lightining.docx

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CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, composite materials have been used in interior automotive components because
of their properties such as low weight, high specific stiffness, corrosion free, ability to produce
complex shapes, high specific strength and high impact energy absorption etc. Therefore, this
work is towards the development of an interior automotive component such as composite
accelerator pedal for replacing it with the existing metallic one to reduce weight in conformation
with safety standards.
Most of the automotive accelerator pedals generally fail due to inappropriate decisions during
selection of design concept, material and manufacturing process. In this work, Concurrent
Engineering (CE) approach has been used to determine the most optimum decision on design
concept and material of the accelerator pedal at conceptual design stage.
In this view, development process is carried out under CAE environment (Fig. 1).
Comprehensive studies are performed to prepare Product Design Specification (PDS). Various
design concepts are generated using Morphological approach. In particular at design stage, 3-D
solid modeling system is used to generate various design concepts followed by analysis on
software package. Simultaneously, material selection is done on the basis of past research & PDS
for accelerator pedal. Rating/weighting matrix evaluation method is used to select the best
concept for the profile of pedal arm on basis of mass, volume, stress and deformation. Best
design concept is selected through morphological chart on logical, conventional design and
analysis results. Tab. 1 lists the various methodologies used in the development of composite
accelerator pedal.

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Figure 1.1 : Development Process
1.1. Background:
Accelerator pedal consists of three main parts namely pedal plate, pedal arm and pivot shaft
(Figure 2). It is usually close to floor which allows the driver’s heel to rest on the floor. It
should not sink more than an inch or two, no matter how hard it is pressed with the foot; and
the driver Should not feel as if he were stepping on a wet spongy pedal spells trouble in
maintaining the vehicle speed. Existing accelerator pedal is made of metal possessing poor
weight to strength ratio required for the working condition. It is highly prone to corrosion
thus requires paint coating. Its parts are assembled by welding hence increases the number of
processing steps, machine requirements. Moreover, pedal plate is needed to be covered with
rubber pad for proper foot grip. It also gives poor internal damping.

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Figure 1.2: Accelerator Pedal
To reduce the weight of the automotive parts, recent survey explains about composites are
regularly using in the running automotive parts Market. For throttle pedal the different
materials using in the market are Gray cast iron, Aluminium alloy 6061 and composite
material.
1.2: Design Specifications:
The following factors are to be evaluated for preparing design specifications
1. Size: In view of the limited space available for the driver’s feet, the dimensions should be
small as possible but must comply with safety and ergonomics standards. For
dimensional reference, existing model of Mahindra make accelerator pedal is taken.
2. Weight: In view of reducing the weight of accelerator pedal, it should have minimum
weight.
3. Safety: The component must be free from sharp edges. The system must comply with all
relevant parts of India and international legislation. The maximum force on the
accelerator pedal is 40 N with a maximum deflection of 10 mm.
4. Environment: The accelerator pedal must be capable of use in all weather conditions
and should be non-corrosive. It must be resistant to fuel slippage, greases and should not
degrade by ultra violet radiation. The water absorption percentage of material must be
less than 8 %.
5. Ergonomics: The distance between steering wheel and accelerator pedal are kept
approximately 600 mm. The return force should be between 40-60 N. The dimensions of

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pedal should not be too short so that drivers feel difficult to depress the pedal. The design
must provide comfort and enough space installing and removal of the pedal. Design
dimension should account factors for easy accessibility and women driving with high
heeled shoes.
1.3.Material Selection:
Material selection process is carried out into phases; Selection of matrix and
reinforcement composite materials (depicted in Figure 3). Finally, polyamide as matrix
composite material and glass as reinforcement composite material are selected for
accelerator pedal.
Table 1: Material Properties of Glass Filled Polyamide

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Figure 1.3: Flowchart for Material Selection
1.4Aim of the Project:
Using different conceptual design concepts of throttle pedal and by applied different types of
materials to the throttle pedal. Depends on the Finite Element Analysis the best throttle pedal
design is finalized. By seeing the results like stress, displacement and weight of the throttle
pedal.

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CHAPTER -II
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
Sapuan [1] a conceptual design approach to the development of polymeric-based composite
automotive bumper system is presented. Various methods of creativity, such as mind mapping,
product design specifications, brainstorming, morphology chart, analogy and weighted objective
methods are employed for the development of composite bumper fascia and for the selection of
materials for bumper system. The evaluation of conceptual design for bumper fascia is carried
out using weighted objective method and highest utility value is appeared to be the best design
concept. Polymer-based composites are the best materials for bumper fascia which are
aesthetically pleasant, lighter weight and offer many more substantial advantages.
Murat [2]. The model consists of a parabolic ascending branch, followed by a linear descending
segment. It is based on calculation of lateral confinement pressure generated by circular and
rectilinear reinforcement, and the resulting improvements in strength and ductility of confined
concrete. A large volume of test data, including poorly confined and well‐confined concrete was
evaluated to establish the parameters of the analytical model. Confined concrete strength and
corresponding strain are expressed in terms of equivalent uniform confinement pressure provided
by the reinforcement cage. The equivalent uniform pressure is obtained from average lateral
pressure computed from sectional and material properties. Confinement by a combination of
different types of lateral reinforcement is evaluated through superposition of individual
confinement effects. The descending branch is constructed by defining the strain corresponding
to 85% of the peak stress. This strain level is expressed in terms of confinement parameters. A
constant residual strength is assumed beyond the descending branch, at 20% strength level. The
model is compared against a large number of column tests. Circular, square, and rectangular
columns, with spiral and rectilinear reinforcements, as well as welded wire fabric, are used for
comparison.
Gulur[3]Although leaf springs are one of the oldest suspension components, they are still
frequently used in the automobile vehicles. Weight reduction is the main focus in the automobile
industries. Weight reduction can be achieved primarily by the introduction of better materials,
design optimization, and better manufacturing processes. The achievement of weight reduction
with adequate improvement of mechanical properties has made composite a very good
replacement material for conventional steel. Selection of material is based on the cost and
strength of material. The composite materials have more elastic strain energy, storage capacity
and high strength to weight ratio compared to steel. This paper briefs about the research carried
out for the part of three decades on design, analysis, and selection of material, experiments and
fabrication of composite leaf spring.
Gummadi [4] The advanced composite materials such as Graphite, Carbon, Kevlar and Glass
with suitable resins are widely used because of their high specific strength (strength/density) and
high specific modulus (modulus/density). Advanced composite materials seem ideally suited for

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long, power driver shaft (propeller shaft) applications. Their elastic properties can be tailored to
increase the torque they can carry as well as the rotational speed at which they operate. The drive
shafts are used in automotive, aircraft and aerospace applications. The automotive industry is
exploiting composite material technology for structural components construction in order to
obtain the reduction of the weight without decrease in vehicle quality and reliability. It is known
that energy conservation is one of the most important objectives in vehicle design and reduction
of weight is one of the most effective measures to obtain this result. Actually, there is almost a
direct proportionality between the weight of a vehicle and its fuel consumption, particularly in
city driving
Alemu[5] Concurrent Engineering - which is sometimes called Simultaneous Engineering or
Integrated Product Development (IPD) - was defined by the Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA)
in its December 1988 report 'The Role of Concurrent Engineering in Weapons System
Acquisition' as a systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of products and their
related processes, including manufacture and support. This approach is intended to cause the
developers, from the outset, to consider all elements of the product life cycle from conception
through disposal, including quality, cost, schedule, and user requirements Concurrent
Engineering is not a quick fix for a company's problems and it's not just a way to improve
engineering performance. It's a business strategy that addresses important company resources.
The major objective this business strategy aims to achieve is improved product development
performance. Concurrent Engineering is a long-term strategy, and it should be considered only
by organizations willing to make up front investments and then wait several years for long-term
benefits.
Bowonder[5] Product development cycle time has come down drastically. This paper illustrates
the use of concurrent engineering in an automobile firm. Overlapping phases of development,
taking up long lead time activities, failure analysis and vendor involvement in the early part of
the cycle helped Tata Motors to reduce the product development cycle time. Rapid learning was
one of the major factors, along with empowered decision-making systems that made the
concurrent engineering initiatives to succeed at Tata Motors. Apart from the hard elements some
soft elements made the change process smooth at Tata Motors. These are commitments to lead,
to compete, to inspire and to learn. These soft elements made concurrent engineering effective.

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CHAPTER –III
DESIGN METHODOLOGY OF THROTTLE PEDAL
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CATIA
CATIA goes far beyond traditional 3-D cad software tools to offer a unique digital product
experience based on the 3- D experience platform. Sustainable development is driving companies
around the global to create a constant stream of innovative and inspiring smart product, engineering
design, architecture and system engineering of this products becomes more demanding.
The main domain areas include
 Product design and manufacturing.
 Drawing enterprise competitiveness.
 Task presentation.
 Process environment.
Now by giving detail views of each tool bars as follows:
The sketcher workbench:
The Sketcherworkbench is a set of tools that helps you create and constrain 2D geometries.
Features (pads, pockets, shafts, etc...) may then be created solids or modifications to solids using
these 2D profiles. You can access the Sketcherworkbench in various ways. Two simple ways are
by using the top pull downmenu (Start – Mechanical Design – Sketcher), or by selecting the
Sketcher icon. When you enter the sketcher, CATIA requires that you choose a plane to
sketch on.
To exit the sketcher, select the Exit Workbench icon.
The Sketcherworkbench contains the following standard workbench specific toolbars.

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• Profile toolbar:
The commands located in this toolbar allow you to create simple
(rectangle, circle, line, etc...)and more complex geometries (profile, spline, etc
Figure 3.1: Profile toolbar
• Operation toolbar: Once a profile has been created, it can be modified using commands such as
trim, mirror, chamfer, and other commands located in the Operationtoolbar.
Figure3.2: Operation toolbar
• Constraint toolbar: Profiles may be constrained with dimensional (distances, angles, etc...) or
geometrical (tangent, parallel, etc...) constraints using the commands located in the Constraint
toolbar.
Figure 3.3: Constraint toolbar
• Sketch tools toolbar: The commands in this toolbar allow you to work in different modes which
make sketching easier.
Figure 3.4: Sketch toolbar

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• User Selection Filter toolbar: Allows you to activate different selection filters.
Figure 3.5: User selection filter
• Visualization toolbar: Allows you to, among other things to cut the part by the sketch plane and choose
lighting and other factors that influence how the part is visualized.
Figure 3.6: Visualization toolbar
• Tools toolbar: Allows you to, among others other things, to analyze a sketch for problems, and
create a datum.
Figure 3.7: Tools toolbar
3.2 The Sketch tools Toolbar:
The Sketchtoolstoolbar contains icons that activate and deactivate different work modes. These work
modes assist you in drawing 2D profiles. Reading from left to right, the toolbar contains the following
work modes; (Each work mode is active if the icon is orange and inactive if it is blue.)

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Figure 3.8: Sketch tools toolbar
• Grid: This command turns the sketcher grid on and off.
• Snap to Point: If active, your cursor will snap to the intersections of the grid lines.
• Construction / Standard Elements:
You can draw two different types of elements in CATIA a standard element
and a construction element. A standard element (solid line type) will be created when the icon is
inactive (blue). It will be used to create a feature in the PartDesignworkbench. A construction
element (dashed line type) will be created when the icon is active (orange). They are used to help
construct your sketch, but will not be used to create features.
•Geometric Constraints: When active, geometric constraints will automatically be applied such
as tangencies, coincidences, parallelisms, etc...
• Dimensional Constraints: When active, dimensional constraints will automatically be applied
when corners (fillets) or chamfers are created, or when quantities are entered in the value field.
3.3 OPTIONS:

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Figure 3.9: Options
3.4 Profile toolbar
The Profiletoolbar contains 2D geometry commands. These geometries range from the very
simple (point, rectangle, etc...) to the very complex (splines, conics, etc...). The Profiletoolbar
contains many sub-toolbars. Most of these subtoolbars contain different options for creating the
same geometry. For example, you can create a simple line, a line defined by two tangent points,
or a line that is perpendicular to a surface. Reading from left to right, the Profiletoolbar contain
the following commands.

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Figure 3.10 : Profile toolbar
• Profile: This command allows you to create a continuous set of lines and arcs connected together.
• Rectangle / Predefined Profiletoolbar: The default top command is rectangle. Stacked underneath are
several different commands used to create predefined geometries.
• Circle / Circletoolbar: The default top command is circle. Stacked underneath are several
different options for creating circles and arcs.
• Spline / Splinetoolbar: The default top command is spline which is a curved line created by
connecting a series of points.
• Ellipse / Conictoolbar: The default top command is ellipse. Stacked underneath are commands
to create different conic shapes such as a hyperbola.
• Line / Line toolbar: The default top command is line. Stacked underneath arc several different
options for creating lines.
• Axis: An axis is used in conjunction with commands like mirror and shaft (revolve). It defines
symmetry. It is a construction element so it does not become a physical part of your feature.
• Point / Pointtoolbar: The default top command is point. Stacked underneath are several
different options for creating points.
3.5 Predefined Profile toolbar:
Predefined profiles are frequently used geometries. CATIA makes these profiles available for easy
creation which speeds up drawing time. Reading from left to right, the Predefined Profiletoolbar contains
the following commands.

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Figure 3.11: Predefined profile toolbar
• Rectangle: The rectangleis defined by two corner points. The sides of the rectangle are
always horizontal and vertical.
• Oriented Rectangle: The oriented rectangleis defined by three corner points. This allows you to
create a rectangle whose sides are at an angle to the horizontal.
• Parallelogram: The parallelogramis defined by three corner points.
• Elongated Hole: The elongated hole or slot is defined by two points and a radius.
• Cylindrical Elongated Hole: The cylindrical elongatedholeis defined by a cylindrical radius,
two point and a hole radius.
• Keyhole Profile: The keyholeprofileis defined by two center points and two radii.
• Hexagon: The hexagonis defined by a center point and the radius of an inscribed circle.
• Centered Rectangle: The centered rectangleis defined by a center point and a corner point.
• Centered Parallelogram: The centered parallelogramis defined by a centerpoint (defined by
two intersecting lines) and a corner point.
3.6 Circle toolbar

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The Circletoolbar contains several different ways of creating circles and arcs. Reading
from left to right, the Circle toolbar contains the following commands.
Figure 3.12: Circle toolbar
• Circle: A circle is defined by a center point and a radius.
• Three Point Circle: The three point circlecommand allows you to create a circle usingthree
circumferential points.
• Circle Using Coordinates: The circle using coordinatescommand allows you to create a circle
by entering the coordinates for the center point and radius in a Circle Definitionwindow.
• Tri-Tangent Circle: The tri-tangent circlecommand allows you to create a circle whose
circumference is tangent to three chosen lines.
• Three Point Arc: The three point arccommand allows you to create an arc defined by three circumferential
points.
• Three Point Arc Starting With Limits: The three point arc starting with limits allows you to
create an arc using a start, end, and midpoint.
• Arc: The arc command allows you to create an arc defined by a center point, and a
circumferential start and end point.
Spline toolbar
Reading from left to right, the Spline toolbar contains the following commands.

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• Spline: A spline is a curved profile defined by three or more points. The tangency and
curvature radius at each point may be specified.
• Connect: The connect command connects two points or profiles with a spline.
Figure 3.13: Spline toolbar
Conic toolbar
Reading from left to right, the Conictoolbar contains the following commands.
Figure 3.14: Conic toolbar
• Ellipse: The ellipse is defined by center point and a major and minor axis points.
• Parabola by Focus: The parabola is defined by a focus, apex and a start and end point.
• Hyperbola by Focus: The hyperbola is defined by a focus, center point, apex and a start and end
point.
• Conic: There are several different methods that can be used to create conic curves. These
methods give you a lot of flexibility when creating above three types of curves.
3.7 Line toolbar:
The Linetoolbar contains several different ways of creating lines. Reading from left to right,
the Line toolbar contains the following commands.

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Figure 3.15: Line toolbar
• Line: A line is defined by two points.
• Infinite Line: Creates infinite lines that are horizontal, vertical or defined by two points.
• Bi-Tangent Line: Creates a line whose endpoints are tangent to two other elements.
• Bisecting Line: Creates an infinite line that bisects the angle created by two other lines.
• Line Normal to Curve: This command allows you to create a line that starts anywhere and
ends normal or perpendicular to another element.
3.8 Point toolbar:
The Point toolbar contains several different ways of creating points. Readiing from left to right,
the Pointtoolbar contains the following commands.
Figure 3.16: Point tool bar
• Point by Clicking: Creates a point by clicking the left mouse button.
• Point by using Coordinates: Creates a point at a specified coordinate point.
• Equidistant Points: Creates equidistant points along a predefined path curve.

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• Intersection Point: Creates a point at the intersection of two different elements.
• Projection Point: Projects a point of one element onto another.
3.9 Constraint toolbar
Constraints can either be dimensional or geometrical. Dimensional constraints are used to
constrain the length of an element, the radius or diameter of an arc or circle, and the distance or
angle between elements. Geometrical constraints are used to constrain the orientation of one
element relative to another. For example, two elements may be constrained to be perpendicular
to each other. Other common geometrical constraints include parallel, tangent, coincident,
concentric, etc... Reading from left to right:
Figure3.17 :Constraint tool bar
• Constraints Defined in Dialoged Box: Creates geometrical and dimensional constraints between
two elements.
• Constraint: Creates dimensional constraints
• Contact Constraint: Creates a contact constraint between two elements.
• Fix Together: The fix together command groups individual entities together.
• Auto Constraint: Automatically creates dimensional constraints.
• Animate Constraint: Animates a dimensional constraint between to limits.

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3.10 DESIGNING OF THROTTLE PEDAL BASE IN CATIA
START
MECHANICAL DESIGN
PART DESIGN
STEP 1
 Part design can be named, give the name as throttle pedal base.
 We have three planes namely xy, yz, xz planes.
 Select any plane, click on the icon sketch.
 After sketching the plane, we can see profile tool on the screen, make throttle pedal base, using the given
dimensions.
Figure 3.18: Sketcher plane

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STEP: 2
In profile tool select the centered rectangle, and draw the rectangle in given dimensions.
FIFIFigure 3.19:Centred triangle

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STEP: 3
 After drawing the rectangle, click on the icon, exit work bench .In exit work bench we have tool called sketch base
feature.
 Selecting the icon pad option in sketch based feature.
We can get the desired solid shape of the part.
 After padding is done select the surface of the product, then go to the sketcher.
 In sketcher we have operation tool bar in operation tool bar select, project
3-D elements.
Figure3.20 : Sketch tools operation
STEP: 4

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 Select the surface of product, then in sketch tools, select the icon standard elements. After selection we can see
dotted lines on the surface.
 Now by going to the next step as we can in the figure then go the pad option give the required thickness
.
Figure3.21 : Pad option
FSTEP: 5
 Now in the work bench, select side phase of the product, click on the icon sketch.
 Draw the figure as shown in the screen

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.
Figure 3.22: Side phase of product
STEP:6
 The give pad option, with the help of transformation icon, shift the desired object to the opposite side. Now select
the top surface of the plane.
 Now select the center point circle, by using this make sure that two rectangles are joined, then give an desired
offset. And the part which is not required.
.

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Figure 3.23: Offset circle
 Now in dress up featured, select the icon edge fillet. Then click on the part where the fillet has to be done.
SDFKA/Figure 3.24: Dress up features
Now the desired shape can be opted by using the following the tool bars like profile, sketch, tool, etc.,
Figure 3.25: Optimisation of base

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PART-B
3.11 DESIGNING OF THROTTLE PEDAL IN CATIA
Step: 1
 As done in the previous model same steps are to be followed in starting stage.
 To create the throttle pedal an angle of 25° from the base part as to be taken
 Now by creating the first step as shown below, withpad options.
Figure 3.26: Centerdcircle
Figure3.27 :Extruding of centered circle

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STEP: 2
 Now by using transformation method as shown in the below.
Figure 3.28: Transformation of circle
STEP:3
 Now selecting on the plane of circle we exit to sketcher and project 3-D elements as shown in the figure and by
taking the angle for pedal can be seen in the figure.
Figure 3.29: Angle for pedal

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STEP :4
 Now by going to wireframe and surface design we extrude surface and make into thickness with help of thick surface
icon in part design.
.
Figure 3.30: wire frame surface design
STEP:5
 For creating part for spring base as shown in the figure with help of wireframe and surface design.

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Figure 3.31: Spring base
Figure 3.32: With base
STEP 6:
 Now by using spline in wire frame and surface design, we draw the throttle pedal as shown in figure.
Figure 3.33: Spline

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STEP:7
 The weight optimization can be done as shown in the figure with the help of cross links.
Figure 3.34: Optimisation by cross links
STEP:8
 Now we can see the final phase of the pedal.
Figure 3.35: Final base pedal

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CHAPTER –IV
ANALYSIS OF THROTTLE PEDAL
4.1 HYPERMESH INTRODUCTION
Hypermesh is a high performance finite element pre and post processor for major finite element
solver which allows engineers to analyze design conditions in highly interactive and visual
environment. Hypermesh’s user-interface is easy to learn and support the direct use of cad
geometry and existing finite element models. Advanced automation tools within hypermesh
allow user to optimize meshes from a set of quality criteria, change existing meshes through
morphing and generate mid surface from models of varying thickness. Hypermesh is basically a
finite element modelling tool and it has a lack of powerful tools for creating the geometry.
• Graphics area – displays the model
• Toolbar – Gives access to commonly used tools via icons
• Pull Down Menu – places functionality into groups, accessible via pull downs
• Menu Pages – divides the main menu into groups based on function
• Main Menu – contains “panels” grouped in columns
• Panels – menu items / functions for interacting with HyperMesh
• Sub-panels – divides panel into similar tasks related to panel’s main function
• Command Window – lets the user type in and execute commands
• Available through the View drop down menu (turned off by default)
• Tab Area – contains the following tabs:
• Solver, Model, Utility, Include, Import, Export, Connector, Entity State, etc.
• Status Bar – shows status of operations being performed
• Indicates the “current” Include file, Component Collector, and Load Collector

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Figure 4.1: Hypermesh Home page
This hypermesh explains how to use atypical hypermesh panel. It contains information about
 Retrieving and saving a hypermesh database
 Input collector
 Viewing models
 Using the display panel
 Setting view options
 Setting tolerances
 Setting global parameters
 Importing and exporting data
 Printing screen images

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BENEFITS OF HYPERMESH
 Shorten new products development time
 Reduce the cost of products
 Provides greater product reliability
 Improve quality
 Increase customer satisfaction
 Experience testing scenarios
BARRIERS OF HYPERMESH:
 Cost of FEA software
 Lack of FEA knowledge
4.2 IMPORT GEOMETRY AND GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
Figure 4.2: Import Geometry

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To import geometry, the Import Browser, accessible through the Import Geometry icon , is
used.
Using the Import Browser, the user can import data from popular CAD packages such as
• Uni graphics (NX2,NX3,NX4,NX5)
• Supports import of files
• Provides a UG part browser
• Requires an installation of UG to be accessible, either locally or on a network
• CATIA V5 R20
• Supports import of .model (V5) files
• Additional license from Altair is required of catia part (V5) file import.
• Pro/Engineer (Wildfire 2.0 & 3.0)
• Supports import of .prt and .asm files.
Additionally HyperMesh supports the import of the following intermediate translational
languages:
• IGES (.igs& .iges)
• STEP(.stp)
3.4 Importing CAD Geometry
In addition, HyperMesh also supports the following CAD packages for Geometry Import:
• ACIS
• DXF
• JT
• Parasolid
• PDGS
• VDAFS
Figure 4.3: Checking Errors

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After importing the geometry, we must need to check whether the model is having any errors,
irregularities, duplicate surface.
And check the model whether it is symmetry or not and then select the element size by using the
function key “O”. from this option key we can select the element size.
Here the parameters that decide the element size is based on the previous experience of similar
type of problems(successful correlation with experimental results).The geometry imported
contains some imperfections like over lapse, and misalignments between the imported surface,
which prevent the auto mesher from creating the best meshes.
TYPES OF ELEMNTS:
There are three types of elements. They are
1-D, 2-D, 3-D.
1-D ELEMENT:
It is defined as the one of the dimensions is very large in comparision to rest of two.
Example:
500 mm
Here x>>>y and z axis
500>>>5,10
ELEMENT SHAPE :LINE
When elements is created by connecting to nodes “softwares come to know about only one” out
of three dimensions that is area of crossection.
ELEMENT TYPE : ROD, BAR, BEAM, PIPEetc.,
2-D ELEMENTS:
It is defined when two of the dimensions of very large in comparision to third one.

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ELEMENT SHAPE: QUARD, TRIA
200mm
400mm
300 mm 500mm
Element type: thin shell, plate, membrane etc.,
Practical applications: sheet metal parts
3-D ELEMENTS:-
It is defined as all the dimensions are comparable.
Element shape :- tetra, penta, hexa
Element type :- solid
Practical applications :- transmission casing , engine block, crankshaft etc.,

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4.3 SPLITTING OF GEOMETRY:
Figure 4.4: Splitting Geometry
After giving the element size we must split the geometry according to our convenience such that
meshing can be done accordingly. And for splitting the geometry we can use F11 function key.
Here in this option we have split surface node, split surface line, this is mainly used to split a line
between a geometry and we also have some other execution keys like washer split, toggle edge,
unsplit surface, delete surface, fillet surface etc., as shown in above figure.

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4.4 MESHING:
Take one big component and divide it into many little and simple problems in simple
shape is called mesh. Mesh is a copy of orginal geometry. Mesh is made up of a small pieces of
elements as a mesh and each element has node. Calculation is done at nodes by solving the
problem. Meshing is one of more important for getting good results from FEA.
Figure 4.5: Meshing
Here in the above figure we have done the meshing by using F12 key by taking the element size
as 5 and then select the surface on the geometry and mesh that surface.

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4.5 CHECKING OF FREE EDGES:
Figure 4.6:Checking free edges
In this page we are checking for free edges and also connectivity by clicking shift+F3 we can get
this page and then select all the elements of the component and then click on to the preview
equivalence, equivalence and save equivalence and then find edges. Here the red colour mark
indicates whether it has any free edges or not.

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Figure 4.7: No edges
Here in this figure there is no red colour mark is visible and hence no edges were found and the
selected elements may enclose a volume.

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4.6 QUALITY CHECKUPS
The quality index panel is located on the 2D page and can be accessed by selecting Mesh >
Check> Elements > Quality Index. This panel is used to calculate a single value to represent
the qualityof the displayed two-dimensional (shell) elements. The criteria for the element quality
is storedand retrieved using a criteria file. The results from the quality index panel can also be
saved to asummary file.
To calculate the quality index, twelve different criteria are used, each with a user defined weight
factor. The twelve different criteria are listed below with their corresponding ideal and worst
values
Figure 4.8: Quality check ups

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QUALITY CHECKS:
 Warpage
 Aspect
 Skew
 Jacobian
 Maximum length
 Minimum length
 Chordial deviation
WARPAGE:
Warpage in two-dimensional elements is calculated by splitting a quad into two trias and
finding the angle between the two planes which the trias form. The quad is then split again, this
time using the opposite corners and forming the second set of trias. The angle between the two
planes which the trias form is then found. The maximum angle found between the planes is the
warpage of the element. Warpage in three-dimensional elements is performed in the same
fashion on all faces of the element.
ASPECT RATIO:
Aspect ratio in two-dimensional elements is calculated by dividing the maximum length
side of an element by the minimum length side of the element. The aspect ratio check is
performed in the same fashion on all faces of three-dimensional elements.
SKEW:
Skew in trias is calculated by finding the minimum angle between the vector from each
node to the opposing mid-side and the vector between the two adjacent mid-sides at each node of
the element. Ninety degrees minus the minimum angle found is reported. 203 Triangle Skew in
quads is calculated by finding the minimum angle between two lines joining opposite midsides
of the element. Ninety degrees minus the minimum angle found is reported. Square skew = 90 –
a The skew check is performed in the same fashion on all faces of three-dimensional elements.

42
JACOBIAN
A measure of the deviation of the given element from a ideally shaped element. This
checks are performed by mapping an ideal element in parametric co-ordinates of actual length.
MAXIMUM LENGTH
It isdefined as the largest side of an element.
MINIMUM LENGTH
It is defined as shortest side of an element.
CHORDIAL DEVIATION
This helps in determining how well curvatures have been modeled. It is defined as the
distance between the mid node of an element edge to the curved surface. It is only applicable for
linear elements.
QUALITY CHECKS FOR TETRAMESH
The ideal shape for a tetrahedron element is an equilateral tetrahedron (all equilateral
triangle faces). Various quality parameters check how far a given element deviates from the ideal
shape.
Tetra Collapse
Ideal Value = 1.0 (Acceptable > 0.1)
Tetra collapse = h * 1.24 / A
(Defined as the distance of a node from the opposite face divided by the area of the face
multiplied by 1.24)
QUALITY INDEX IDEAL WORST
MINIMUM SIZE AVERAGE ELEMENT SIZE 0.0
MAXIMUM LENGTH AVERAGE ELEMENT SIZE INFINITE
WARPAGE 0 90
ASPECT RATIO 1 INFINITE
SKEW 0 90
JACOBIAN 1 -1
Table 2: Quality index

43
QUALITY PARAMETRS IDEAL WORST
MINIMUM ANGLE
QUARD
90 0.0
MAXIMUM ANGLE
QUARD
90 180
MINIMUM ANGLE TRIA 60 0
MAXIMUM ANGLE TRIA 60 180
CHORDIAL DEVIATION 0 INFININTE
Table 3 : Quality Parameters
CREATE RBE2 ELEMENTS:
For creating RBE2 elements go to 1D and then rigids, and select the nodes where the
required rigid is needed and then by selecting all the degrees of freedom and then create. Rigid
“elements” were devised to simplify the input of constraint equations for commonly used
configurations. They are not structural elements, but are equations that define dependencies
between degrees of freedom. There are many illegal configurations of rigid elements which lead
to a large percentage of input errors therefore they should be used with care. Because there really
are no perfectly rigid materials in nature, a rigid element is usually a poor representation of any
structural component.
4.7 LOAD COLLECTOR:
 SPC
 Force
It stands for single point constraint after doing RBE2(rigid body element) constraint that
component such that it should move in all directions. If you want to move in any required
direction then unselect the degrees of freedom which direction you want to move. Then go to the
analysis, force and select the nodes where you want to apply the load or force.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Material selection is one of the major concern in this presentation. The throttle pedal are generally made
of Gray Cast iron because of its high strength and high specific heat capacity. The density of an GCI is
7200 kg/m3.Due to its high density the weight of the component should be more, so to reduce the weight
of the component we have to choose low density and high strength materials which are polyamide and
aluminum 6061. The linear static analysis should be done for all these three materials and compare their
respective weights and stresses.

44
Figure 4.9: Material name
Figure 4.10 Property name
STANDARD METERIAL PROPERTIES:
MATERIAL YOUNG’S
MODULUS(MPa)
DENSITY
(ton/mm³)
POISSOINS
RATIO
YIELD
STRENGTH(MPa)
AL6061 75e³ 2.7E-7 0.33 270
GRAY
CASTIRON
118e³ 7.15E-9 0.294 124
POLYAMIDE 38.1 8.4e-10 0.314 5910
Table 4: Standard material properties
Give the material to that component and select colour, no card image and then create edit
such that it will ask the properties of that material such as young’s modulus, density and Poisson
ratio and then return such that material is created. And also go to the property, and assign which
type of property it is.

45
LOAD STEP
For creating load step go to analysis and select load step such that here we select which
type of analysis we are doing. Here we are doing linear static analysis and then go to SPC and
FORCE give the Id’s and then create.
Figure 4.11: SPC Load
4.8 LINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS
Figure 4.12: Linear Static Analysis

46
Linear indicates a linear elastic behavior of the material. That is, the linear portion of the
Stress Strain Curve a straight line following Hooke’s Law : σ =ε E which can be interpreted as
the equation of a straight line (y = m x) passing through the origin. “E”, the Elastic Modulus, is
the slope of the curve and is a constant. In real life, after crossing the yield point, the material
follows a non-linear curve, but the solver follows the same straight line. Components are broken
into two separate pieces after crossing the ultimate stress, although a linear static analysis never
shows failure in this fashion. It shows a single unbroken part with high stresses at the location of
failure. Very large, unrealistic deformations may also be seen. An analyst has to conclude
whether the component is safe or if it failed by comparing the maximum stress value with the
yield or ultimate stress. Hence it’s necessary for the analyst to decide, if under the given loading
conditions, a Linear Static Analysis can be carried out.
Static:
There are two conditions for static analysis:
1) Force is static meaning there is no variation with respect to time (dead weight )
dF/dt = 0
2) Equilibrium condition - Σ Force = 0, Σ Moments = 0.
Linear Static Analysis:
This chapter includes material from the book “Practical Finite Element Analysis”. It
also has been reviewed and has additional material added by Debdatta Sen.
ΣFx = 0 ΣMx = 0
ΣFy = 0 ΣMy = 0
ΣFz = 0 ΣMz = 0
The FE model should fulfil this condition at each and every node. The summation of all
external forces and moments should at all locations, be equal to the reaction forces and moments.

47
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
Most commonly used in aerospace, automobile and civil engineering industries etc.,
Here in this linear static analysis in real life after crossing the yield point material follows non
linear curve. But in software it follows straight line. Components break into two separate pieces
after crossing the ultimate stress but software based analysis never show failure. For that we
should do analysis has to conclude whether the component is safe or failure by comparing the
maximum stress value with yield or ultimate stress.
STRESS STRAIN CURVE
Figure 4.13:Stress Strain Curve
 Ductile
 Brittle
DUCTILE:
Ductile materials which comprise structural steel as well as many alloys of other
materials. As a specimen is subjected to increase in load at first, its length first increases linearly
with the load at very slow rate. Thus the initial position of stress strain diagram is in straight line.
However after a critical value of stress has been reached the specimen undergoes a large
deformation with a relatively small increases in the applied load.
This deformation will cause due to slippage of the material along the oblique surface
(primarily to sheering stress) after that elongation takes place called yield.

48
After certain value of load has been rigid the diameter of specimen or body decreases and this
phenomenon is called necking. Finally it broke or rupture. Rupture occurs along with cone
shaped surface by approximate angle of 45 degrees.
Yield strength: The point where elongation takes place and which it does not regain its original
shape.
Ultimate strength: The maximum load applied on the specimen or body.
Brittle material
The rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation. In this
brittle material there is no difference between the ultimate strength and breaking strength. In this
brittle material the specimen will break all of the sudden without elongation. We conclude that
normal stress are primarily responsible for the brittle materials.
Examples: glass, stone, etc.,
STRESS
When a material is subjected to external force a resisting force is setup with a component.
This internal resistance is called stress.
Stress= force per unit area of crossection
Stress is expressed as newton/m²
Units are Pascals.
TENSILE STRESS
When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls the body tends to increase its
length.the stress induced is called tensile stress.the corresponding strain is called tensile strain.
COMPRESSIVE STRESS
When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes the body tends to shorten
its length, the stress induced is called compressive stress, the corresponding strain is called
compressive strain. As a result the cross section of the body increases

49
STRAIN
It is defined as how much the material has been stretched or compressed comparing to its
original length. It is the ratio of change in length to original length.
YOUNGS MODOLUS
It is defined as when the material is loaded with in the elastic limit the stress is proportional to
strain.
Stress ∞ strain
POSSIONS RATIO
If a body is stressed with in the elastic limit , the lateral strain bears the constant ration of linear
strain,
Lateral strain
Linear strain
Linear strain
The deformation of the bar per unit length in the direction of force.is known as primary
or linear strain.
Secondary or Lateral strain
It is defined as if a bar is subjected to a compressive force the length of the bar will
decrease by 𝜕𝑙 which will be follow by increases of diameter L.

50
CHAPTER –V
SOLVER
5.1 OPTISTRUCT:
OptiStruct/Analysis is a fast, accurate, and robust finite element solver, which offers a
comprehensive set of linear solutions as well as nonlinear contact. Using the latest sparse matrix
and Lanczos solver technologies, large finite-element models can be analyzed quickly. Fast and
accurate solution sequences are available for linear static, eigenvalue, buckling, inertia relief,
random response, as well as for both direct and modal frequency and transient response analysis.
Numerous customers in aerospace, automotive, heavy machinery and consumer products
industries worldwide rely on OptiStruct /Analysis for their daily analysis work.
BENEFITS:
Comprehensive package: The most popular linear analysis problems can be solved
with OptiStruct/Analysis. Deeply integrated in HyperWorks and HWU* enabled,
OptiStruct/Analysis increases end-user efficiency and significantly reduces corporate
investments in third-party solver solutions.
• Fast computation: The underlying solution algorithms for linear and modal analysis problems
are very efficient compared to conventional solvers.
• Accurate results: Modern 6 DOF/grid shell element formulations in OptiStruct/Analysis
eliminate the problems associated with AUTOSPC and K6ROT fudge factors in NASTRAN.
• Large models: Model sizes are not restricted. With intelligent memory management,
OptiStruct/Analysis easily simulates structures with millions degrees of freedom (DOFs).
• Highly compatible: OptiStruct/Analysis uses NASTRAN input syntax, which ensures
compatibility and reduces the need to convert
input decks.
• Ready for optimization: Most analysis problems can easily be converted into an optimization
problem to quickly improve the design.

51
5.2 CAPABILITIES
OptiStruct/Analysis offers a comprehensive range of solutions for displacements,
stresses, strains or frequency evaluation. Sequences currently available are:
• Linear Statics
• Inertia Relief
• Normal Modes
• Linear Buckling
• Direct and Modal Frequency Response
• Direct and Modal Transient Response
• Random Response
• Contact Analysis
Depending on the solution type, OptiStruct/Analysis calculates displacements, eigenvectors,
stresses, strains, strain energy densities and
forces. Post-processing can be performed using the Altair HyperWorks tools
OptiStruct/Analysis.

52
CHAPTER -VI
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The throttle pedal is developed according to the dimensions taken from the existing document
and the model is kept under the load of four newton’s on pad.
DESIGN-1
ALUMINIUM 6061
STRESS=171.9 MPa
Figure 6.1: Design 1 Aluminium Alloy Stress
DISPLACEMENT=2.203mm

53
Figure 6.2: Design 1 Aluminium Alloy Displacement
Figure 6.3: Design 1 Aluminium Alloy Weight
WEIGHT : 669.8gms
For applied load of 4N the material grey cast iron of the component is failing. By which compare
the yield stress value of grey cast iron.

54
MATERIAL : GREY CASTIRON
STRESS : 175.6 MPa
Figure 6.4: Design 1 Grey cast-iron Alloy stress
DISPLACEMENT: 1.404mm
Figure 6.5: Design 1 Grey cast-ironAlloy Displacement

55
Figure 6.6: Design 1 Grey cast-iron Alloy Weight
WEIGHT: 1774gms

56
MATERIAL : POLYAMIDE
STRESS : 173.6 MPa
Figure 6.7: Design 1 Polyamide Alloy Stress
MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT : 4.383mm
Figure 6.8:Design 1 PolyamideAlloy Displacement

57
Figure 6.9: Design 1 Polyamide Alloy Weight
WEIGHT : 208.4gms
For applied load of 4N the material gray cast iron of the component is failing. By which compare
the yield stress value of gray cast iron.
MATERIAL STRESS
(MPa)
DISPLACEMENT
(mm)
WEIGHT
(gm)
AL6061 171.9 2.203 669.8
GRAYCAST IRON 175.6 1.404 1774
POLYAMIDE 173.6 4.343 208.4
Table 6: Specification of Design 1

58
DESIGN-2
MATERIAL : ALUMINIUM 6061
STRESS : 141.27 MPa
Figure 6.10: Design 2 Aluminium Alloy Stress
MAXIMUM DIPLACEMENT: 1.396mm
Figure 6.11: Design 2 Aluminium Alloy Displacement

59
Figure 6.12: Design 2 Aluminium Alloy Weight
WEIGHT : 330.2gms

60
MATERIAL : GREYCAST IRON
MAXIMUM STRESS : 142.46 MPa
Figure 6.13: Design 2 Grey cast-iron Alloy Stress
Figure 6.14: Design 2 Grey cast-iron Alloy Displacement

61
Figure 6.15: Design 2 Grey cast-iron Alloy Weight
WEIGHT : 874.3 gms

62
Figure 6.16: Design 2 Polyamide Alloy Stress
Figure 6.17: Design 2 Polyamide Alloy Displacement

63
Figure 6.18: Design 2 Polyamide Alloy Weight
WEIGHT: 102.7 gms
MATERIAL STRESS
(MPa)
DISPLACEMENT
(mm)
WEIGHT
(gm)
AL6061 141.27 1.396 330.2
GRAY CASTIRON 142.46 0.891 874.3
POLYAMIDE 141.81 2.75 102.7
Table 7: Specification of Design 2

64
DESIGN-3
MATERIAL : ALUMINIUM6061
Figure 6.19 : Design 3 Aluminium alloy Stress
DS Figure 6.20: Design 3 Aluminum Alloy Displacement

65
Figure6.21 : Design 3 Aluminium weight
WEIGHT : 319 gms

66
MATERIAL : GREY CASTIRON
Figure 6.22:Design 3 grey cast-iron Alloy Stress
Figure6.23 :Design 3 graycast iron displacement

67
Figure 6.24: Design 3 grey cast- iron Alloy weight
WEIGHT : 844.7gms

68
Figure 6.25: Design 3 polyamide stress
MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT: 3.139mm
Figure 6.26: Design 3 Polyamide displacement

69
Figure6.27 : Design 3 Polyamide weight
WEIGHT : 99.23gms
MATERIAL STRESS
(MPa)
DISPLACEMENT
(mm)
WEIGHT
(gm)
AL6061 127.5 1.565 319
GRAY CAST IRON 119.5 0.904 844.7
POLYAMIDE 129.7 3.139 99.23
Table8 : Specification of design 3

70
WEIGHT REDUCTION BY PERCENTAGE:
For design 3
Material : polyamide
Initial weight of component = 319 gms
Final weight of component = 99.23 gms
Total weight reduction = (319-99.23) / 319
Weight of reduction by percentage = 68.8%

71
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION
Generally the throttle pedal is made up of gray cast iron, aluminium alloys and composites. In the
research study of throttle pedal the three different materials and three different designs are considered to
find out the best light weight structure and best light weight and stiffened material. Depends on the baove
study for the applied load of 4N how throttle pedal is behaving was analyzed. Finally the best design and
material is Design-3 and Polyamide composite material. Because the stress and the displacement of the
polyamide material is under the elastic region and the yield stress of this particular material is high. By
this yield stress value we can say that the life of throttle pedal will be high compare to two different
materials. Design-3 and Aluminium 6061 is also having best supported materials for Polyamide.
In this project the weight reduction of throttle pedal is taken under consideration for the materials
like aluminium 6061 and polyamide. The weight comparison has been done and the performance of
component is also studied. By comparing both the weights of aluminium 6061 and polyamide the best
light weight structure is Design-3 and the material is polyamde. The percentage of weight reduction is
reduced by 68.8%.
The future scope of this work is to reduce the cost of component with out changing the
performance of the component.

72
CHAPTER VIII
REFERENCES
[1] Sapuan, S.: A conceptual design of the concurrent engineering design systems for polymazcaeric-
based composite automotive pedals, American Journal of Applied Science, 2, 2005, 514-525.
[2] Murat, O.: The use of composite materials in automotive industry, M.Sc. Thesis, Institute of Natural
and Applied Sciences, Cukurova University, Turkey, 2010.
[3] Gulur, S.-S.-S, Sambagam, V.: Mono composite leaf spring for light weight vehicle design, end Joint
analysis and testing, Journal of Materials Science, 12(3), 2006, 220-225.
[4] Gummadi, S.-A.-J.-K.: Optimum design and analysis of a composite drive Shaft for an automobile,
Master’s degree Thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology Karlskrona, Sweden, 2006.
[5] Bowonder, B.: Concurrent engineering in an Indian automobile firm: the experience of Tata,
International Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Management, 6(3/4), 2004.

73
What is Lightning?
Lightning is the visible discharge of static electricity within a cloud, from cloud to cloud, or
between the earth and a cloud.
 Lightning is one of nature’s most powerful and destructive phenomena. Lightning
discharges contain awesome amounts of electrical energy and have been measured from
several thousand amps to over 200,000 amps which is enough to light half a million 100 watt
bulbs. Even though a lightning discharge is of a very short duration, typically 200
microseconds, it is a very real cause of damage and destruction.
 The damage from lightning comes from electrocution, human burns, burning buildings,
exploding bricks and mortar, melted electrical equipment, damaged electrical equipment and
stresses on electrical equipment that are responsible for failures months later.
How Lightning strikes can affect the electrical and/or electronic systems of a building?
Lightning strikes can affect the electrical and/or electronic systems of a building in two ways:
1- By direct impact of the lightning strike on the building (direct lightning strike)
2- By indirect impact of the lightning strike on the building (indirect lightning strike):
 A lightning strike can fall on an overhead electric power line supplying a building
(see Fig.9 b). The overcurrent and overvoltage can spread several kilometres from the point
of impact.
 A lightning strike can fall near an electric power line (see Fig.9 c). It is the
electromagnetic radiation of the lightning current that produces a high current and an
overvoltage on the electric power supply network.
 A lightning strike can fall near a building (see Fig.9 d). The earth potential around the
point of impact rises dangerously.

74
However, the main effects of lightning strikes are as follows:
1- Thermal effects:
These effects are linked to the quantity of charges involved when lightning strikes. For
materials with high resistivity, they cause various melting points at large amount of energy is
released the form of heat. The moisture they contain causes a sudden overpressure that may
result in explosion.
2- Effects Due To Arching:
The resistivity of the soil makes earthing resistant and therefore unables to prevent a sudden
rise in the facility’s potential when lightning current passes through it. This creates
differences in potential between the various metal parts . Earthings and connections between
the metal parts must therefore be carefully designed to down conductors.
3- Electrodynamic Effects:
These effects are produced if part of the path along which the lightning current travels is
within the magnetic field of another part. This may produce repulsion and attraction forces
when lightning travels through conductors close to each other.
4- Electrochemical Effects:
These are negligible and have no effect on the earthing (compared with stray current in the
soil).
5- Acoustic Effects (Thunder):
Thunder is due to the sudden pressure rise (2 to 3 atmospheres) in the discharge channel
subject to electrodynamics forces during the lightning strike. The duration of the thunder
depends on the length of the ionized channel. The propagation of the spectral components
produced by the shock wave is at right angles to the channel for the higher frequencies but
Omni directional for lower frequencies. The results are a series of rumbling and crackling
sounds that vary according to the distance of the observer from the lightning chamels and the
direction taken by the channels.
6- Induction Effects:
Induction effects are often the biggest challenge to protection systems. When lightning
approaches a site and flows through its conductors, it creates a magnetic flux that produces
high and sometimes destructive induced voltages. Electromagnetic loops may be formed
between lightning conductor down leads and electrical circuit. This is why protection systems
must be very carefully designed and must include any necessary additional protection
devices.
7- Luminous Effects:
A lightning strike creates an image on the observer’s retina which may leave him dazzled for
several seconds before regaining sight.

75
8- Indirect Effects:
Offset potential or pace voltage. Dispersion of lightning currents in the soil depends on the
nature of the terrain. A heterogeneous soil may create dangerous differences of potential
between two neighboring points.
So, Lightning protection is essential for the protection of humans, structures, contents within
structures, transmission lines, and electrical equipment from thermal, mechanical, and
electrical effects caused by lightning discharges. Lightning cannot be prevented, but it can
with some success be intercepted, and its current can be conducted to a grounding system
without side flashes where it is harmlessly dissipated and.

76
What is the Lightning Protection Systems LPS?
 A Lighting Protection System (LPS) is the system that provides a means by
which a lightning discharge may enter or leave earth without passing through and
damaging personnel, electrical equipment, and non-conducting structures such as
buildings.
 So, A Lightning Protection System does not prevent lightning from striking; it
provides a means for controlling it and prevents damage by providing a low resistance
path for the discharge of the lightning energy.
 A reliable Lightning Protection System LPS must encompass both structural
lighting protection and transient overvoltage (electronic systems) protection. Simply
stated, a structural lightning protection system cannot and will not protect the
electronic systems within a building from transient overvoltage damage.

Why Using the Lightning Protection Systems LPS?
Lightning protection is essential for the protection of humans, structures, contents
within structures, Transmission lines, and electrical equipment by controlling a
variety of risks resulting from thermal, mechanical, and electrical hazards of the
lightning flash current. These risks can be categorized as follows:
1. Risk to persons (and animals),
2. Risk to structures & internal equipment.
1- Risk to persons (and animals) include:

77
 Direct flash,
 Step potential,
 Touch potential,
 Side flash,
 Secondary effects, such as:
1. asphyxiation from smoke or injury due to fire,
2. structural dangers such as falling masonry from point of strike,
3. unsafe conditions such as water ingress from roof penetrations causing
electrical or other hazards, failure or malfunction of processes, equipment and
safety systems.
2- Risk to structures & internal equipment include:
 Fire and/or explosion triggered by heat of lightning flash, its attachment point
or electrical arcing of lightning current within structures,
 Fire and/or explosion triggered by ohmic heating of conductors or arcing due to
melted conductors,
 Punctures of structure roofing due to plasma heat at lightning point of strike,
 Failure of internal electrical and electronic systems,
 Mechanical damage including dislodged materials at point of strike.

78
LPS for Protection for buildings and installations against direct strike by lightning
This type of LPS protects the building from damage by direct strike lightning but
doesn’t prevent the lightning striking the building.
This type of LPS can be divided into:-
1. Conventional lightning protection system,
2. Non-Conventional lightning protection system.
1- Types of Conventional Lightning Protection System
The Conventional Lightning Protection System includes (2) different types as follows:
 Franklin Rod LPS,
 Franklin/Faraday Cage LPS.
2- Types of Non-Conventional Lightning Protection System
The Conventional Lightning Protection System includes (2) different types as follows:
1- Active Attraction LPS, which includes:
 Improved single mast system (Blunt Ended Rods),
 Early streamer Emission System.
2- Active Prevention/Elimination LPS, which includes:
 Charge Transfer System (CTS),
 Dissipation Array System (DAS).
Notes on different Types of Lightning Protection Systems LPS
Each system’s design requires the following:
 The air terminal or strike termination device must be positioned so that it is
the highest point on the structure.
 The lightning protection system must be solidly and permanently grounded.
Poor or high resistance connections to ground are the leading cause of lightning
system failure for each one of these systems.
 None of these systems claims to protect against 100% of the possibility of a
lightning stroke arriving near protective area. A compromise must be made between
protection and economics.

79
Conventional Lightning Protection System
Properly designed conventional lightning protection systems for ground-based
structures serve to provide lightning attachment points and paths for the lightning
current to follow from the attachment points into the ground without harm to the
protected structure.
Such systems are basically composed of three elements:
1. Air terminals at appropriate points on the structure to intercept the
lightning,
2. Down conductors to carry the lightning current from the air terminals
toward the ground, and
3. Grounding electrodes to pass the lightning current into the earth.
The three system components must be electrically well connected.
Notes:
 Many national and international standards like NFPA 780 describe conventional
lightning protection systems and the efficacy of the conventional approach has been
well demonstrated in practice.
 The conventional lightning protection technique has proven its effectiveness as
evidenced by the comparative statistics of lightning damage to protected and
unprotected structures.

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