non-objective approach,
Authors, writers, researchers and scholars are judged (at least in the popular domain and sphere) not by

32
the quality of their academic output, but based on their ethnic background, ideological dispensation etc.
This probably explains why India’s research output languishes at the bottom of the heap. Unless
attitudes to science and scholarship change in all sections of Indian society, there can be no hope for
Indian intellectualism. This malaise must be remediated and rectified by intellectuals themselves; a true
intellectual creates a generation gap. However, there is a faint glimmer of hope, and the Author expects
a sea change within a generation or two. The left had set a very bad example as far as objectivity was
concerned by vitiating and polluting the intellectual atmosphere, but other ideological groups have since
carried the baton forward. We also propose a “Horizontal model” where developing countries across
Asia, South America and Africa collaborate with each other in various scientific pursuits, and for mutual
benefit, but for this, these countries must achieve the requisite level of scientific and intellectual
maturity first.18 19 20 21
Intellectual classes
An intellectual is a person who engages in intellectual endeavours such as research, critical thinking and
self-reflection about society. Some intellectuals may present abstract, philosophical, and impractical
ideas, while some others may actively strive for the betterment of society. The intellectual and
the scholarly classes are often tightly inter-related: an intellectual may be a professor guiding
researchers or scientists, or may work in industry or an institution of repute.
Intellectuals typically engage in:
1. Conceptualization and development of abstract ideas and theories;
2. Producing intellectual and scientific capital in various fields or
3. Artistic or creative output which may contribute to the soft power of a nation.
Intellectuals often propose practical solutions for burning problems and issues that plague society, and
gain authority and respectability in the long-term. Intellectuals possess qualities of mind and character
that promote creativity, critical thinking, commitment to the welfare of society and the pursuit of truth.
The strength of the intellectual class varies widely from society to society. In most countries, however,
the intellectual class is weak and is often influenced by dogma, ideology or political beliefs. Often, Euro-
centric and western-centric paradigms are applied, regardless of whether they are suitable in alien
contexts, or not. The strength of the Intellectual class in a society is measured through Intellectual
Capital, which must be created in a new society from scratch either through the development of new
technology, or through indegenization. The Oxford dictionary defines indigenization as the action or the
process of bringing something under the control, dominance or influence of the people residing in an
area. This concept first evolved in the context of organizations, but was subsequently extended to
include cultures and nations. Blue is sometimes taken to be the colour of the intellect, though from our
perspective, grey is more appropriate. Therfore, we must unleash a grey revolution of sorts. Humans
18 Gros, Frederic (ed.)(2005) Michel Foucault: The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Lectures at the College de France 1981–1982. Picador: New
York
19 Jeremiah Hackett, A Companion to Meister Eckhart, BRILL, 2012,
20 Skinner, Quentin. (1969) "Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas", History and Theory
21 Grafton, Anthony. "The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice, 1950–2000 and Beyond", Journal of the History of Ideas 67#1 (2006):

33
must not just be sentient beings, but also become thinking machines. The ability to do cogitative
thoughts among large or substantial segments of the population sets apart successful societies from
mediocre ones. As the saying goes, “cogito, ergo sum”, or, “I think, therefore I am”. This aspect must be
gestated though the education system, and needless to say, successful education systems must be
distinguished from unsuccessful ones on the basis of this crucial and fundamental aspect.
Creative classes
Several indices have been developed from time to time to measure the creative component of cultures.
Prominent examples that readily spring to mind include the Global Creativity Index or CGI developed by
Roger Martin and Richard Florida which ranks countries based on creativity, technology, talent and
cultural productivity. Other attempts have been made to assess the “Creative Class” in different
countries, which is a class that is a driving force in economic development of a country. Such classes are
bound to be more prominent in developed countries, but many developing countries now have large
middle classes. This is akin to an intellectual class, but the outputs of the creative class can be more
directly co-related with the economic growth in the country(given that they represent practical pursuits)
and plays a role in determining economic output as well. In developing countries and least developed
countries, creativity is often still low, due to low levels of education, out-dated or outmoded education
systems, poor teaching techniques, poverty, backward ideologies and an over-sized role of religion.
This is also associated with concepts such as the brain drain or the flight of talent, the reverse brain
drain or the return of talent, and the flight of capital due to the loss of talent. Thus, Creative classes
must be assessed in a two-way analysis. The attribute of society that produced creative classes must be
understood, and the attributes of successful individuals also assessed from a cultural perspective.
Similarly, the dearth or paucity of creative classes in a cultural context must also be studied in relation to
cultural factors. The presence of creative classes will play a major role in boosting economic
development, and education systems must be designed to help manifest latent talent.
Entrepreneurial classes
Entrepreneurship may be defined as the ability of a culture to foster, nurture and generate
entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship is the ability found and successfully run a business enterprise. This
often requires leadership ability, business acumen, technical knowhow, and marketing ability which may
be found in different degrees in different cultures. Entrepreneurship is characterized by risk-taking,
innovation, visionary leadership, and technical expertise. On the other hand, a Capitalist Class is a small
group of individuals in a country which owns and controls the bulk of private corporate wealth, and
generates employment for a large percentage of the population. Entrepreneurial classes must also be
studied in relation to intellectual classes and creative classes, and they can create economic wealth
through the medium of science and technology. They therefore constitute a crucial cog in the wheel.
India currently has a robust entrepreneurial class, but is scientifically very weak. We also propose that
India build on its entrepreneurial strengths to boost scientific output. Thus, entrepreneurs must be
encouraged to embrace science, and pursue more science-intensive activity.

34
Human Capital
Human capital refers to the intangible skills, knowledge, talent, intelligence and experience possessed
by an individual or population, and is often studied in relation to a culture. It also refers to the factors of
production arising from human capital, which are used to create goods, services and ideas. Human
capital is also often measured in terms of creativity, pragmatism and resilience. It can also be bolstered
by paying adequate attention to health and education. The idea of human capital can be traced back to
the time of Adam Smith, but modern ideas of Human capital were popularized by American Economist
Gary Becker, Jacob Mincer, Theodore Schultz and others. Gary Becker merged sociology and Economics,
showing how sociological factors influence economic behaviour. He also defined Human capital as
“activities that influence future monetary and psychic income by increasing resources in people.”
(Becker 1994) His philosophy can be summed up in one sentence, “Economy is the art of making the
most of life.” Human Capital theorists have always argued that an adequate thrust on human capital
could alone ensure long-term economic growth, and that return on investment on Human capital could
also be measured through robust economic growth. On the other hand, Karl Marx proposed another
interpretation of Human capital called labour power wherein workers sold their labour to capitalists and
were in turn exploited. A related field of study is labour economics. This field seeks to understand the
functioning and the dynamics of the market for different types of labour that go into the making of a
successful economy through a combination of microeconomic and macroeconomic techniques.
Human capital is bolstered through the science of Human Development which seeks to understand how
different people’s latent capabilities and accomplishments remain at a certain level or change with the
passage of time. It is also related to the Capabilities approach. According to the UNDP, “Human
development is the process of enlarging people’s choices, which in turn allow them to lead a long,
healthy, happy, rewarding and fulfilling life, to be educated, to enjoy a decent standard of living, political
freedom, other guaranteed human rights, and ingredients of self-respect.” Other Economists such as
Paul Romer have proposed innovation-led Economic growth models, and endogenous growth models
(as opposed to exogenous growth models such as the Harrod Domar model and the Solow Swan model
which base growth on savings and technological progress) which focus on innovation and creativity, and
propose macroeconomic models based on microeconomic foundations. In 2018, the World Bank
published the Human Capital Index or HCI, and attempted to rank nations on the basis of Human Capital
Utilization. As per this ranking, most European and many Asian nations are ranked at the top, while most
Sub-Saharan nations, and many other Asian nations are ranked at the bottom. Many other approaches
for measuring Human capital are proposed from time to time.
From our perspective, Human potential should remain relatively constant everywhere, but is utilization
would depend on social, cultural, religious, economic and historical to state a few. Thus, Human capital
utilization would vary widely from region to region, and the onus would be on governments to ensure
that Human capital is utilized to the fullest extent possible, and human energies are channelized for the
greater good.
Cultural capital

35
In sociology, cultural capital comprises the culturally-derived assets of a person which may include his
education, intellect, style of speech, mannerisms and interpersonal skills that complement his other
core skills and that accelerate social mobility in a highly stratified and differentiated society. Cultural
capital therefore includes the accumulated self-learnt or culturally-transmitted knowledge that
bestows social status and power in a given society. This definition appears to be somewhat limited and
Euro-centric by our standards, and cultural capital should also at a broad level include those
differentiating cultural factors that promote sustained and wide-ranging economic growth. In "Cultural
Reproduction and Social Reproduction" (1977), Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron originally
presented the idea of cultural capital to explain differences in academic achievement of children in
France, and further developed the concept in the essay "The Forms of Capital" (1985), and in the
book “The State Nobility: Elite Schools in the Field of Power.” (1996)
According to Bourdieu, there are three types of cultural capital, namely, embodied capital, objectified
capital, and Institutionalised capital. Embodied cultural capital comprises the knowledge that is
consciously acquired or passively inherited, through enculturation and cultural tradition. Objectified
cultural capital comprises the person's cultural property that can be sold, transferred or transmitted for
economic profit. On the other hand, institutionalized cultural capital comprises an institution's formal
recognition of a person's cultural capital, usually through academic qualifications or professional
memberships. A well-developed corporate culture usually gives expression to an individual’s cultural
capital, and facilitates the conversion of cultural capital into economically useful capital. Cultural capital
is linked to the social and cultural maturity and progressivism of a society. Therefore, all cultures cannot
produce equal intellectual output. As Thomas Sowell states, “Those who say that all cultures are equal,
never explain why the results of those cultures are so grossly unequal.” However, cultures can change
with the passage of time. Refer our papers on sociocultural change.
Social capital
Social capital refers to the effective functioning of social groups through well-developed interpersonal
relationships, evolving from shared values, a common sense of identity, mutual trust, cooperation, and a
feeling of reciprocity. Social capital is a measure of the value of resources, including both tangible
assets (This may include public spaces and private property) and intangible assets (for example, people),
and its function in promoting social good. Social capital has been used to explain the optimal
performance of different groups, the value derived from strategic and mutually beneficial inter-
community alliances, and the healthy growth and development of communities. Enhancing social and
cultural capital also required a change in individual mind-orientation and cultural and societal
orientation, concepts we had discussed in the past. For starters, we should be less past-centric and
more-future centric. This does not appear to have changed by much, even over the past two decades.

36
Chapter 6
Inculcating a scientific temper

Making India a scientific and intellectual powerhouse FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdf

Making India a scientific and intellectual powerhouse FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdf

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