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The document summarizes a study on household adoption of soil and water conservation practices in Ethiopia's Blue Nile Basin. It describes the sample selection of 9 woredas and 1810 households in the basin. On average, 40% of households reported using soil and water conservation on private land. Common assistance received included advice on construction of bunds/terraces and fertilizer application. Stone terraces and soil bunds were seen as the most important infrastructure, while soil bunds and check dams were viewed as the most successful conservation activities. Households preferred receiving further assistance and advice on conservation in the future.
- The document discusses rainfed agriculture in the Near East and North Africa region, where around 80% of arable land is rainfed.
- Smallholder rainfed farming systems face numerous constraints including drought, poor soils, low input use, small farm sizes, and lack of infrastructure/market access.
- Climate change is exacerbating problems with more variable rainfall and more frequent droughts and floods.
- There is significant untapped potential to improve productivity and incomes in rainfed areas through strategies like sustainable land management, improved soils, suitable cropping systems, and water management.
This document discusses soil and water conservation. It notes that water is essential for life but that soil erosion and water pollution threaten both. It provides facts on soil erosion and lists major threats to water quality like chemicals, manure, and excessive fertilizers. The document recommends conservation practices like crop rotation, contour farming, and terracing to reduce soil erosion and protect water resources. Proper land and water management can improve water quality.
This document discusses various agronomic measures for soil conservation. It defines contour cultivation as conducting agricultural activities like plowing and sowing across the slope of the land. This reduces soil and water loss by interrupting runoff. Choice of crops and cropping systems can also impact soil conservation, with close-growing crops providing better protection than row crops. Other agronomic measures discussed include strip cropping, cover crops, mulching, and applying manures/fertilizers. Mechanical measures to conserve soil include contour bunding, graded bunding, bench terracing, and vegetative barriers.
Watershed management aims to conserve soil and water resources through various treatment measures. Deterioration of watersheds occurs due to faulty agriculture, forestry, mining and other human activities, resulting in less production, increased erosion, and lowered water tables. Watershed development components include soil management, water management, afforestation, and other interdependent activities. Measures for watershed treatment include contour trenches, bench terracing, check dams, plantation, and other methods suitable for agricultural land and hill slopes. The overall goal is to develop watersheds in a sustainable manner.
The document discusses the importance of conserving natural resources like soil, water, biodiversity, and forests. It notes that as population and industrialization increase, consumption of resources is also rising. If not properly managed, this could lead to scarcity. The document then provides details on various methods to conserve each type of resource, like crop rotation and mulching for soil, rainwater harvesting for water, protected areas for biodiversity, and afforestation programs for forests. It also mentions some of the legislation passed in India to promote conservation.
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This document summarizes a study on transaction costs, transportation costs, and modern input use in Ethiopia. The study found that:
1. Many farmers did not use as much fertilizer and improved seeds as desired due to lack of access to credit for purchase.
2. Transaction costs associated with acquiring inputs through agricultural cooperatives limited the profitability of using modern inputs.
3. Transportation costs were an important determinant of input adoption, as farmers responded to concerns about profitability based on transport costs to markets. Improving rural transportation infrastructure could increase input use.
The last mile(s) in modern input distributionessp2
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI). Conference on "Towards what works in Rural Development in Ethiopia: Evidence on the Impact of Investments and Policies". December 13, 2013. Hilton Hotel, Addis Ababa.
Ethiopian Development Research Institute and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI/EDRI), Tenth International Conference on Ethiopian Economy, July 19-21, 2012. EEA Conference Hall
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This document summarizes research on the impacts of agricultural research investments in several countries. It finds that adoption of improved wheat varieties in Syria led to substantial poverty reduction. Supplementary irrigation techniques in Syria increased farm profits and value of conserved water. Alley cropping of shrubs in dry lands in Morocco and water harvesting techniques in Jordan had positive economic returns. The document also analyzes trends in total factor productivity growth across countries in North Africa and West Asia using a Malmquist index.
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1. ETHIOPIAN DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The last mile(s) in modern input distribution:
Evidence from remote areas in Amhara
Bart Minten, Bethlehem Koru, and David Stifel
IFPRI ESSP-II
Improved evidence towards better food and
agricultural policies in Ethiopia
November 02, 2012
Hilton Hotel, Addis Ababa
1
2. 1. Introduction
• Most promising way of increasing agricultural productivity
is through the adoption of modern inputs.
• However, several constraints to adoption. Most
importantly related to profitability issues and lack of
familiarity of farmers with new technologies.
• This paper looks at transaction costs and transportation
costs in remote areas as a constraint to the adoption of
modern inputs.
2
3. 2. Background Ethiopia
• Modern input use has until now contributed relatively
little to the growth of agricultural productivity.
• As conventional sources of growth are running out
(land), increasing use of modern inputs in Ethiopia is
increasingly important.
• Rapid growth of fertilizer use over the last 15 years, but
use of fertilizer is still low and below recommended levels.
• Fertilizer distribution is exclusively done by cooperatives;
share of private sector very limited.
3
4. 3. Data
• Sample area was selected purposefully in the remote area
of Amhara region.
• Households’ circumstances differ because of different
transport costs but not because of land characteristics.
• 851 households interviewed over a 35 km distance (from
less remote to most remote).
• Detailed questions asked on transaction and
transportation costs and on the use of modern inputs
5. 4. Modern input use and perceived
constraints
Chemical Improved
fertilizer maize seeds
Did the household use… 80.2 26.0
Major reason for not using modern input
I lacked the money at the time of need 39.7 47.6
No need 17.0 0.0
No need because of share cropped out 14.2 5.4
Modern inputs are too expensive 12.8 8.9
I do not have enough land 5.0 2.7
I was unable to find them 5.7 10.4
There is too much hassle 2.1 2.9
I do not know how to apply them 2.1 2.3
Other 1.4 2.7
I don't grow maize 0.0 17.2
Total 100.0 100.05
6. 5. Transaction costs (before acquisition)
Chemical improved
fertilizer seeds
Number of trips made before each transaction…
… before the farmer was able to pick up modern input
0 trips 52.54 65.87
1 trip 15.75 12.98
2 trips 16.05 12.5
3 trips 9.17 4.8
> 3 trips 6.49 3.84
Total 100.0 100.0
Farmers often have to do extra trips before they are
able to pick up modern inputs
6
7. 5. Transaction costs (before acquisition)
Chemical improved
fertilizer seeds
Reasons for the unsuccessful trip:
Form issues 39.4 46.9
Form did not have signature of an official 8.4 11.2
Not enough people on the form 31.0 35.7
Management cooperative 52.4 37.1
Cooperative office not open 15.5 11.2
There was no supply of modern inputs 9.2 10.5
Too long queue 23.7 14.0
Money collector was not there 4.0 1.4
Looking for/met with committee member 4.2 5.6
Other 4.1 10.5
Total 100.0 100.0 7
8. 5. Transaction costs (acquisition)
Chemical Improved
fertilizer seeds
Average time spent on acquisition trip:
Travel there hours 3.2 2.3
Time at location hours 5.5 5.0
Travel back hours 3.6 2.0
A farmer in these remote areas spends on average
more than 13 hours on a fertilizer acquisition trip
8
9. 6. Profitability of fertilizer use
• Profitability of fertilizer use explained by two factors:
1) the technical response of output to fertilizer use;
2) the relationship between output prices and fertilizer
prices.
• The value cost ratio (VCR), combining both of these
measures is the ultimate yardstick that is often used to
evaluate profitability of fertilizer.
• A rule of thumb is that the VCR should be greater than
2 to provide enough incentives for farmers to use
fertilizer.
9
10. Profitability of fertilizer use:
2.5
VCR by remoteness
2
VCR
1.5
1
.5
0 20 40 60 80
Distance from market (Birr/kg)
teff (implicit) millet (implicit)
maize (implicit) sorghum (implicit)
teff millet
sorghum maize
Incentives for fertilizer use decline quickly over space
(because output/input price ratios drop to half)
10
11. 7. Adoption of modern inputs
Chemical fertilizer use (kg/ha) by remoteness
150
100
kg/ha
50
0
0 20 40 60 80
Distance from market (Birr/kg)
urea DAP
chemical fertilizer
Chemical fertilizer use drops to one-third in the most
remote areas
11
12. Adoption of improved maize seeds (kg/ha) by remoteness
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80
Distance from market (Birr/kg)
Use of improved maize seeds drops to one-third in
most remote areas
12
13. 8. External validity constraints
• To what extent are the findings from this remote area in
Amhara region valid temporarily (over time) and spatially
(for Ethiopia as a whole)?
• Over time. Similar results were observed key variables in
the year 2011, indicating the year of the survey was not a
particular year.
• Over space. 20% of farmers in AGP woredas live at more
than 2 hours from input distribution centers; remoteness
and profitability issues are important in Ethiopia.
13
14. 9. Conclusions
Two major findings from our study:
• Important transaction and transportation costs limit the
profitability of modern input use
• Profitability (as measured by distances to input and output
markets) is a major determinant of modern input adoption
Findings matter as credit access, access to extension agents,
and network effects might be important but are not the only
factors that drive modern input adoption
14
15. 10. Policy implications to improve adoption
1. Road infrastructure investment: Further improvement in
infrastructure needed to reduce transportation cost
2. Reduce transaction costs:
a. Further management capacity building for
cooperatives required
b. De-licensing as to allow for a more competitive
environment in the last mile
3. Reduce supply constraints of improved seeds: Better
improved seed supply chains are required (as most farmers
complain about lack of access)
15