This document discusses theories and risk factors related to intimate partner violence (IPV). It summarizes that IPV is a problem among teens and young adults, and can stem from issues of power, control, and masculinity threats. Key risk factors include witnessing domestic violence as a child, experiencing relationship insecurity, hostility towards women, and psychological problems like anger and substance abuse. The document also evaluates programs like the Duluth Model and Men of Strength Club that aim to reduce IPV by addressing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

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Running Head: Intimate Partner Violence
Theories Behind and Predicting Characteristics of Intimate Partner Violence
Megan White
College of Charleston
Author Note
Megan E. White, Department of Psychology, Program of Neurosciences, College of Charleston
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Megan E. White, Department of
Psychology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC 29403.
Email: whiteme@g.cofc.edu

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Intimate partner violence (IPV) has become an increasing problem in the United States
among teens and young adults. One out of three teenagers identify themselves as a victim of
physical, sexual, emotional, or verbal abuse from their dating partner (Davis, 2008). Intimate
partner violence is defined as any occurrence of physical or sexual violence, or emotional abuse
between partners (McDermott & Lopez, 2012) and usually stems from issues of power and
control from men when they feel that their masculinity is being threatened (McDermott & Lopez,
2012). Although the exact reason as to why IPV occurs isn’t known the most prominent theories
cite particular attitudes, the way they view their sexual selves, general hostility towards women
as the main source of IPV in today’s society. And risk factors such as jealousy, dating at a
young age, witnessing domestic violence during childhood and simultaneously occurring
psychological problems serve as possible red flags of violent behavior. At present, the Duluth
Model stands as the premiere Intimate Partner Violence intervention program.
In a study conducted by McDermott and Lopez (2012), a man’s likeliness to accept
beliefs and attitudes related to physical, sexual, and psychological violence were found to be
associated with certain behaviors that could lead to IPV. IPV has been hypothesized as a matter
of attachment issues that the male is feeling in his romantic relationship. There are two
dimensions of attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety, these attachment styles are
influenced by social observances growing up and past experiences (Brennan, Clark & Shaver,
1998). Attachment anxiety is defined as having a strong want for an intimate relationship paired
with an intense fear of abandonment that stems from the man’s doubt of his self-worth.
Attachment avoidant describes an ongoing discomfort with close relationships that also includes
a difficulty of trusting others and allowing oneself to feel vulnerable (McDermott & Lopez,
2012). Due to these self-doubts and doubts in the relationship, feelings of relationship insecurity
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develop and cause men to seek drastic measures to keep their world the same. Studies have
shown, for example, those with anxious attachment issues may exhibit severe frustration and
rage due to their perception of insecurity in their relationship. Because of this uneasiness these
men may turn to violence in an attempt to reduce their anxiety (Bookwala & Zdaniuk, 1998;
Dutton, 2007; Gromley, 2005). On the other side of the spectrum, men who are avoidantly
attached perceive attempts of intimacy from their partner as a threat and will lash out with
violent behavior. It is common for men who follow this pattern to utilize violence as a way to
control the level of intimacy with their partner (Gromley, 2005).
A man’s sexual self-schema also has a hand in whether or not IPV will occur in a
relationship. Sexual self-schemas are cognitive generalizations about how one sees themselves
sexually. These are created by the individual and help guide judgments about past sexual
experiences as well as confidence about future sexual experiences (Andersen, Cyranowski, &
Espindle, 1999). It is also not uncommon for one’s sexual self-schema to influence one’s
attitudes, responses, and behaviors towards sex. The creation and maintenance of a sexual self-
schema is dependent on a man’s ability to preserve a sense of unique identity. If their ability to
do this is threatened they may lash out towards their partner in an effort to reestablish their sense
of self. Most men tend to fall into either a schematic or aschematic mindset. A schematic man is
open to the possibility of an emotional connection with a partner and is more sexually expressive
whereas an aschematic man is pessimistic about the formation of possible romantic or sexual
relationship and closes themselves off from others (Andersen, Cyranowski, & Espindle, 1999).
Those who fall into the schematic dimension are hypothesized to engage in less aggressive
behaviors towards their partner due to their emotional openness. Aschematic men are more
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likely to act aggressively and act on impulse because of their inability to connect with their
partner.
Hostility towards women might also be a source of IPV (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1995).
Rape, as well as other forms of sexual assault, is a product of strictly following a set of
traditional beliefs about dating and the man and woman’s roles in a relationship. Beliefs such as
that the man must be dominant and the woman must be submissive (Mumen, Wright, & Kaluzny,
2002). These feelings of hostility may also arise from pressure felt from one’s culture and its
views on relationship norms. Each culture has their own definition of masculinity and
expectations on how men should follow these norms and what is considered acceptable behavior
in intimate relationships.
Although there is not a set list of characteristics that one can look out for when it comes to
predicting the possibility of dating violence, there are certain risk factors that can point towards a
potential incidence of IPV. Jealousy is a large factor that contributes to relationship violence.
Jealousy can manifest from a situation or emotions created by the individual. When paired with
low levels of guilt violence is often the determined solution to the problem. In some cultures, the
use of violence is justified by feelings of jealousy (Black & Weisz, 2005). There is an increased
rate of IPV due to jealousy observed during the adolescent years resulting from the challenge
that fidelity to one partner poses during adolescence. The heightened difficulty of remaining
faithful to one partner during adolescence is strange because during this time there is a great
desire for intimacy and commitment to one romantic partner (Adams & Williams, 2014). Other
common risk factors that lead to IPV are dating before the age of 14, experiencing domestic
violence during childhood, or being victimized by a partner (O’Leary, Tintle & Bromet, 2014).
Issues related to physical aggression at a young age can also act as a red flag in detecting
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possible IPV (Nocentini, Menesini & Pastorelli, 2010). Hamberger & Holtz-worth-Munroe
(2009) also found that depression, uncontrollable anger, and substance abuse were also very
heavily involved in IPV perpetrated by males.
Currently, the Duluth Model is one of the most used intervention programs used in
decreasing the prevalence of dating and domestic violence (Pender, 2012) as well as an
"unchallenged treatment of choice for most communities” (Babcock, Green, and Robie, 2004).
The program consists of a 28 week curriculum that is designed especially for men who have
committed acts of domestic violence. These men are taught to understand eight core themes
(using intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, minimizing, denying and blaming, children, male
privilege, economic abuse, and coercion and threats) as a first step to stop the cycle of violence
from reoccurring. The fundamental tool of the program is the Power and Control Wheel which
illustrates how men use the various core themes to control women through violence and
aggression (Stover, Meadows, & Kaufman, 2009). One specific aim of the model is to bring
together the various agencies such as the police department, prosecutors' offices, and sheriff's
departments, as a single force to stop the increasing prevalence of dating and domestic violence
(Pence & Paymar, 1993). Another goal is to hold the one causing the violence accountable for
his or her actions instead of the individual being victimized (Pender, 2012). In two studies
comparing intervention programs that used the Duluth Model as supplement, those who received
the Duluth Model treatment were less likely to be rearrested, 13% versus 30% (Feder & Dugan,
2002), and a recidivism rate (likelihood of repeating aggressive and violent actions) of 16% as
compared to a 26% recidivism rate by those who did not receive the Duluth Model Supplement
(Taylor, Davis, & Maxwell, 2001).
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Many of these risk factors may stem from experiences in one’s childhood or begin to
present themselves at a young age. If gone unaddressed they may manifest into IPV once that
individual begins to date. Several IPV programs targeting middle and high school age teens have
been developed and are being implemented to target this problem.
The Men of Strength Club (MOST Club) is one such program currently being provided in
several middle and high schools within the Lowcountry by Hope Haven of the Lowcountry.
Founded in 2000, the MOST Club was started by a Washington D.C. based group, Men Can Stop
Rape. The program focuses on providing male youth with a secure place to make connections
with peers while educating them of ways in which traditional masculinity heavily influences
sexual assault and violence towards women. MOST aims to show the participants nonviolent
paradigms of manhood, give them the ability to become leaders in their peer groups and create
positive relationships with women all while supporting social justice and nonviolence activism
(Anderson, 2011). According to some preliminary evaluations, after the completion of the
program the young men who participated were more likely to intercede in situations in which a
female was being inappropriately touched or verbally harassed as well as having a more open
mindset about women’s roles in relationships (Anderson, 2011). This was measured by using a
pre and post-test questionnaire and survey which covered topics such as attitudes towards dating
violence, definitions of masculinity, and how the boys would respond in hypothetical situations.
There were also decreases in the likelihood that these young men would join in making fun of a
girl and increasing the chances that they would get an adult involved from pre to post-test
(Anderson, 2011).
Further evaluation is clearly warranted to better examine the impact of MOST Club on male
youth knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. In addition, pilot feasibility of research with current
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community programs will be useful for future grant applications. Continuing to offer programs
such as Project MOST and using the Duluth Model will continue to benefit communities and
decrease instances of Intimate Partner Violence for years to come. Through changing negative
attitudes and beliefs directed towards women and we girls there will be a subsequent decrease in
aggression and violence in relationships no matter what the age.
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