developmental psychology

1. Motivation
compiled by :
Miss yasmeen
Multan college of nursing

2. Motivation
 What is motivation?
 What are the different types of individual needs?
 What are the different theories of motivation?
 What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 What are the challenges of motivation in the new
workplace?
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3. Basic motivational concepts
Motivation—
the forces within the individual that
account for the level, direction, and
persistence of effort expended at work.
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Reward—a work outcome of positive value
to the individual
Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given
to someone by another person.
Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that
occur naturally as a person works on a task.

5. Cont…
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Drive—an internal condition or impulse
that activates behavior to reduce a need
and restore homeostasis
Incentive—external goal that “pulls” or
“pushes” behavior.
Arousal—Arousal is a physiological
and psychological state of being awake or
reactive to stimuli.

6. Cont…
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Needs---
A need is something that is necessary
for organisms to live a healthy life. Needs
can be :
Objective:- physical, such as food.
Subjective:-
Psychological, such as the need for self-
esteem.

7. Award & Reward
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Awards
They are tokens of appreciation, which are
given to individuals for their achievements.
It can be called as symbol of recognition to
an individual for their personal
achievements.

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Rewards
on the other hand are also recognition but
it is a kind of acknowledgment to an
individuals contributions.
Rewards can also be said to be an
encouragement to an individual.

9. Motivation
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The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries

10. Biological motives
• Body tends to maintain physiological
balance called homeostasis.
e.g water, sugar level, acid base balance
• Any disturbance cause imbalance
• When imbalances are meet then body
maintain homeostasis
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11. Biological motives
• Biological motives are very essential for the
life of a person.. Biological motives are of
these types:
• 1.Hunger 4.Air supply
• 2.Thirst 5. Sleep
• 3.Sex 6. Elimination
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12. Social Motives
• Those motives which a child learns from
society during development
• These are important for existence in a
society.
• Social motives differ in individuals and
dominant become a trait of personality
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13. Social motives are:
• 1.Need for achievement.
• 5.Need for self esteem
• 2. Need for affiliation
• 3. Need for power
• 4. Need for Informationa
• . .Need for love &hope
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14. Types of motivation theories
1.Maslow’s Theory of need Hierarchy
2. Hull’s Drive Theory
3.Psychanalytic theory
4.Tolman’s Cognitive
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15. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory
Hierarchy of needs theory
–Developed by Abraham Maslow.
–Lower-order and higher-order needs
affect workplace behavior and attitudes.
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16.  Lower-order needs:
• Physiological, safety, and social needs.
• Desires for physical and social well being.
 Higher-order needs:
• Esteem and self-actualization needs.
• Desire for psychological growth and
development.
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17.  Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of
behavior.
 Progression principle
• A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level need
is satisfied
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18. Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy
of human needs. 3
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19. Hull’s Drive Theory 1
• This theory was formulated by Hull.
• Here relationship between motivation &
performance .
• As Hull was a mathematician he tried to
give this theory with a mathematical
equation
• that ‘s why it is also called methematico-
deductive theory.
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20. • According to Hull there are four factors which
determine the performance or action of a
person. These four factors are:
• Drive
• Habit
• Probability
• Inhibition
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21. Hull’s Drive Theory 2
• Four factors are shown in relation with
each other in mathematical equation:
• D x H x P- I = Performance
• D= Drive: internal force which pushes the
individual toward a particular goal.
• H= Habit: consistency of some reactions
which were successful in achievement of
goal in past.
• P= possibility of achievement in the existing
condition.
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22. Hull’s Drive Theory 3
• In this equation all factors multiply
• So if their value raises then performance
increases
• If any factor has zero value then
performance will be zero
• . Inhibitory factor I can inhibit the
performance.
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23. Psychoanalytical Theory by Freud. 1
• Freud proposed that basic motivating forces
are embedded in Id &are unconscious.
• These forces are impulses which are not
rational in nature & work on pleasure
principle.
• Satisfaction of these impulses based on the
sanctions of ego.
• Ego can suppress or repress any impulse from
id if it is harmful or dangerous for the person
in reality. 23

24. Cont….
• Thus works on reality principle. Impulses of id
also evaluated by superego on ethical & moral
value of a person.
• Usually a conflict arise between id & superego
which should be resolved by ego because ego
is rational in nature.
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25. Cont…
• Libido and colloquially sex drive, is a person's
overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity.
• Sex drive is determined by biological,
psychological, and social factors.
• Satisfaction of needs require energy from
libido to get the person in action but
channelized by ego.
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26. Cont…
• Eros (Life instinct)
• it refers to those instincts which motivate a
person to live. e.g. thirst, hunger &
avoidance of harm etc.
• Thanatos (Death instinct)
• it refers to those instincts which motivate a
person to destroy self. In the life a person a
time come when he/she desire to finish
himself/herself.
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27. Cognitive Theory by Tolman
• This theory give importance to the cognitive
processes in motivation.
• Behavior or activities which took the
organism to goal is guided by memory &
reasoning.
• During goal directed behavior a cognitive map
are formed which are used in reaching the
goal. T maze experiment.
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28. T-MAZE Experiment
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Food
Electric Shock
T-MAZE

29. Cont…
• It is observed that whenever rats reached
turning point, they stopped there & makes
back forth movement & at last turns
toward left side.
• It means that rat remember some sign or
cues to reach the goal as human beings
sometime remember some signs to
correctly identify the path.
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30. Management Fundamentals - Chapter 14 30
Other Theories

31. .ERG theory by Alderfer
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
–Three need levels:
Existence needs — desires for
physiological and material well-being
Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs — desires for continued
psychological growth and development.
Any/all needs can influence behavior at
one time.
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32. Cont…
 Alderfer believed that as you start satisfying
higher needs, they become more intense (e.g.,
the power you get the more you want power), like
an addiction.
 This is very similar to Maslow – but in Alderfer's
model, sex is not in the bottom category as it is in
Maslow's model, since it is not crucial to (the
individual's) existence. (Remember, this about
individual motivation, not species' survival.)
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33. Acquired needs theory by David McClelland.
 People acquire needs through their life
experiences.
 Needs that are acquired:
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Need for Power (nPower)
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
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34. Acquired needs theory Cont…
–1.Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to
master complex tasks.
–People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
• Involves individual responsibility for
results.
• Involves achievable but challenging goals.
• Provides feedback on performance. 34

35. Acquired needs theory cont…
– 2.Need for Power (nPower)
• Desire to control other persons, to influence
their behavior, or to be responsible for other
people.
• Personal power versus social power.
– People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
• Involves control over other persons.
• Has an impact on people and events.
• Brings public recognition and attention.
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36. Acquired needs theory cont…
– 3. Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly
and warm relations with other persons.
–People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
• Involves interpersonal relationships.
• Provides for companionship
• Brings social approval.
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37. 3.McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory X
• Assumes that workers have little
ambition, dislike work, avoid
responsibility, and require close
supervision.
 Theory Y
• Assumes that workers can exercise
self-direction, desire responsibility,
and like to work.
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38. 4.Two-factor theory
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
–Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction
are created by different factors.
• Hygiene factors: extrinsic
(environmental) factors that create job
dissatisfaction.
• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological)
factors that create job satisfaction.
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39. Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
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40. Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, Herzberg’s, and
McClelland’s motivation theories.
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41. Process theories of motivation?
 How people give meaning to rewards and
make decisions on various work-related
behaviors.
Process theories of motivation …
–How people make choices to work hard
or not.
–Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences.
• Available rewards.
• Possible work outcomes.
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42. Types of process theories:
• Equity theory.
• Expectancy theory.
• Goal-setting theory.
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43. Equity theory
–Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
–When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others,
they try to eliminate the discomfort and
restore a perceived sense of equity to the
situation.
• Perceived inequity.
• Perceived equity.
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44. 1.Equity theory and the role of social
comparison.
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45. 2.Expectancy Theory The Basic Idea
• People tend to prefer certain goals, or
outcomes, over others.
• They anticipate experiencing feelings of
satisfaction.
• Basically, people are motivated to behave in
ways that produce valued outcomes.
• Motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we are to get it
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46. Expectancy theory
–Developed by Victor Vroom.
–Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will
result in desired level of performance.
• Instrumentality — belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards.
• Valence — value a person assigns to
rewards and other work related outcomes.
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47. Elements in the expectancy theory of
motivation.
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48. Managerial implications of expectancy theory.
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49. 3.Goal-setting theory
–Developed by Edwin Locke.
–Properly set and well-managed task goals
can be highly motivating.
–Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work.
• Clarify performance expectations.
• Establish a frame of reference for
feedback.
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management. 49

50. Goal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult
goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to
higher performance.
• Difficulty
Extent to which a goal is challenging and
requires effort.
• Specificity
Clarity and precision of the goal.
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51. Goal Achievement Depends on:
• Acceptance
–Extent to which persons accept a goal as
their own.
• Commitment
–Extent to which an individual is personally
interested in reaching a goal.
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52. Reinforcement Theory
• Operant Conditioning is the term used by B.F.
Skinner to describe the effects of the
consequences of a particular behavior on the
future occurrence of that behavior.
• There are four types of Operant Conditioning:
• Positive Reinforcement,
• Negative Reinforcement,
• Punishment, and Extinction.
• .
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53. • Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement
strengthen behavior while both Punishment
and Extinction weaken behavior
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54. Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …
• Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact
of external environmental consequences on
behavior.
• Law of effect — impact of type of
consequence on future behavior.
• Operant conditioning:
• Developed by B.F. Skinner.
• Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
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55. Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement (Strengthening a behavior).
Increases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent presentation of a pleasant
consequence.
Negative reinforcement (Strengthening a behavior).
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent removal of an unpleasant
consequence.
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56. Operant conditioning strategies:
–Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent presentation of
an unpleasant consequence.
–Extinction
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent removal of an
pleasant consequence.
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57. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on …
–Law of contingent reinforcement —
• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited.
–Law of immediate reinforcement —
• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has.
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58. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
– Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
– Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
– Inform everyone about what must be done to get
rewards.
– Recognize individual differences when allocating
rewards.
– Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
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