The document discusses late adulthood, covering physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development phases. It outlines key changes in health, life expectancy, memory, and social relationships for adults aged 65 and older, emphasizing the importance of maintaining health and productive engagement. The content also addresses theories related to aging and the impact of societal attitudes, as well as the dynamics of family and friendships in later life.

1. Lifespan Development
Module # 10: Late Adulthood

2. Module Learning Outcomes
Explain development and change through late adulthood
10.1: Describe physical changes in late adulthood
10.2: Explain cognitive development in late adulthood
10.3: Describe psychosocial development in late adulthood

3. Physical Development in Late Adulthood

4. Learning Outcomes: Physical Development in Late
Adulthood
10.1: Describe physical changes in late adulthood
10.1.1: Describe age categories of late adulthood
10.1.2: Explain factors contributing to longer life expectancies
10.1.3: Describe primary aging, including vision and hearing loss
10.1.4: Explain secondary aging concerns that are common in late adulthood,
including illnesses and diseases
10.1.5: Describe and compare theories of aging

5. Defining Late Adulthood
• We are considered to be in late adulthood by the time we reach out mid-sixties
until death
• About 15.2% of the U.S. population or 49.2 million Americans are 65 and older
with the number expected to grow to 98.2 million by 2060
• Developmentalists divide this population based on one’s functional age with the
“young old” being healthy and active, the “old old” experiencing some health
problems, and the “oldest old” are frail
• Normal aging refers to those who seem to have the same health and social
concerns as most of those in the population
• Impaired aging refers to those who experience poor health and dependence to a
greater extent than would be considered normal
• Selective Optimization with Compensation is a strategy for improving health
and well being in older adults and a model for successful aging
• Promoting health and independence are essential for successful aging

6. Age Categories
• Senescence, or biological aging is the gradual deterioration of functional
characteristics
• The Young Old (65 to 74): having good or excellent health is reported by
41% of this age group
• They are less likely to require long-term care, to be dependent or poor, and
are more likely to be married, working for pleasure, and living independently
• Physical activity tends to decrease with age though this age group is less
likely to experience heart disease, cancer, or stroke than the old
• The Old Old (75 to 84): this age group is more likely to experience limitations
on physical activity due to chronic disease such and hearing or visual
impairments
• The Oldest Old (85 +): this group is more likely to require long-term care and
to be in nursing homes or living with relatives

7. The Centenarians
• Centenarians are people aged 100 or older and are
both rare and distinct from the rest of the older
population
• The number of centenarians is expected to increase
to 601,000 by the year 2050
• Most of the current centenarians live in Japan and
have led varied lives and do not provide answers
about living longer
• Blue zone research are regions of the world where
researchers claim that people live much longer than
average
• People living in the blue zones share
characteristics: family, less smoking, semi-
vegetarianism, constant moderate physical activity,
social engagement, legume consumption

8. The “Graying” Population and Life Expectancy
• The American population is becoming more dominated by older people with the
median age of Americans going up
• By 2030, all baby boomers will be older than age 65 and the population is
expected to grow at a slower pace and become more racially and ethnically
diverse
• Although births are projected to be nearly four times larger than the net
international migration in coming decades, deaths will increasingly offset how
much births contribute to population growth
• By 2050, Slovenia and Bulgaria are projected to be the oldest European countries
though Japan will retain its oldest nation status through at least 2050
• Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is
expected to live based on year of birth, current age, and other demographic
factors
• Life expectancy in the U.S. is currently 78.7 years (76.3 for men and 81.1 for
women)

9. Understanding Life Expectancy
• Quality of life is the general well-being of individuals and societies, outlining
negative and positive features of life
• Greater attention is now being given to the number of years a person can expect
to live without disability, or active life expectancy
• Stress can decrease life expectancy while social support can increase longevity
• Positive sexual health in older age is gradually becoming a more common topic
an acts as a de-stressor promoting increased relaxation
• Sexual health and expression reflects a physical, mental, and emotional need that
affects individual health and intimacy quality for older couples’ relationships with
• Older adults can expect to live longer by exercising, reducing stress, not smoking,
limiting use of alcohol, consuming more fruits and vegetables, and eating less
meat and dairy
• Stress reduction both in late adulthood and earlier in life is crucial

10. Health in Late Adulthood: Primary Aging
• The Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging (BLSA) began in 1958, tracing the
aging process in 1,400 people from age 20 to 90
• The BLSA found that the aging process varies significantly between individuals
and form one organ system to another with much determined by genetics,
lifestyle, and disease
• Primary aging is the process by which cells irreversible stop dividing and enter a
state of permanent growth arrest without undergoing cell death
• Primary aging refers to the inevitable changes associated with aging to the skin
and hair, height and weight, hearing, and eyes
• Skin and hair: skin becomes drier, thinner, and less elastic with scars and
imperfections more noticeable and hair graying and loss more prevalent
• Height and weight: older people are more than an inch shorter than during early
adulthood and often weigh less than in mid-life due to loss of bone density and
muscle loss

11. Primary Aging, continued
• Vision issues that arise impact the lens
and optic nerve and make it harder to
see in situations that were previously
unaffected
• Glaucoma: when pressure in the fluid of
the eye increases
• Cataracts: cloudy or opaque areas of
the lens of the eye that interfere with
passing light
• Macular degeneration: most common
cause of blindness in people over 60
• Diabetic retinopathy: damage occurs to
the retina due to diabetes mellitus

12. Hearing
• Hearing loss is experienced by 30% of people age 70 and older with almost
half of people over 85 having some hearing loss
• Conductive hearing loss: may occur because of age, genetic
predisposition, or environment and involves structural damage to the ear
• Sensorineural hearing loss is due to a failure to transmit neural signals
from the cochlea to the brain and can be caused by prolonged exposure to
loud noises
• Temporal theory of pitch perception is the sound’s frequency coded by the
activity level of a sensory neuron
• Presbycusis is age-related sensorineural hearing loss resulting from
degeneration of the cochlea or associated structures of the inner ear or
auditory nerves

13. Hearing, continued
• Ménière’s disease results in a degeneration
of inner ear structures that can lead to
hearing loss, tinnitus (constant ringing or
buzzing), vertigo (a sense of spinning)and
increased pressure
• Cochlear implants, a treatment option for
Ménière’s disease, are electronic devices that
receive incoming sound information and
stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit the
information to the brain
• People may use elderspeak or patronizing
form of speech when talking with older adults

14. Nutrition
• The Jean Mayer Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging (HNRCA) is one of
six human nutrition research centers with the goal of exploring the relationship
between nutrition, physical activity, and healthy and active aging
• Research clusters within the HNRCA address four specific strategic areas:
• Cancer
• Cardiovascular disease
• Inflammation, immunity, and infectious disease
• Obesity
• Research in nutrition has demonstrated the impact of diet upon longevity and
quality of life
• Primary aging can be compensated for through exercise, corrective lenses,
nutrition, and hearing aids

15. Health in Late Adulthood: Secondary Aging
• Secondary aging refers to changes that are caused by illness or disease
and impact independence, quality of life, family members, and bring a
financial burden
• Heart disease is the leading cause of death from chronic disease for adults
older than 65 with a variety of underlying mechanisms and about 90%
preventable when improving risk factors
• Age is one of the most important risk factors for developing cancer with
prostate and lung cancer common in men and breast and lung cancer
common in women
• Older adults with cancer have different needs than younger adults
• Hypertension, high blood pressure and associated heart disease and
circulatory conditions, increases with age
• Stroke is a leading cause of death and severe long-term disability

16. Secondary Aging, continued
• Arthritis is used to mean any disorder that affects joints
• There are over 100 types of arthritis with the most common forms being
osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease) and rheumatoid arthritis
• Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin
resistance, and relative lack of insulin
• T2D primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise with lifestyle
a major factor
• Osteoporosis is a disease in which bone weakening increase the risk of a
broken bone and becomes more common with age
• Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the
central nervous system mainly affecting the motor system
• Causes of Parkinson’s disease are generally unknown, but both genetic and
environmental factors are thought to be involved

17. Theories on Aging
• The peripheral slowing hypothesis suggests that overall processing
speed declines in the peripheral nervous system, impacting the brain’s
ability to communicate with muscles and organs
• The generalized slowing hypothesis suggests that there is less efficient
processing in all parts of the nervous system as we age
• Hayflick limit refers to the limited number of times cells divide and then
stop (human cells can divide about 50 times before stopping)
• Telomere theory suggests that telomeres (the protective area(s) or tip of the
DNA) also shorten with each successive cell division
• Senescent cells do not die but stop replicating and can limit the growth of
other cells which may promote the growth of tumors as we age

18. Biochemistry and Aging
• Free radical theory of aging (FRTA): organisms age because cells
accumulate free radical damage over time
• Free radicals are any atom or molecule with a single unpaired electron in an
outer shell
• Unpaired electrons are a by-product of oxygen metabolization and can cause
cellular damage as they bond with other electrons
• Protein crosslinking focuses on the role glucose plays in aging cells and the
crosslinks formed when molecules attach themselves to proteins, reducing the
flexibility of tissue (and therefore functioning)
• DNA is damaged through the normal growth and aging process, resulting in
errors that can accumulate and reduce cell and tissue functioning
• B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes become less active and the thymus shrinks
as aging progresses, reducing the body’s ability to fight infection

19. Practice Question 1
Aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic
programming, occur as people get older is called _________.
A. primary aging.
B. secondary aging.
C. intrinsic aging.
D. extrinsic aging.

20. Practice Question 2
When a cell’s __________ have just about disappeared, the cell stops
replicating, making it susceptible to damage and producing signs of aging.
(This term describes the part of the protective area(s) or tip of the DNA
that grow(s) shorter every time the cell divides.)
A. chromosomes
B. free radicals
C. telomeres
D. B-lymphocytes

21. Cognitive Development and Memory in Late
Adulthood

22. Learning Outcomes: Cognitive Development and
Memory in Late Adulthood
10.2: Explain cognitive development in late adulthood
10.2.1: Discuss the impact of aging on memory
10.2.2: Explain how age impacts cognitive functioning
10.2.3: Describe abnormal memory loss due to Alzheimer’s disease,
delirium, and dementia

23. How Does Aging Affect Memory?
• Aging may create small decrements in the sensitivity of the senses, resulting
in difficulty hearing and seeing and not storing that information in memory
• Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that holds
information for processing temporarily
• As we age, working memory loses some capacity making it difficult to
concentrate on more than one thing at a time or remembering details
• Working memory is among the cognitive function most sensitive to decline in
old age thought to either be due to slowing or because of inhibition of
irrelevant information (inhibition theory)
• Long-term memory involves the storage of information for long periods
• The memory of adults of all ages seems to be similar, but older adults rely
more on external and meaningful cues to recall information

24. New Research on Aging and Cognition
• The ACTIVE study found support that the brain can be trained to build
cognitive reserve to reduce the effects of normal aging
• Older adults generally have greater emotional wisdom or the ability to
emphasize with and understand others
• Older adults show significant impairments on attentional tasks such as
looking at a visual cue while listening to an auditory cue
• Older adults do not generally show impairment on tasks that test sustained
attention
• Attentional deficits can have a significant impact on adequate and
independent functioning, seen in tasks like driving
• Problem solving tasks that require processing non-meaningful information
quickly also decline with age

25. Cognitive Function in Late Adulthood
• Dementia, severely impaired judgment, memory, or problem-solving ability
can occur before old age and is not inevitable
• Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and is incurable
while other nonorganic causes of dementia can be prevented
• Delirium (acute confused state) is an organically caused decline from a
previous baseline functioning that develops over a short time period and
can involve other neurological deficits
• Alzheimer’s is a progressive disease causing problems with memory,
thinking, and behavior and will develop slowly and worsen over time
• Common symptoms include emotional problems, difficulties with language,
and a decrease in motivation
• Alzheimer’s is not a normal part of aging and the cause is poorly
understood

26. Class Activity: Protecting Cognitive Function
• At what age would you consider a person to be elderly? Has the
definition of elderly shifted over time? If so, why?
• What are ways to support cognitive function as you age? Use your text
and outside resources to identify useful practical activities to reduce
cognitive deficits due to aging.
• Get in groups and discuss your ideas.

27. Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood

28. Learning Outcomes: Psychosocial Development in Late
Adulthood
10.3: Describe psychosocial development in late adulthood
10.3.1: Describe theories related to late adulthood, including Erikson’s
psychosocial stage of integrity vs. despair
10.3.2: Describe examples of productivity in late adulthood
10.3.3: Describe attitudes about aging
10.3.4: Examine family relationships during late adulthood (including
grandparenting, marriage, divorce, and widowhood)

29. Psychosocial Development
• Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson): The goal is integrity, consisting of the ability to
look back over life with a feeling of satisfaction, peace, and gratitude
• Despair occurs when a person looks back at one’s life as unproductive and is
dissatisfied
• Activity theory supports the avoidance of a sedentary lifestyle and considers it
essential to health and happiness that the older person remains active physically
and socially
• Disengagement theory emphasizes that older adults should not be discourage
from following their inclination towards solitude and greater inactivity rather than
keeping the older person artificially busy
• Continuity theory suggests that people continue to view the self in much the
same way as they did when they were younger
• People in late adulthood continue to be productive through work, education,
volunteering, family life, and intimate relationships

30. Psychosocial Development, continued
• With mandatory retirement illegal in the United States, many older adults
continue working either full or part-time for income, pleasure, or both
• About 60% of older adults engage in informal volunteerism helping out
neighbors or friends rather than more formal volunteer work
• Those who have recently retired are more likely to volunteer than those over
75 years of age
• Virtual volunteering is available and has increased from 3,000 in 1998 to over
40,000 participants in 2005 (AARP)
• Lifelong learning through continuing education programs provide enriching
experiences and is likely to be taken by older adults with higher levels of
education
• Older adults tend to become more involved in prayer and religious activities
and are very politically active

31. Attitudes about Aging
• Aging stereotypes lead many to assume late adulthood brings poor health and
mental decline
• Ageism is prejudice and discrimination that is directed at older people and can
often lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy
• Ageism is a modern and predominantly western cultural phenomenon
• Many preindustrial societies observed gerontrocracy, a type of social structure
wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members
• Racism throughout the lifetimes results in many older minorities having fewer
resources, more chronic health conditions, and significant health disparities
when compared to older white Americans
• Older adults are more frequently abused by family members than in nursing
home, with the most common type financial abuse and neglect

32. Relationships in Late Adulthood
• It has become increasingly common for grandparents
to live with and raise their grandchildren or move back
in with adult children
• Grandparenting typically begins in midlife rather than
late adulthood 0but longer lifespans means being
grandparents for longer
• Remote grandparents: rarely see grandchildren, live
far away, may also have a distant relationship
• Companionate grandparents : do things with the
grandchild but have little authority or control over them
and take on more of a friend role
• Involved grandparents : take a very active role in their
grandchild’s life, grandchild might live in their home or
the grandparent has frequent contact and authority

33. Relationships in Late Adulthood, continued I
• Many married couples feel their marriage has improved with time and
emotional intensity and conflicts have declined
• While bad marriages do not become good ones over time, marriages with
higher conflict have ended and past disagreements may no longer be of
concern
• Older couples continue to engage in sexual activity but with less focus on
intercourse
• Divorce after long-term marriage is not common but may increase as
people live longer
• Women are more likely to be widowed, reflecting their longer life
expectancy, with the death of a spouse being one of life’s most disruptive
experiences
• Loneliness is a discrepancy between social contact wanted and had and
can be experienced in social or emotional isolation

34. Relationships in Late Adulthood, continued II
• Men are more likely to suffer from emotional isolation and are therefore at a
higher risk for suicide
• Solitude involves gaining self-awareness, taking care of self, being
comfortable alone, and pursuing one’s interests
• Friendships tend to be an important influence in life satisfaction during late
adulthood
• According to socioemotional selectivity theory, older adults become more
selective in their friendships than when they were younger and are more likely
to be based on a sense of connection
• Many retirement issues for LGBTQ+ and intersex people are unique as they
are less likely to have strong family support systems in place to have relatives
who can care for them during aging
• LGBTQ+ older adults also have concerns about health insurance, sharing
living quarters in residential facilities, and how staff members may view their
relationships

35. Relationships in Late Adulthood, continued
• Older adults do not typically relocate far from their previous residence with
some living in planned retirement communities or in age-segregated
neighborhoods
• Over 60 million Americans live in mutigenerational households and most
older adults who require some care receive it at home

36. Practice Question 3
Companionate grandparents are usually characterized by which of the
following?
A. They take responsibility for their grandchildren.
B. They rarely call or visit their grandchildren and never take them on
vacation without the parents.
C. They act as supporters and buddies to their grandchildren.
D. They hold clear expectations about the way their grandchildren should
behave.

37. Class Activity: Finding Happiness
• Get into groups with someone identified to write down ideas
• How do you define happiness for yourself?
• Do you consider yourself to be a happy person right now?
• What do you need in life in order to be happy?
• How is that need different than when you were a child?
• Do you think you will feel the same when you turn 65? Why or why not?

38. Quick Review
• What are the age categories of late adulthood?
• What factors contribute to longer life expectancies?
• How does primary aging, including vision and hearing loss, present?
• What are secondary aging concerns that are common in late adulthood, including illnesses
and diseases?
• What is similar and different about theories of aging?
• What is the impact of aging on memory?
• How does age impact cognitive functioning?
• What does abnormal memory loss look like when due to Alzheimer’s disease, delirium, and
dementia?
• How do theories describe development in late adulthood, including Erikson’s psychosocial
stage of integrity vs. despair?
• What are some examples of productivity in late adulthood?
• What are attitudes about aging?
• How are family relationships formed during late adulthood (including grandparenting,
marriage, divorce, and widowhood)?