The document is a biology lab notebook containing summaries of various topics covered, including the scientific method, mitosis, microscopy, and cellular structures. Key points covered include the steps of the scientific method and how it was used to investigate whether forearm length and foot length are the same. Data was collected from class members and graphed, finding the measurements were not consistently the same between individuals. Diagrams and descriptions of cell structures like the nucleus and plasma membrane are provided. The phases of mitosis - interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase - are defined and illustrated on a slide of a fish blastula.

1. Lab Notebook
Bio 201 102 Terrence Harrison
Lori Gardner

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Contents
Laboratory Procedures....................................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION:.............................................................................................................................2
Scientific Method............................................................................................................................3
SCIENTIC METHOD STEPS: ...............................................................................................................3
Investigation paper.........................................................................................................................4
Investigation paper Revised.............................................................................................................7
Light Microscope ..........................................................................................................................10
Light Microscope..............................................................................................................................11
Mitosis.........................................................................................................................................13
Cytology.......................................................................................................................................15
The Cell........................................................................................................................................15
Histology and Integument.............................................................................................................16
Epithelial Tissues...........................................................................................................................18
Connective Tissues........................................................................................................................20
Cartilage.......................................................................................................................................21
Muscle Tissues..............................................................................................................................22
Nervous .......................................................................................................................................22
Skin with Hair Follicle....................................................................................................................23
Integumentary..............................................................................................................................25
Anatomical Position and Planes.....................................................................................................26
Skeletal System.............................................................................................................................30
Long Bone........................................................................................................................................31
Skull.................................................................................................................................................31
Vertebral Column.............................................................................................................................32
Thorax ( ...........................................................................................................................................32
Arm and Pectoral Girdle....................................................................................................................33
Pelvic Girdle.....................................................................................................................................33
Leg...................................................................................................................................................33
Arthology.....................................................................................................................................34
References:..................................................................................................................................42

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Laboratory Procedures
Science isa processbywhichwe gain an understandingof how thingswork.The studyof human
anatomyand physiologyisabiological science thatstudieshumanbodyfunctionandform.The human
bodyis wonderfullycomplex,andthe fieldof humanphysiologyisconstantlybeingstudiedandnew
processeselucidated.The abilitytoworkina cooperative manner,obtainandshare data,analyze results
and formconclusionswhilemaintainingasafe environmentiscritical wheninvestigatinghumanbody
functionandform.
I. KEY CONCEPTS
A. Describe the locationof safetyequipmentinyourlaboratoryclassroom.
B. Explainhowtouse a fire extinguisher.
C. Explainwhattodo inthe followingsituations:Breakingaglassbeakerduringlab,splashingchemical
inyour eye,hearingafire alarm.
D. List anddescribe the stepsof the scientificmethod.
E. Solve a problemusingthe scientificmethod.
F. Create a chart to record data.
G. Analyze andgrapha setof data.
H. Write a formal report.
II.Laboratory OrientationandSafety
INTRODUCTION:
Some of youhave extensive laboratoryexperience;however,forsome of youitmay have beenawhile
since youworkedinthistype of setting.Thisexercisewillhelpyoubecomecomfortable withsafety
guidelinesaswell asthe locationandproperuse of laboratoryequipment.
OBJECTIVES:The studentwill become familiarwiththe laboratorysettingandproperlaboratory
conduct;locate and learnhowto operate safetyequipment.
A. RoomOrientationandSafety - Tofamiliarize yourself withthe labroomanditsequipment,youwill
performa "safetyhunt”.Introduce yourself toyourlabmatesand worktogethertolocate the following
items:
Fire extinguisher;fume hood;exits(howmanyandwhere - be careful,some doorsmightleadtodead
ends);sinks;gasoutlets;emergencyphone;eye washstation;sharpscontainers;brokenglassware

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container,safetygoggles,firstaidkit,fire blanket,emergencycutoff forgas, chemical spill packet,
chemical burnstation,andnearestfire alarmpull
You are encouragedtoopendrawers,cabinetsanddoors.Some itemsmaybe locatedinanadjacentlab
or eveninthe hall.Make sure youare comfortable withthe properuse of the eyewashstation(washfor
a full 15 minutes);aswell asthe fire
extinguisher- the acronymPASSmay help(Pull pin,Aimatbase of fire,Squeeze trigger,Sweepside to
side).
B. SafetyContract:Before yournextlab,readcarefullythe LabSafetyGuidelinesprintedinthisbook.
You will be requiredtosignalab safetyaffidavitindicatingthatyouhave readandunderstandthe safety
guidelines.
Scientific Method
Scientificinvestigationsshare some commonelementsandprocedures,whichare referredtoasthe
scientificmethod.Notall scientistsfollowthese proceduresinastrictfashion,buteachof the elements
isusuallypresentinsome form.Science isacreative andcollaborativeprocessthatinvolvesasking
questions,developinganexploratoryhypothesis,andtestingthathypothesis.Professionalsinany
science field(appliedscience,healthscience,education,research,etc),andscience students,mustbe
able to use a type of thinkingcalledinductive reasoning.A personusingthiskindof thinkingobserves
manysmall facts andthenputs themtogethertoframe a large and broaderideaor thought.The ability
to collaborate,collectinformationwithoutbias,touse computerprogramstoanalyze data,and to
understandandcontrol variablesare fundamental critical thinkingskillsnecessaryforanystudentof
science.
Scientistscloselyscrutinize investigationsperformedbytheirpeers(peer-reviewed) andmustpresent
theirdata to variousorganizationsandinvariousways,providingevidence tosupportthe scientist’s
explanationof biological phenomena.All currentknowledge of how the humanbody worksisbasedon
evidence thathasbeenacknowledgedbyaconsensusof scientistsworldwide.Whenscientistsuse the
scientificmethoditensuresastandard,allowsotherstorepeatexperiments,andgivesusanswersto
questions.
OBJECTIVES:The student will conductaninvestigationusingthe scientificmethod.
SCIENTIC METHOD STEPS:
PROCEDURE: Your instructorwill pose aquestionregardingthe humanbodyinspiredbyreal events.
Work togetherasa classto answerthisquestionusingthe scientificmethod.Asagroup,decide what
methodyouwill use –what data will youneedtocollectandhow will yougoabout collectingthis
information?Howwill youcontrol variables?How muchdata isenoughto propose aconclusion?Next,
formulate ahypothesis –youcan do thisindividually.Afteranexperimentalmethodhasbeenproposed,
collectdatafrom and withyourclassmates.Alwaysremainaware of variables,andtryyour bestto
control them.

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You will be completingaformal labwrite-upwhenall of yourdatahas beencollectedandanalyzed
whichwill be includedinyourlabnotebook.
Investigation paper
Length of Forearm and Foot: Are they the same?
Our hypothesiswasthatourarm (fromelbow towrist) andour footwouldbe the same length.
Thislab wasdone so that we couldbecome familiarwithusingthe scientificmethod.Todothiswe first
had to aska question, andourquestionwas:isfoot size andforearmlengththe same?We then
formulated ourhypothesis,andputit to test,we thengatheredourconclusionand“reported”our
findings.(Norman,2011)Thisproblemhasbeenan“oldwivestale”for a longtime.Andithas always
appearedthatit wasat leastclose enoughtobe true,butconsideringthatitis hard and awkwardto
bringyour footup to yourarm and measure themnextto eachother,there isno wayto know for sure
if,infact, yourfoot andyour arm are the same length.JustbygoogleingthisquestionIsaw thatmost of
the websitessay,“Yes!Of course,theyare the same go ahead and measure!”Itwouldappearthat this
statementisalmosttakenasa fact of science.Evensome “science” websiteswouldclaimourhypothesis
to be a true statement.These were not websitesthatcouldbe termedaswebsitesthatone woulduse
as a reference fora college essayorproject;sowe cannotassume that theyare correct, evenif they
appearto be correctat firstglance.(Thomson,2012)
MaterialsandMethods.
For thisprojectwe onlyused:
1.yard stick
2. feet
3.forearms
In orderto findoutif our hypothesiscouldbe provedordisprovedwe hadafew steps:

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1.Measure the feetof the whole classbyplacingtheirfeetonthe floorandusingthe yard stickto
measure incentimetershowbigtheirfootwas.
2.We thenplacedthe yardstick onthe floorandmeasuredthe backof our forearmfromthe elbowto
the wrist.
3.We thencompiledourdataby placingiton the white board.
Results
The blue line isthe footlengthof eachstudentwhile the redline isthe wristtoelbow length.The
horizontal axisshowwhichstudentforeachresult.And the vertical axisshowsthe numberof
centimetersmeasured.Thisgraphshows thatourresultswere notconsistent.There isachance that

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because of errorsour hypothesiscouldstill be true.Butaccordingto the resultsthatwe have there is no
consistencyinthe waypeople’sfeetsizewiththeirforearm.
Withthisdata you are able tosee exactlyhow eachstudentcomparedhisorher shoe size totheir
forearm.
Discussion
Raw Data

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I believethatourhypothesiswasneitherprovednordisproved.Becauseof manypossibleerrors
and the possibilitythat we mayhave measuredwrongour hypothesiscouldstill be correct.Ourerrors
includednotusingthe same personto measure all the otherpeople,bydoingthisitwouldhave greatly
decreasedourchancesof errors. Anothererrorwasthat we believethatthe sayingmeantforus to
measure fromthe inside of ourarms to see if ourfoot wasthe same size.
Althoughourexperimentcouldhave beenbetteritwasstill very close tobeingtrue.Many
studentshadthe same size arm as footwhile most othersmeasurementswere different,butclose.
Investigation paper Revised
Lengthof Forearmand Foot: Are they the same?
Our hypothesiswasthatourarm (fromelbow towrist) andour footwouldbe the same length.
Thislab wasdone so that we couldbecome familiarwithusingthe scientificmethod.Todothiswe first
had to aska question, andourquestionwas:isfoot size andforearmlengththe same?We then
formulatedourhypothesis,andputit to test,we thengatheredourconclusionand“reported”our
findings.(Reese, 2011)
Thisproblemhasbeenan“old wivestale”fora longtime.Andithas always appearedthatit
was at leastclose enoughtobe true,but consideringthatitis hard andawkwardto bringyour footup
to yourarm andmeasure themnextto each other,there isnoway to know forsure if,infact,your foot
and yourarm are the same length.(SizeWise 2013) Justby googleing thisquestionIsaw thatmost of
the websitessay,“Yes!Of course,theyare the same go aheadand measure!”It wouldappearthat this
statementisalmosttakenasa fact of science. Evensome “science”websiteswouldclaimourhypothesis
to be a true statement.These were notwebsitesthatcouldbe termedaswebsitesthatone woulduse

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as a reference foracollege essayorproject;so we cannot assume thattheyare correct, evenif they
appearto be correctat firstglance.(Norman, 2011)
MaterialsandMethods.
For thisprojectwe onlyused:
1.yard stick
2. feet
3.forearms
In orderto findoutif our hypothesiscouldbe provedordisprovedwe hadafew steps:
1.Measure the feetof the whole classbyplacingtheirfeetonthe floorandusingthe yard stickto
measure incentimetershowbigtheirfootwas.
2.We thenplacedthe yardstick onthe floorandmeasuredthe backof our forearmfromthe elbowto
the wrist.
3.We thencompiledourdataby placingiton the white board.
Results
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Heel
to
Toe
Length
Wrist to Elbow Length
Foot and Arm Length comparision
Foot and arm legnth
comparision

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In thisgraph I useda scatterplotgraph so that we couldeasilysee the comparisonbetweenthe
lengthsof the arm and the lengthsof the foot.Inthis graph the lengthof the foot isrepresentedbythe
vertical axisandthe arm is representedbythe horizontal axis.We cansee by lookingatthisgraph that
althoughmanyof the student’sfeetwere close to the same lengththeywere not exactlythe same
length.
Withthisdata you are able tosee exactlyhow each studentcomparedhisorher shoe size totheir
forearm.
Raw Data

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Discussion
I believethatourhypothesiswasneitherprovednordisproved.Becauseof manypossibleerrors
and the possibilitythatwe mayhave measuredwrongourhypothesiscouldstill be correct. Ourerrors
includednotusingthe same personto measure all the otherpeople,bydoingthisitwouldhave greatly
decreasedourchancesof errors. Anothererrorwasthat we believethatthe sayingmeantforus to
measure fromthe inside of ourarms to see if ourfoot wasthe same size.
Althoughourexperimentcouldhave beenbetter(fixedthe errors, thoughtitoutlonger...etc.)it
was still veryclose to beingtrue.Manystudentshad the same size arm as footwhile,butmoststudent’s
measurementswere different.Althoughthe armand footlengthwere similartheywere notthe same
length.
Light Microscope
Today inlabwe will be reviewingthe structure of the cell,identifyingmitosisphases,usinga
microscope,aswell asfindingthe total magnificationof the microscope.We will observe the mitosis
phasesusinga fishblastulaslide,andwe will be identifyinginterphase,prophase,metaphase,anaphase,
and telophase onthisslide. We will alsobe identifyingthe partsof the microscope.

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Figure 1 (BiologyCorner,2012)
Light Microscope

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Figure 2 (Biology Corner, 2012)

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Mitosis
Interphase:The phase before mitosisstarts.Thisiswhenthe chromosomesare nottightlycoiled
as theywill be inthe nextphase.
Prophase:Thisiswhenthe spindlesformandbegintoseparate.Itisalso whenthe
chromosomesbecome coiledtightly,andthe nuclearmembrane startstodisintegrate.
There isalso a phase called“Prometaphase”thisphase iswhenthe chromosomesstartto
become alignedandthe spindlesgotoopposite endsof the cell.
Metaphase:thisiswhenthe chromosomesare alignedandthe microtubulesare attachedtothe
kinetochore.

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Anaphase:thisiswhenthe chromatidsare pulledapartandbroughtto differenthalvesof the cell.
Telophase:cellscleavage isformedandthe one cell startsto become two.The nucleusreforms,
chromosomesstartto uncoil.
The cell has nowbecome two.Itcan start the processall overagainand create more cellsafterithas
gone throughthe processof Interphase again.
(Gregory,M. J, 2013)

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Cytology
1. Keyconcepts:
a. Compare/contrastandexplainthe significance of the followingterms:karyokinesisandcytokinesis,
chromatinand chromosome,chromosomeandchromatid, centriole,centromere,aster
b. Describe howacell’sshape relatestoitsfunctionandgive examples
c. Explainthe significance of mitosisforhumancells
d. Define the terms“parfocal”and“fieldof view”
e.Illustrate whatoccursduringeach phase of mitosis
f.Calculate total magnificationof amicroscope.
2. Slides:Identifythe plasmamembrane,nucleus,cytoplasmonanytissue slide, Identifythe following
mitoticphasesina blastulaslide:interphase,prophase,metaphase,anaphase,telophase
3. Models/Equipment:
a. Identifythe followingpartsof a microscope anddescribe theirfunction:
Eyepiece (ocular),nosepiece,mechanical stage,base,arm, objectives, (scanning,low andhigh),fine
adjustment,coarse adjustment,condenser, diaphragm, bodytube
The Cell
Figure 3 (Armstrong, W.P, 2012)

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Nucleus-Enclosedbythe nuclearenvelope,the nucleuscontainsthe Chromatinaswell asthe nucleolus.
It containsmostof the genesinthe cell.Itisthe bestknownorganelleinthe animal cell.
Nucleolus-RNA issynthesizedinthe nucleolus.Proteinsare alsobroughtinandare thenmade into
ribosomes.
Plasmamembrane-Theoutermembranous“wall”thatcontainsthe cell.Itisalsoprovidesawayin and
out foronlycertainnutrients.
RoughEndoplasmicReticulum-Hasribosomesonthe outside.Itisusedtosecrete proteinsthatare
createdby the ribosomes.
SmoothEndoplasmicReticulum-Iscalledthe smoothERbecause of itlack of ribosomes.Itisusedto
store calciumions.It isalsohas enzymesthatdetoxifydrugs.Italsohasenzymesthatsynthesizevarious
formsof lipids.
Golgi apparatus-Actsasa “postal office”ittakesinproteinsthatare transportedwithvesicles,changes
the proteinsforthe functiontheyare neededforanditthenshipsitout throughanothervesicle.
Lysosome-Thisisasac that containsenzymesthatdigestmacromolecules.
Ribosome-Are made of RNA andproteins.Theyalsocarryout proteinsynthesis.
Vesicle-Transferproteinsthroughthe cytosol usuallybywayof the cytoskeleton.
Mitochondria-Isusedincellularrespirationtocreate ATPfromsugarsand fats.
Cytoskeleton-Retainscellshape.Andcontainsmicrofilaments,Intermediate filaments,and
microtubules,all of whichare made of protein.
(Reese,2011)
Histology and Integument
1. Keyconcepts:
a. Explainthe structure/function relationshipof all tissueslistedbelow.
b. Describe,ingeneral,howepithelial andtissuesare classified.
c. List the basictypesof connective tissues.
d. Outline the propertiesandfunctionsof the epidermisanddermis
e.Compare/contrasthairfollicle,hairroot,andhairshaft

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2. Slides:Identifythe followingtissues,andgive examplesof where theymightbe foundinthe human
body:
a. Epithelial tissues:
Simple squamous –example:lung
Simple cuboidal –examplekidney(tubules)
Simple columnar–example:ileum, duodenum, large intestine
Stratifiedsquamous –example:skinoresophagus
Transitional - example:bladder(innerlining)
Pseudostratifidciliatedcolumnar–example:trachea(innerlining)
b. Connective tissues: Loose connective (areolar) –example:areolarspread(common)Adipose
connective –example:breast,hypodermis Denseregularconnective(white fibrous)–example:
ligamentsHyalinecartilage –example:trachea(rings) Elasticcartilage –example:earFibrocartilage–
example:intervertebral discs
*Note:althoughbone andbloodare connective tissues,theywill be addressedata latertime
c. Skinwithhairfollicle:stratifiedsquamousepithelium, hairroot,hairshaft,hairfollicle,dermal papilla,
adipose tissue
d. Muscle tissues:CardiacMuscle,SkeletalMuscle,SmoothMuscle
e.Nervoustissue:MotorNeuron,neuroglia
3. Models/Diagrams:
Identifythe followingstructuresfromadiagram or model:epidermis,stratumcorneum, stratum
lucidum,stratumgranulosum,stratumspinosum, stratumbasale,dermis,subcutaneouslayer
(hypodermis),adipose tissue,dermal papilla,Meissner’scorpuscle,Paciniancorpuscle,hairfollicle,hair
root,hair shaft,sebaceousgland,eccrine gland,arrectorpili muscle
Summary
Our goal for today’slab isto observe andmemorize different tissuesthroughamicroscope.We
will be lookingatepithelial tissues,connective tissues,muscles,nervous,andvarioushairfollicles.

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Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial Tissues are “membranous tissue covering internal organs and other internal surfaces of the
body” (Princeton 2013)
Simple Squamous Epithelial (Romstedt 2011)
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial (Romstedt 2011)
Simple Columnar Epithelial (Ramstedt 2011)

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Stratified Squamous Keratinized (Scarbrough 2013)
Stratified Squamous Non Keratinized (Frankhauser 2008)
Stratified Cuboidal (Scarbrough 2013)
Transitional (Scarbrough 2013)

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Pseudostratified Columnar (Ciliated) (Scarbrough 2013)
Connective Tissues
Connective tissues are “tissue of mesodermal origin consisting of e.g. collagen fibroblasts and fatty cells;
supports organs and fills spaces between them and forms tendons and ligaments ” (Princeton 2013)
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective (Scarbrough 2013)
Adipose Connective (HFCC 2012)
Dense Regular Connective (Childs 2011)

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Dense Irregular Collagenous (Linggo 2012)
Dense Regular Elastic (Linggo 2012)
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage (Schaefer 2013)
Elastic Cartilage (HCCS 2005)
Fibrocartilage (Wynne 2012)

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Muscle Tissues
A muscle tissue is the tissue of the muscle.
Skeletal (Scarbrough 2013)
Cardiac (Scarbrough 2013)
Smooth (Scarbrough 2013)
Nervous
Nervous tissue is “tissue composed of neurons” (Princeton 2013)
Peripheral Nerve (Scarbrough 2013)

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Skin with Hair Follicle
A hairfollicle is“asmall tubularcavitycontainingthe rootof a hair; small musclesandsebaceous glands
are associated with them” (Princeton 2013)
Epidermis (tissue types 2012)
Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale

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Dermis (Shoummojit 2012)
Papillary layer
Dermal papillae
Reticular layer
Hair (Drugs Information Online 2012)
Follicle
Root
Shaft

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Arrector Pilli Muscle (Caceci 2012)
Integumentary
A. Epidermis- B.Stratumcorneum- C.Stratumlucidum- D.Stratumgranulosum- E.Stratumspinosum- F.
Stratumbasale- G. Dermis- H.Subcutaneouslayer(hypodermis)- I.Adipose tissue-J.Dermal papilla-K.
Meissner’scorpuscle-L.Paciniancorpuscle- M.Hairfollicle-N.Hairroot- O. Hair shaft- P.Sebaceous
gland- Q.Eccrine gland- R.Arrector pili muscle-
Integumentary (labeled) (Qui 2012)

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Integumentary (fill in the blank) (Qui 2012)
Anatomical Position and Planes
1. Key Concepts:
a. Describe the anatomical position.
b. Relate one body part to another using proper anatomical
directional terms. (ie. the sternum is medial to the clavicle.)
c. List the cavities of the body, and indicate the structures that reside in each cavity.

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d. Compare and contrast the anatomical planes and sections of the body.
2. Models/Diagrams/Slides
a. Anatomical Position
b. Anatomical Directional Terms
a. Dorsal,ventral,posterior,anterior,superior,inferior,medial,lateral, proximal, distal, cranial, caudal,
superficial, deep/profundus, external, internal
c. Planes
b. Median or median sagittal, sagittal, parasagittal/paramedian, coronal/frontal, horizontal
d. Sections
c. Longitudinal, transverse/cross
e. Anatomical Cavities
d. Dorsal, spinal, cranial, ventral
Anatomical Directional Terms (Micheau 2009)

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Planes (Abcfromfl.2010)
Cavities (MSU Denver 2012)

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Summary
For this lab we will be identifying and memorizing the anatomical positions and
terms.
1. KeyConcepts:
a. Describe howthe structure of a bone/bonystructure relatestoitsstructure.Forexample,whywould
a bone have a raisedprojectionsuchasa tuberosityonit?
b. Compare andcontrast spongybone andcompact bone intermsof structure and function.
c. Explainwhybone tissue iscategorizedasconnective tissue.
d. Name the twoprocessesthatmake up the zygomaticarch.
e.Identifythe difference betweenthe axial andthe appendicularskeletons,andgive examplesof each
catagory
2. Slides:Identifycentral canal,osteon,lamella,canalliculi,lacunae andosteocytesonabone slide
3. Bones/Models/Diagrams:
a. BONESAND BONYFEATURES The namesof individual bonesare incapitals;the bone featuresare in
lowercase letters.Idenifyonabone or froma picture oneitherarticulatedordisarticulatedskeletons.
I. Skull
FRONTAL– frontal sinus,PARIETAL–sagittal suture,coronal suture,TEMPORAL– squamoussuture,
external auditorymeatus,styloidprocess,mastoidprocess,zygomaticprocess,mandibularcondyle
(fossa),OCCIPITAL–lambdoidsuture,foramenmagnum, occipitalcondyles,SPHENOID–greaterwings,
lesserwings,sellaturcica,sphenoidalsinuses, ETHMOID– crista galli,cribiformplates,superiorand
middle conchae (generally),perpendicularplate,ethmoidsinuses,MANDIBLE– body, rami,mandibular
condyle,coronoidprocess,alveolarprocess(border),MAXILLAE–alveolarprocess(border),palatine
process,maxillarysinuses,PALATINE,ZYGOMATIC– temporal process,zygomaticarch,LACRIMAL,
NASAL,VOMER,HYOID (onlyonarticulated skeleton)
II.Vertebral Column
TYPICALVERTEBRA – body,lamina,pedicle,vertebral foramen,transverseprocess,spinousprocess,
superiorarticularprocess,inferiorarticularprocess,intervertebral foramen,CERVICALVERTEBRAE(7) –
C1, atlas; C2, axiswithdens(odontoidprocess);transverse foramen, THORACICVERTEBRAE(12) –

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articulatingfacetsforribs,LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (5) – large heavybodies,SACRUM(5 fusedvertebra) –
sacral foramina,sacral canal,COCCYX(usually4fusedvertebra)
III.Thorax
STERNUM – manubrium,body(gladiolus),xiphoidprocess,RIBS(12pairs) – identifytrue,false,and
floatingribs;costal cartilage
IV.Arm
HUMERUS – greatertubercle,lessertubercle,head,anatomical neck,deltoidtuberosity,trochlea,
capitulum,coronoidfossa,olecranonfossa,medial epicondyle,lateral epicondyle, RADIUS– head,radial
tuberosity,styloidprocess, ULNA – olecranonprocess,trochlear(semilunar) notch,coronoidprocess,
styloidprocess,CARPALS–generally,METACARPALS –generally,PHALANGES–generally
V.Pectoral Girdle
CLAVICLE– proximal (sternal) end,distal (acromial) end,SCAPULA –acromionprocess,coracoidprocess,
glenoidcavity,spine
VI.PelvicGirdle - Knowthe relationshipbetweenthe oscoxae (hipbones) andthe ilium, ischium, and
pubis
ILIUM – iliaccrest,anteriorsuperioriliacspine,posteriorsuperioriliacspine,anteriorinferioriliacspine,
posteriorinferioriliacspine,greaterischiadic(sciatic) notch,acetabulum, ISHIUM– ischial spine,lesser
ischiadic(sciatic) notch,ischialtuberosity,PUBIS–pubicsymphysis,obturatorforamen
VII.Leg
FEMUR – head,neck,greatertrochanter,lessertrochanter,medial epicondyle,lateral epicondyle,
medial condyle,lateral condyle,patellargroove (surface),TIBIA –medial condyle,lateral condyle,tibial
tuberosity,medial malleolus,FIBULA – head,lateral malleolus,PATELLA,TARSALS–onlyCALCANEUS
and TALUS specifically;the othersgenerally,METATARSALS –ingeneral,PHALANGES–ingeneral
b. PARTSOF A LONGBONE
Be able torecognize the followingpartsof along bone ondiagrams,bones,ormodels:
Proximal Epiphysis,DistalEpiphysis, Diaphysis,ArticularCartilage,Periosteum,CompactBone,
Cancellous(Spongy) Bone,MedullaryCavity,Endosteum,RedMarrow,Yellow Marrow, Epiphyseal Lines
(epiphyseal plates)
Skeletal System

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Long Bone (Girard 2011)
Skull (McPhail 2012)

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Vertebral Column (TutorVista 2010)
Thorax (Ahrendsen 2013)

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Arm and Pectoral Girdle (Creative Commons 2004)
Pelvic Girdle (e-sy.info. 2007)
Leg(Rauch 2012)

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Summary
We will be looking at various bone slides in order to identify the different bones.
We will also be identifying the different bones on the skeleton.
Arthology
1. Key Concepts:
a. Describea typical synovial joint, andrelateits structureto its function. Beableto give
examples.
b. Define amphiarthrosis, synarthrosis and diarthrosis
c. Explain the importanceoffontanels
2. Bones/Models/Diagrams:
a. Joint Classifications: Identify the following types ofjoints andgiveexamples ofeach:
I. Classification:
Synarthroses ( nonmoveable) i.e. sutures Amphiarthroses (slightlymovable) i.e. costal joints, pubicsymphysis Diarthrosis (freely movable): i.e.
all balland socketofhip,hinge ofknee
II. SynovialJointTypes
Ball and Socket Ellipsoid(condyloid) Plane (gliding) Hinge PivotSaddle
b. Synovial Joint -Identify and/or illustratethefollowing parts ofa freely moveableor
synovialjoint: JointCapsule Joint Cavity ArticularCartilage SynovialMembraneSpongy BoneofEpiphyses Bursa Meniscus
c. Knee –Identify the following parts on thekneejointmodelor diagram:
Medial and LateralCondyles ofFemurMedial and Lateral Condyles ofTibia Fibula Patella Patellar Ligament Tibial(Medial) CollateralLigament
Fibular (Lateral) CollateralLigament Anterior CruciateLigamentPosterior CruciateLigament
d. Shoulder -Identify thefollowing parts on the shoulder jointmodelor diagram:
GreaterTubercle ofHumerus Head ofHumerus Lesser TubercleofHumerus Distal(Acromion) endofClavicle Proximal(Sternal) end ofClavicle
Spine of Scapula Acromion process ofScapula Corocoidprocess ofScapula CoracoacromialLigament CorocohumeralLigament Coracoclavicular
LigamentGlenohumeral (Capsular) Ligaments,generally
e. Fetal Skull-Identify the following joints ona fetalskull model or diagram:
Frontal (anterior) fontanel Sphenoidal (anterolateral) fontanel Occipital(posterior) fontanel Mastoid (posterolateral) fontanel

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Arthrology
Lori Gardner
March 5, 2013
“synovial joint, a freelymovable joint inwhich contiguous bonysurfacesare coveredbyarticular cartilage and connected bya
fibrous connective tissue capsule lined withsynovialmembrane. Kinds ofsynovial joints are ball andsocket joint, condyloid
joint, glidingjoint, hinge joint, pivot joint, saddle joint, anduniaxialjoint. Compare cartilaginous joint, fibrous joint.” (Mosby
2009)
“Amphiarthrosis a joint in whichthe surfacesare connectedbydisks of fibrocartilage, as betweenvertebrae.”(Miller 2003)
“Synarthrosis, n a joint formedbythin intervening layers ofcartilage, connective tissue, or direct contact of bone to bone. It
results ina rigidunion, andlittle movement of the bones occurs except during growth. Suture lines maybe obliterated in
adults, witha synarthrodial joint whenthe bonesjoined together become fused” (Mosby2009)
“Diarthrosis, a specializedform ofarticulationinwhich there is more or less free movement, the unionof the bonyelements
being surrounded byanarticular capsule enclosing a cavitylinedbysynovial membrane; called also synovial joint” (Saunders
2007)
Fontanels are the “soft spot” ona baby’s head. Withit the baby’s headis able to fit throughthe birthcanal and allows the brain
to grow bigger as the babyages.
Synarthroses, aphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis joint (University of Michigan, 200
Flexion
A movement decreasingthe angle between
articulatingbones.
(Some texts expressthis as "decreasingthe inner
angle of the joint".)
Extension
A movement increasing the angle between
articulatingbones.
Another wayto expressthis is "increasing the inner
angle of the joint".
Hyperextension
A movement to increase the angle between
articulatingbones to take a body-part or limb
beyond its normalrange.
Some of the types of joints that canpermit
extension (above).
Abduction
A movement awayfrom the mid-line of the body.
Adduction
A movement towards the mid-line of the body-
also applies to movements inwards andacrossthe
body.
Circumduction
Ivy Rose, 2013

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Synovial joints (Pearson 2011)

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Pearson Education, 2011
Driver, C 2011
(unpacking mystery, 2010)

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Ligaments of scapula Fetal Skull
(Euxton Hall Hospital 2009)
Moeger 2010

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Cadaver
BodyCavities,Membranes,
Tissues,andIntegument
You will have the opportunitytoview the cadaverseveral timesthroughoutthe semester.Itisnot
required.If youchoose notto viewthe cadaver,complete PartsIandIIIbelow byusingresourcessuch
as textbooks,websearches,labmanuals,etc.If youview the cadaver,complete partsIand IIbelow.
Your instructorwill describe how these worksheetsare tobe assessed.Checkyoursyllabusfordetails
and due dates.
PART A:QUESTIONS FORALL STUDENTS
1. The human bodyisdividedinto several cavities.Propose reasonswhyevolutionhasfavoredthis
configuration.
The cavitieshelptoseparate the importantorgansinthe body.Theyeach require different
typesof protectionsotheyeachneedcertaincavitiestoprotecttheirdifferentneeds.
2. List several cavitiesof the humanbodyinthe space below.Indicate structure(s) thatcanbe foundin
each of the cavitiesyoulisted.
Cranial-brain
Vertebral –spinal cord
Thoracic- Lungs, heart
Abdominal –Digestive Organs
Pelvic–bladder,reproductiveorgans
3. Serousand mucousmembranesprotectorgans.Compare andcontrastthese twotypesof
membranes,includingthe functionsof each.
“Mucous membranesare epithelialmembranesthatconsistof epithelial tissue thatisattachedtoan
underlyingloose connectivetissue.These membranes,sometimescalledmucosae,line the bodycavities
that opento the outside.The entire digestivetractislinedwithmucousmembranes.Otherexamples
include the respiratory,excretory,andreproductivetracts.”
“Serousmembranesline bodycavitiesthatdonot opendirectlytothe outside,andtheycoverthe
organs locatedinthose cavities.Serousmembranesare coveredbyathinlayerof serousfluidthatis
secretedbythe epithelium.Serousfluidlubricatesthe membrane andreducesfrictionandabrasion
whenorgansinthe thoracicor abdominopelviccavitymove againsteachotherorthe cavitywall.Serous
membraneshave special namesgivenaccordingtotheirlocation.Forexample,the serousmembrane
that linesthe thoraciccavityandcoversthe lungsiscalledpleura”(Nationalcancerinstitute2012)

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4. List the serousmembranesthatline the lungs,heart,andabdominal cavity(inthatorder).
1. pleura
2. pericardium
3. peritoneum
Bio201 Lab Practical I documents
5. Where do youthinkwouldbe a good place onthe cadaver to view the followingtissues?
a. Stratifiedsquamousepithelium –esophagus
b. Loose (areolar) connective –organsof the body
c. Adipose connective –aroundthe liver
d. Dense regular(white fibrous) connective –tendons
e.Transitional epithelium –bladder
f.Skeletal muscle –attachedto bones
6. Epithelial tissuesline structures.Connectivetissueshave anonlivingcomponentthatfills,connects,
and protects.Describe howthe structure of epithelialtissueandconnective tissue reflectsthe stated
functions.
Whenlookingatconnective tissuestheylookliketheyare able tomove anddo work,whereasepithelial
tissuesare more flatand made to line structures.
7. Name the tissue type(s) foundinyourintegument.
Loose connective tissue.
Skeletal
PART A:QUESTIONS FORALL STUDENTS
1. Compare and contrast the appendicularskeletonversusthe axial skeleton.Don’tforgettoexplain
howtheyare similar.The axial skeletonisthe partof the bodywiththe skull andthe thorax.The
appendicularskeletonhasall of the appendix aswell asthe pelvisandpectoral girdle.The waythatthey
are similaristhattheybothprovide protection.

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2. Look up the definitionof “fossa.”Name one fossaof the skeletalsystemanddescribewhatarticulates
withit.
A fossaisa shallowdepression.(Dr.Bob2010) The glenoidfossaisthe fossainthe scapula.It isthe
curve in the bone that isbetweenthe coracoidprocessandacromionprocess.
3. The word“coronoid”is usedfortwo structuresinthe skeletal system.Compare andcontrastthemas
to placementandfunction.
There is the coronoidprocessinthe jawand the coronoidprocessinthe ulna.Theyare both processes.
One attaches the mandible tothe jawand the otherhelpstoattach the humerustothe ulna,it goesinto
the coronoidfossa.
4. The word“coracoid” isverysimilartothe word“coronoid”.Identifythe coracoidprocessandexplain
itsuse. The coracoidprocessis a bone inthe scapulathat is easiertosee inthe anteriorview of the
scapula.The coracoid processholdthe clavicle inplace andhelpstoattach the humerusto the scapula.
Articulations
PART A:QUESTIONS FORALL STUDENTS
1. The shoulderjointishighlymoveable andprone todislocation.Itisstabilizedprimarilybyligaments.
Name three of these ligamentsandexplainwhateachname tellsyouaboutitsfunction.Corocoacromial
ligament,acromioclavicularligament,andthe superiorglenohumeral ligament. The corocoacromial
ligamentisaligamentthatattachesthe coracoid processand the acromial processtogether.The
acromioclavicularligamentisthe ligamentthatattachesthe coracoidprocessand the clavicle together.
The glenohumeral ligamentisthe ligamentthatattachesthe humerusandthe glenoidfossatogether.
2. Make a quicksketchof a knee joint,labelingthe bonesandthe majorligamentsbelow.

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