Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
2000, Vol. 85, No. 6, 869-879 0021-9010/00/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0021-9010.85.6.869
Personality and Job Performance: The Big Five Revisited
Gregory M. Hurtz
University at Albany, State University o f N e w York
John J. Donovan
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Prior meta-analyses investigating the relation between the Big 5 personality dimensions and job
performance have all contained a threat to construct validity, in that much of the data included within
these analyses was not derived from actual Big 5 measures. In addition, these reviews did not address the
relations between the Big 5 and contextual performance. Therefore, the present study sought to provide
a meta-analytic estimate of the criterion-related validity of explicit Big 5 measures for predicting job
performance and contextual performance. The results for job performance closely paralleled 2 of the
previous meta-analyses, whereas analyses with contextual performance showed more complex relations
among the Big 5 and performance. A more critical interpretation of the Big 5-performance relationship
is presented, and suggestions for future research aimed at enhancing the validity of personality predictors
are provided.
During the several decades prior to the 1990s, the use o f
personality testing in e m p l o y e e selection was generally looked
down on by personnel selection specialists. This was primarily due
to pessimistic conclusions drawn by researchers such as Guion and
Gottier (1965) in their qualitative review o f the personality testing
literature and by Schmitt, Gooding, Noe, and Kirsch (1984) in their
quantitative meta-analysis o f various personnel selection tech-
niques. The general conclusion drawn by these researchers was
that personality tests did not demonstrate adequate predictive
validity to qualify their use in personnel selection. In fact, Schmitt
et al. (1984) found that personality tests were among the least valid
types o f selection tests, with an overall mean sample-size weighted
correlation o f .21 for predicting j o b performance, and concluded
that "personality tests have low validity" (p. 420).
Over the past several years, however, there has been an in-
creased sense o f optimism regarding the utility o f personality tests
in personnel selection (Behling, 1998; Goldberg, 1993; Hogan,
Hogan, & Roberts, 1996; Hogan & Ones, 1997; Mount & Barrick,
1995). In recent years, researchers have suggested that the true
predictive validity o f personality was obscured in earlier research
by the lack o f a c o m m o n personality framework for organizing the
traits being used as predictors (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hough,
1992; Mount & Barrick, 1995; Ones, Mount, Barrick, & Hunter,
1994). With increasing confidence in the robustness o f the five-
factor model o f personality (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1 ...
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
Discussion 2 Predictor Effectiveness in Criterion Measure Estimat.docxelinoraudley582231
Discussion 2: Predictor Effectiveness in Criterion Measure Estimation
After a potential predictor of employee performance is identified, it is necessary to observe its relationship with one or more criterion measure(s) of work related behaviors and/or performance. The criterion measures selected for employee performance predictors usually align with job-related tasks, behaviors, and outcomes. Depending on the specificity of the criterion, an in-depth analysis of the job may or may not be needed. How relevant are organizational factors such as turnover and absenteeism? How relevant is an employee’s personality or credit history? The criterion should dictate what you are measuring. Criterion measures should be selected based on job relevance, the relationship with chosen employee performance predictors, stability, and alignment with organizational outcomes (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc., 2003).
For this Discussion, select two employee performance predictors described in Learning Resources and current literature. Consider how each may or may not be effective in predicting sales performance.
Post a descriptions of the two predictors you selected. Explain which might be the most and least effective predictors of sales performance as a criterion measure. Provide concrete examples and citations from the Learning Resources and current literature to justify your post. 1.5 pages, at least 4 references in APA Style
Example 1:
Descriptions of the two predictors you selected
My options have been narrowed to aptitude testing and the experience listed on the applicant’s resume.
Explain which might be the most and least effective predictors of sales performance as a criterion measure.
Effective personnel assessment involves a systematic approach towards gathering information about applicants’ job qualifications, such as the applicant’s resume. Factors contributing to successful job performance, such as oral communication (interview) or problem solving (aptitude test) are identified using a process called job analysis. Job analysis identifies the duties performed on the job and the competencies needed for effective job performance. Basing personnel assessment closely on job analysis results makes the connection between job requirements and personnel assessment tools more transparent, thereby improving the perceived fairness of the assessment process (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 2007).
Criterion measurement is the empirical and concrete evidence that can be quantified. The strongest predictor that achieves this would-be aptitude testing. Aptitude testing can be designed to fit the specific jobs; in this case, the salesperson position. Testing can be done on things such as spelling and sentence composition. A salesperson must possess the ability to communicate not only orally, but must also possess the ability to compose and correspond in writing. The aptitude test can be quantified by a score that ranges from 0-100. Appl.
“Exploring the Relationship between Personality and Job Performance” "New App...inventionjournals
This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance of the fivefactor model with job performance. Personality psychology is concerned with the analysis and theories surrounded by the personality are related to the five factors. Conscientiousness and extraversion appear to be positively correlated with productivity and performance. Neuroticism and agreeableness are negatively correlated with leadership capabilities. Individuals make high performance on conscientiousness, while individuals missing conscientiousness and having neuroticism tend to perform poorly at work.
Discussion 2 Predictor Effectiveness in Criterion Measure Estimat.docxelinoraudley582231
Discussion 2: Predictor Effectiveness in Criterion Measure Estimation
After a potential predictor of employee performance is identified, it is necessary to observe its relationship with one or more criterion measure(s) of work related behaviors and/or performance. The criterion measures selected for employee performance predictors usually align with job-related tasks, behaviors, and outcomes. Depending on the specificity of the criterion, an in-depth analysis of the job may or may not be needed. How relevant are organizational factors such as turnover and absenteeism? How relevant is an employee’s personality or credit history? The criterion should dictate what you are measuring. Criterion measures should be selected based on job relevance, the relationship with chosen employee performance predictors, stability, and alignment with organizational outcomes (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc., 2003).
For this Discussion, select two employee performance predictors described in Learning Resources and current literature. Consider how each may or may not be effective in predicting sales performance.
Post a descriptions of the two predictors you selected. Explain which might be the most and least effective predictors of sales performance as a criterion measure. Provide concrete examples and citations from the Learning Resources and current literature to justify your post. 1.5 pages, at least 4 references in APA Style
Example 1:
Descriptions of the two predictors you selected
My options have been narrowed to aptitude testing and the experience listed on the applicant’s resume.
Explain which might be the most and least effective predictors of sales performance as a criterion measure.
Effective personnel assessment involves a systematic approach towards gathering information about applicants’ job qualifications, such as the applicant’s resume. Factors contributing to successful job performance, such as oral communication (interview) or problem solving (aptitude test) are identified using a process called job analysis. Job analysis identifies the duties performed on the job and the competencies needed for effective job performance. Basing personnel assessment closely on job analysis results makes the connection between job requirements and personnel assessment tools more transparent, thereby improving the perceived fairness of the assessment process (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 2007).
Criterion measurement is the empirical and concrete evidence that can be quantified. The strongest predictor that achieves this would-be aptitude testing. Aptitude testing can be designed to fit the specific jobs; in this case, the salesperson position. Testing can be done on things such as spelling and sentence composition. A salesperson must possess the ability to communicate not only orally, but must also possess the ability to compose and correspond in writing. The aptitude test can be quantified by a score that ranges from 0-100. Appl.
A chapter describing the use and application of exploratory factor analysis using principal axis factoring with oblique rotation.
Provides a step by step guide to exploratory factor analysis using SPSS.
Five-Factor Model of Personality, Assessment, and Job PerformanceA.J. Panneton
Personality Assessment has long been an area of interest within the applied researcher and practitioner communities due to the utility and benefit that a universal, categorical taxonomy of personality traits holds within the applied domain of Organizational Psychology, specifically Personnel Selection. Personality Assessment has become a very common aspect of personnel selection programs as an organizational tool aimed at identifying those potential candidates who possess personality trait structures based on uniquely specific motivational needs which are predicted to coalesce well with the specific characteristics of the available job position. The present paper provides a brief history of Murray’s (1938) need-press theory and the most commonly utilized taxonomy of personality trait structure: The five-factor model (FFM) of personality, also known as the “Big Five.”
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 2
Annotated Bibliography
Arielle Black
Webster University
December 1, 2017
Annotated Bibliography
Fatma, I. K. (2017). The Level Of Wage And Labor Productivity In Hotel Industry: An Analysis. Eurasian Journal of Economics and Finance, 5(2), 36-50.
Wage is an aspect that happens today is high wage and high aggressiveness. Wage hypothesis that was created by Rees (1973) and Katz (1980) clarify that payment can't just be seen just as a generation cost yet additionally as a piece of a push to expand the work thriving and inspiration. This hypothesis is a wage effectiveness hypothesis, which expressed that organization's income can increment notwithstanding paying pay over the market wage harmony. Even though here the two specialists had ascertained the issue of work's quality however they have not achieved observational testing by building up specific model. Subsequently, the specialists saw this hole as a chance to unwind the marvels event to work and try to build up an exact model to see the impact of wage to profitability and variable that can quantify the nature of work and different factors that influence salary and efficiency at the same time.
The components utilized are the distinction between singular trademark, human capital, and nature of work life (Fatma, 2017). The approach of this exploration is constructivism approach through quantitative investigation procedure with concurrent condition framework. Examination unit in this exploration is work in friendliness industry. Estimation aftereffects of research demonstrate that instruction, preparing, knowledge, work hour and profitability have a critical positive impact on wage, while age and work status isn't massive. Nature of work life and payment have the enormous positive impact on profitability, while training, background, age, and work status have no huge impact. Imperative finding from inquiring about that preparation has a noteworthy implication for profitability however contrarily. Discoveries of this examination demonstrate that beneficial outcome of preparing to profitability will be greater in an association that ready to put resources into the workplace that help the work.
McGowan, M. A. (2017). Labor Market Mismatch and Labor Productivity: Evidence from PIAAC Data☆. In Skill Mismatch in Labor Markets, (pp. 199-241). Emerald Publishing Limited.
This paper investigates the connection amongst ability and capability confuse and work profitability utilizing cross-country industry information for 19 OECD nations. Using bungle pointers totaled from miniaturized scale information sourced from the current OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), the principle comes about propose that higher aptitude and capability crisscross is related with bringing d ...
ABSTRACT : This paper critically examined a broad view of Structural Equation Model (SEM) with a view
of pointing out direction on how researchers can employ this model to future researches, with specific focus on
several traditional multivariate procedures like factor analysis, discriminant analysis, path analysis. This study
employed a descriptive survey and historical research design. Data was computed viaDescriptive Statistics,
Correlation Coefficient, Reliability. The study concluded that Novice researchers must take care of assumptions
and concepts of Structure Equation Modeling, while building a model to check the proposed hypothesis. SEM is
more or less an evolving technique in the research, which is expanding to new fields. Moreover, it is providing
new insights to researchers for conducting longitudinal investigations.
.
An assessment of the measurementof performance in internat.docxgalerussel59292
An assessment of the measurement
of performance in international
business research
G Tomas M Hult1,
David J Ketchen Jr2,
David A Griffith1,
Brian R Chabowski3,
Mary K Hamman1,
Bernadine Johnson Dykes1,
Wesley A Pollitte1 and
S Tamer Cavusgil1
1Eli Broad Graduate School of Management,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI,
USA; 2Auburn University, Auburn, USA;
3University of Tulsa, Tulsa, USA
Correspondence:
GTM Hult, Eli Broad Graduate School of
Management, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI 48824-1121, USA.
Tel: þ1 517 353 4336;
Fax: þ1 517 432 1009;
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 21 May 2005
Revised: 29 July 2007
Accepted: 24 September 2007
Online publication date: 22 May 2008
Abstract
A sizeable body of international business (IB) research is devoted to building
knowledge about the determinants of organizational performance. A key
precursor to accurately diagnosing why some organizations succeed in the
international marketplace while others struggle is operationalizing performance
appropriately. Yet, to date, no systematic investigation has considered how well
IB research measures performance. We examine the measurement of perfor-
mance in 96 articles published in the Academy of Management Journal,
Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing
Research, Journal of International Business Studies, Management Science, Organiza-
tion Science, and the Strategic Management Journal between 1995 and 2005. The
findings reveal that most studies do not measure performance in a manner that
captures the multifaceted nature of the construct. We describe the implications
of these results, and offer suggestions for improving future practice.
Journal of International Business Studies (2008) 39, 1064– 1080.
doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400398
Keywords: performance measurement; financial performance; operational performance;
overall effectiveness performance
INTRODUCTION
Why some firms outperform others in the global arena is a primary
research question within the field of international business (IB)
(e.g., Hitt, Hoskisson, & Kim, 1997; Tallman & Li, 1996). As a result,
performance is a key dependent variable of interest to IB scholars
(e.g., Brouthers, 2002; Glaister & Buckley, 1999). However,
although a great deal of research has focused on performance, IB
researchers lament that the field has ‘‘yielded little by way of
conclusive results’’ (Gomes & Ramaswamy, 1999: 173), often
drawing ‘‘seemingly conflicting findings’’ (Kotabe, Srinivasan, &
Aulakh, 2002) regarding the determinants of performance. Fre-
quently, when a body of findings is equivocal, methodological
problems are at issue (e.g., Ferguson & Ketchen, 1999; Lewin &
Minton, 1986; Short, Ketchen, & Palmer, 2002). One possible
contributor to this lack of performance findings in the IB literature
derives from the diverse and complex operationalization of the
performance construct (Ariño, 2003; March & Sutton, 1997;
Venkatraman & Ra.
A Method for Meta-Analytic Confirmatory Factor AnalysisKamden Strunk
Research presentation by Kamden Strunk on A Method for Meta-Analytic Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Originally presented at the Southwestern Psychological Association in 2013.
Offer an analysis of their evaluations and subsequent .docxamit657720
Offer an analysis of their evaluations and subsequent recommendation. Note both strengths and areas that could be improved.
Identify areas where your own original recommendations or evaluation was similar to or different from your colleagues’ original evaluation and explain why.
The case study of George, the social worker meets the criteria for a single-case design, because the focus is on a single person (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). The study objective was to test the efficacy of one intervention with multiple target problems (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). The research design is a multiple baseline design (MB), which means that the intervention presented to George in the case study was applied to each sequential target problem and allowed time to assess the impact of the intervention on each issue before introducing it to the next challenge. There were no specific tasks given, but it is stated that there were two personal care tasks completed, two mobility tasks and three home safety tasks. Progression was monitored on each visit using a 10-point assessment scale (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). I would support the use of the clinical rating scale in the case study, as it was shown that this type of measurement scale is one that is commonly used. In the design of a single system and was effective and reliable as well as desirable by several other researchers dealing with unique device designs (Mattaini, 2010). The Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) can be an effective form of assessment, as it would measure multiple targets for a particular adult such as George, considering his mobility, health, and personal care (Mattaini, 2012; Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). Another valuable measurement tool would be a Rapid Assessment Instrument (RAI), which would allow data to be gathered rapidly and routinely (Mattaini, 2012). This enables the monitoring and recognition of incidents within a case through its functional relationships (Mattaini, 2012).
The case study did not provide details about the methods they used. Without these specific details, it is unclear whether the operation and the research were ethically undertaken (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). I did notice substantial changes in George's home safety conduct when assessing the social worker's use of a strategy composed of case management and solution-focused and task-centered methods. I have observed significant improvements in his behavior in personal care and a slight increase in his mobility. These results suggest that the strategy chosen has been successful in maintaining home health, effective in strengthening personal care and helping to improve mobility. Given the importance of addressing these issues in my neighborhood and the lack of funding at this moment, I will advocate a tailored case management intervention program for home health, personal care, and mobility. Chris and her collaborators will need to prove that the research and the findings can b.
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant.docxpriestmanmable
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant number if they had more resources and discrimination of color was ceased. Must include those who discriminate against skin color and must include facts from sources that help individuals gain insight on the possibility of colored individuals thriving in society if same resourcesAnd equal opportunity was provided.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 2000 by the American P.docx
A chapter describing the use and application of exploratory factor analysis using principal axis factoring with oblique rotation.
Provides a step by step guide to exploratory factor analysis using SPSS.
Five-Factor Model of Personality, Assessment, and Job PerformanceA.J. Panneton
Personality Assessment has long been an area of interest within the applied researcher and practitioner communities due to the utility and benefit that a universal, categorical taxonomy of personality traits holds within the applied domain of Organizational Psychology, specifically Personnel Selection. Personality Assessment has become a very common aspect of personnel selection programs as an organizational tool aimed at identifying those potential candidates who possess personality trait structures based on uniquely specific motivational needs which are predicted to coalesce well with the specific characteristics of the available job position. The present paper provides a brief history of Murray’s (1938) need-press theory and the most commonly utilized taxonomy of personality trait structure: The five-factor model (FFM) of personality, also known as the “Big Five.”
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 2
Annotated Bibliography
Arielle Black
Webster University
December 1, 2017
Annotated Bibliography
Fatma, I. K. (2017). The Level Of Wage And Labor Productivity In Hotel Industry: An Analysis. Eurasian Journal of Economics and Finance, 5(2), 36-50.
Wage is an aspect that happens today is high wage and high aggressiveness. Wage hypothesis that was created by Rees (1973) and Katz (1980) clarify that payment can't just be seen just as a generation cost yet additionally as a piece of a push to expand the work thriving and inspiration. This hypothesis is a wage effectiveness hypothesis, which expressed that organization's income can increment notwithstanding paying pay over the market wage harmony. Even though here the two specialists had ascertained the issue of work's quality however they have not achieved observational testing by building up specific model. Subsequently, the specialists saw this hole as a chance to unwind the marvels event to work and try to build up an exact model to see the impact of wage to profitability and variable that can quantify the nature of work and different factors that influence salary and efficiency at the same time.
The components utilized are the distinction between singular trademark, human capital, and nature of work life (Fatma, 2017). The approach of this exploration is constructivism approach through quantitative investigation procedure with concurrent condition framework. Examination unit in this exploration is work in friendliness industry. Estimation aftereffects of research demonstrate that instruction, preparing, knowledge, work hour and profitability have a critical positive impact on wage, while age and work status isn't massive. Nature of work life and payment have the enormous positive impact on profitability, while training, background, age, and work status have no huge impact. Imperative finding from inquiring about that preparation has a noteworthy implication for profitability however contrarily. Discoveries of this examination demonstrate that beneficial outcome of preparing to profitability will be greater in an association that ready to put resources into the workplace that help the work.
McGowan, M. A. (2017). Labor Market Mismatch and Labor Productivity: Evidence from PIAAC Data☆. In Skill Mismatch in Labor Markets, (pp. 199-241). Emerald Publishing Limited.
This paper investigates the connection amongst ability and capability confuse and work profitability utilizing cross-country industry information for 19 OECD nations. Using bungle pointers totaled from miniaturized scale information sourced from the current OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), the principle comes about propose that higher aptitude and capability crisscross is related with bringing d ...
ABSTRACT : This paper critically examined a broad view of Structural Equation Model (SEM) with a view
of pointing out direction on how researchers can employ this model to future researches, with specific focus on
several traditional multivariate procedures like factor analysis, discriminant analysis, path analysis. This study
employed a descriptive survey and historical research design. Data was computed viaDescriptive Statistics,
Correlation Coefficient, Reliability. The study concluded that Novice researchers must take care of assumptions
and concepts of Structure Equation Modeling, while building a model to check the proposed hypothesis. SEM is
more or less an evolving technique in the research, which is expanding to new fields. Moreover, it is providing
new insights to researchers for conducting longitudinal investigations.
.
An assessment of the measurementof performance in internat.docxgalerussel59292
An assessment of the measurement
of performance in international
business research
G Tomas M Hult1,
David J Ketchen Jr2,
David A Griffith1,
Brian R Chabowski3,
Mary K Hamman1,
Bernadine Johnson Dykes1,
Wesley A Pollitte1 and
S Tamer Cavusgil1
1Eli Broad Graduate School of Management,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI,
USA; 2Auburn University, Auburn, USA;
3University of Tulsa, Tulsa, USA
Correspondence:
GTM Hult, Eli Broad Graduate School of
Management, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI 48824-1121, USA.
Tel: þ1 517 353 4336;
Fax: þ1 517 432 1009;
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 21 May 2005
Revised: 29 July 2007
Accepted: 24 September 2007
Online publication date: 22 May 2008
Abstract
A sizeable body of international business (IB) research is devoted to building
knowledge about the determinants of organizational performance. A key
precursor to accurately diagnosing why some organizations succeed in the
international marketplace while others struggle is operationalizing performance
appropriately. Yet, to date, no systematic investigation has considered how well
IB research measures performance. We examine the measurement of perfor-
mance in 96 articles published in the Academy of Management Journal,
Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing
Research, Journal of International Business Studies, Management Science, Organiza-
tion Science, and the Strategic Management Journal between 1995 and 2005. The
findings reveal that most studies do not measure performance in a manner that
captures the multifaceted nature of the construct. We describe the implications
of these results, and offer suggestions for improving future practice.
Journal of International Business Studies (2008) 39, 1064– 1080.
doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400398
Keywords: performance measurement; financial performance; operational performance;
overall effectiveness performance
INTRODUCTION
Why some firms outperform others in the global arena is a primary
research question within the field of international business (IB)
(e.g., Hitt, Hoskisson, & Kim, 1997; Tallman & Li, 1996). As a result,
performance is a key dependent variable of interest to IB scholars
(e.g., Brouthers, 2002; Glaister & Buckley, 1999). However,
although a great deal of research has focused on performance, IB
researchers lament that the field has ‘‘yielded little by way of
conclusive results’’ (Gomes & Ramaswamy, 1999: 173), often
drawing ‘‘seemingly conflicting findings’’ (Kotabe, Srinivasan, &
Aulakh, 2002) regarding the determinants of performance. Fre-
quently, when a body of findings is equivocal, methodological
problems are at issue (e.g., Ferguson & Ketchen, 1999; Lewin &
Minton, 1986; Short, Ketchen, & Palmer, 2002). One possible
contributor to this lack of performance findings in the IB literature
derives from the diverse and complex operationalization of the
performance construct (Ariño, 2003; March & Sutton, 1997;
Venkatraman & Ra.
A Method for Meta-Analytic Confirmatory Factor AnalysisKamden Strunk
Research presentation by Kamden Strunk on A Method for Meta-Analytic Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Originally presented at the Southwestern Psychological Association in 2013.
Offer an analysis of their evaluations and subsequent .docxamit657720
Offer an analysis of their evaluations and subsequent recommendation. Note both strengths and areas that could be improved.
Identify areas where your own original recommendations or evaluation was similar to or different from your colleagues’ original evaluation and explain why.
The case study of George, the social worker meets the criteria for a single-case design, because the focus is on a single person (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). The study objective was to test the efficacy of one intervention with multiple target problems (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). The research design is a multiple baseline design (MB), which means that the intervention presented to George in the case study was applied to each sequential target problem and allowed time to assess the impact of the intervention on each issue before introducing it to the next challenge. There were no specific tasks given, but it is stated that there were two personal care tasks completed, two mobility tasks and three home safety tasks. Progression was monitored on each visit using a 10-point assessment scale (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). I would support the use of the clinical rating scale in the case study, as it was shown that this type of measurement scale is one that is commonly used. In the design of a single system and was effective and reliable as well as desirable by several other researchers dealing with unique device designs (Mattaini, 2010). The Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) can be an effective form of assessment, as it would measure multiple targets for a particular adult such as George, considering his mobility, health, and personal care (Mattaini, 2012; Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). Another valuable measurement tool would be a Rapid Assessment Instrument (RAI), which would allow data to be gathered rapidly and routinely (Mattaini, 2012). This enables the monitoring and recognition of incidents within a case through its functional relationships (Mattaini, 2012).
The case study did not provide details about the methods they used. Without these specific details, it is unclear whether the operation and the research were ethically undertaken (Plummer, Makris, & Brocksen, 2014). I did notice substantial changes in George's home safety conduct when assessing the social worker's use of a strategy composed of case management and solution-focused and task-centered methods. I have observed significant improvements in his behavior in personal care and a slight increase in his mobility. These results suggest that the strategy chosen has been successful in maintaining home health, effective in strengthening personal care and helping to improve mobility. Given the importance of addressing these issues in my neighborhood and the lack of funding at this moment, I will advocate a tailored case management intervention program for home health, personal care, and mobility. Chris and her collaborators will need to prove that the research and the findings can b.
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant.docxpriestmanmable
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant number if they had more resources and discrimination of color was ceased. Must include those who discriminate against skin color and must include facts from sources that help individuals gain insight on the possibility of colored individuals thriving in society if same resourcesAnd equal opportunity was provided.
.
92 Academic Journal Article Critique Help with Journal Ar.docxpriestmanmable
92 Academic Journal Article Critique
Help with Journal Article Critique Assignment
Ensure the structure of the assignment will include the following:
Title Page
Introduction
Description of the Problem or Issue
Analysis
Discussion
Critique
Conclusion
References
.
A ) Society perspective90 year old female, Mrs. Ruth, from h.docxpriestmanmable
A ) Society perspective
90 year old female, Mrs. Ruth, from home with her daughter, is admitted to hospital after sustaining a hip fracture. She has a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on home oxygen and moderate to severe aortic stenosis. (Obstruction of blood flow through part of the heart) She undergoes urgent hemiarthroplasty (hip surgery) with an uneventful operative course.
The patient and her family are of Jewish background. The patient’s daughter is her primary caregiver and has financial power-of-attorney, but it is not known whether she has formal power of attorney for personal care. Concerns have been raised to the ICU team about the possibility of elder abuse in the home by the patient’s daughter.
Unfortunately, on postoperative day 4, the patient develops delirium with respiratory failure secondary to hospital acquired pneumonia and pulmonary edema. (Fluid in the lungs) Her goals of care were not assessed pre-operatively. She is admitted to the ICU for non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for 48 hours, and then deteriorates and is intubated. After 48 hours of ventilation, it was determined that due to the severity of her underlying cardio-pulmonary status (COPD and aortic stenosis), ventilator weaning would be difficult and further ventilation would be futile.
The patient’s daughter is insistent on continuing all forms of life support, including mechanical ventilation and even extracorporeal membranous oxygenation (does the work of the lungs) if indicated. However, the Mrs Ruth’s delirium clears within the next 24 hours of intubation, and she is now competent, although still mechanically ventilated. She communicated to the ICU team that she preferred 1-way extubation (removal of the ventilator) and comfort care. This was communicated in writing to the ICU team, and was consistent over time with other care providers. The patient went as far to demand the extubation over the next hour, which was felt to be reasonable by the ICU team.
The patient’s daughter was informed of this decision, and stated that she could not come to the hospital for 2 hours, and in the meantime, that the patient must remain intubated.
At this point, the ICU team concurred with the patient’s wishes, and extubated her before her daughter was able to come to the hospital.
The daughter was angry at the team’s decision, and requested that the patient be re-intubated if she deteriorated. When the daughter arrived at the hospital, the patient and daughter were able to converse, and the patient then agreed to re-intubation if she deteriorated.
(1) What are the ethical issues emerging in this case? State why? (
KRISTINA)
(2) What decision model(s) would be ideal for application in this case? State your justification.
(Lacey Powell
)
(3) Who should make decisions in this situation? Should the ICU team have extubated the patient?
State if additional information was necessary for you to arrive at a better decision(s) in your case.
9 dissuasion question Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2017)..docxpriestmanmable
9 dissuasion question
Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2017). Criminal behavior: A psychological approach (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Chapter 12, “Sexual Assault” (pp. 348–375)
Chapter 13, “Sexual Abuse of Children and Youth” (pp. 376–402)
To prepare for this Discussion:
Review the Learning Resources.
Think about the following two statements:
Rape is seen as a pseudosexual act.
Rape is always and foremost an aggressive act.
Consider the two statements above regarding motivation of sexual assault. Is rape classified as a pseudosexual act to you, or is it more or less than that? Explain your stance. Do you see rape as an aggressive act by nature, or can it be considered otherwise in certain situations? Explain your reasoning for this.
Excellent - above expectations
Main Discussion Posting Content
Points Range:
21.6 (54%) - 24 (60%)
Discussion posting demonstrates an
excellent
understanding of
all
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other scholarly sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
19.2 (48%) - 21.57 (53.92%)
Discussion posting demonstrates a
good
understanding of
most
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting provides moderate detail (including at least one pertinent example), evidence from the readings and other scholarly sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
16.8 (42%) - 19.17 (47.93%)
Discussion posting demonstrates a
fair
understanding of the concepts and key points as presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting may be
lacking
or incorrect in some area, or in detail and specificity, and/or may not include sufficient pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 16.77 (41.93%)
Discussion posting demonstrates
poor or no
understanding of the concepts and key points of the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting is incorrect and/or shallow and/or does not include any pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Reply Post & Peer Interaction
Points Range:
7.2 (18%) - 8 (20%)
Student interacts
frequently
with peers. The feedback postings and responses to questions are excellent and fully contribute to the quality of interaction by offering constructive critique, suggestions, in-depth questions, use of scholarly, empirical resources, and stimulating thoughts and/or probes.
Points Range:
6.4 (16%) - 7.16 (17.9%)
Student interacts
moderately
with peers. The feedback postings and responses to questions are good, but may not fully contribute to the quality of interaction by offering constructive critique, suggestions, in-depth questions, use of scholarly, empirical resources, and stimulating thoughts and/or probes.
Points Range:
5.6 (14%) - 6.36 (15.9%)
Student interacts
minimally
with peers .
9 AssignmentAssignment Typologies of Sexual AssaultsT.docxpriestmanmable
9 Assignment
Assignment: Typologies of Sexual Assaults
There are many different types of sexual assaults and many different types of offenders. Although they are different, they can be classified in order to create a common language between the criminal justice field and the mental health field. This in turn will enable more accurate research, predict future offenses, and assist in the prosecution and rehabilitation of the offenders.
In this Assignment, you compare different typologies of sexual offenders to determine the differences in motivation, expression of aggression, and underlining personality structure. You also determine the best way to interview each typology of sexual offenders.
To prepare for this Assignment:
Review the Learning Resources.
Select two typologies of sexual offenders listed in the resources.
By Day 7
In a 3- to 5- page paper:
Compare the two typologies of sexual offenders you selected by explaining the following:
The motivational differences between the two typologies
The expression of aggression in the two typologies
The differences in the underlining personality structure of the two typologies
Excellent - above expectations
Points Range:
47.25 (63%) - 52.5 (70%)
Paper demonstrates an
excellent
understanding of
all
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
42 (56%) - 47.2 (62.93%)
Paper demonstrates a
good
understanding of
most
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper includes moderate detail, evidence from the readings, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
36.75 (49%) - 41.95 (55.93%)
Paper demonstrates a
fair
understanding of the concepts and key points as presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper may be
lacking
in detail and specificity and/or may not include sufficient pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 36.7 (48.93%)
Paper demonstrates poor understanding of the concepts and key points of the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper is missing detail and specificity and/or does not include any pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Writing
Points Range:
20.25 (27%) - 22.5 (30%)
Paper is
well
organized, uses scholarly tone, follows APA style, uses original writing and proper paraphrasing, contains very few or no writing and/or spelling errors, and is
fully
consistent with graduate level writing style. Paper contains
multiple
, appropriate and exemplary sources expected/required for the assignment.
.
9 Augustine Confessions (selections) Augustine of Hi.docxpriestmanmable
9 Augustine
Confessions
(selections)
Augustine of Hippo wrote his Confessions between 397 -400 CE. In it he gives an
autobiographical account of his whole life up through his conversion to Christianity.
In Book 2, excerpted here, he thinks over the passions and temptations of his youth,
especially during a period where he had to come home from where he was studying
and return to living with his parents. His mother Monica was already Christian and
his father was considering it. They want him to be academically successful and
become a great orator.
From Augustine, Confessions. Translated by Caroline J-B Hammond. Loeb Classical
Library Harvard University Press 2014
(Links to an external site.)
.
1. (1) I wish to put on record the disgusting deeds in which I engaged, and
the corrupting effect of sensual experience on my soul, not because I love
them, but so that I may love you, my God. I do this because of my love for
your love, to the end that—as I recall my wicked, wicked ways in the
bitterness of recollection—you may grow even sweeter to me. For you are
a sweetness which does not deceive, a sweetness which brings happiness
and peace, pulling me back together from the disintegration in which I was
being shattered and torn apart, when I turned away from you who are unity
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
and dispersed into the multiplicity that is oblivion. For there was a time
during my adolescence when I burned to have my fill of hell. I ran wild and
reckless in all manner of shady liaisons, and my outward appearance
deteriorated, and I degenerated before your eyes as I went on pleasing
myself and desiring to appear pleasing in human sight.
2. (2) What was it that used to delight me, if not loving and being loved? But
there was no boundary maintained between one mind and another, and
reaching only as far as the clear confines of friendship. Instead the slime
of fleshly desire and the spurts of adolescence belched out their fumes,
and these clouded and obscured my heart, so that it was impossible to
distinguish the purity of love from the darkness of lust. Both of them
together seethed in me, dragging my immaturity over the heights of bodily
desire, and plunging me down into a whirlpool of sin. Your anger grew
strong against me, but I was unaware of it. I had been deafened by the
loud grinding of the chain of my mortality, the punishment for the pride of
my soul, and I went even further away from yo.
8.3 Intercultural Communication
Learning Objectives
1. Define intercultural communication.
2. List and summarize the six dialectics of intercultural communication.
3. Discuss how intercultural communication affects interpersonal relationships.
It is through intercultural communication that we come to create, understand, and transform culture and identity. Intercultural communication is communication between people with differing cultural identities. One reason we should study intercultural communication is to foster greater self-awareness (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Our thought process regarding culture is often “other focused,” meaning that the culture of the other person or group is what stands out in our perception. However, the old adage “know thyself” is appropriate, as we become more aware of our own culture by better understanding other cultures and perspectives. Intercultural communication can allow us to step outside of our comfortable, usual frame of reference and see our culture through a different lens. Additionally, as we become more self-aware, we may also become more ethical communicators as we challenge our ethnocentrism, or our tendency to view our own culture as superior to other cultures.
As was noted earlier, difference matters, and studying intercultural communication can help us better negotiate our changing world. Changing economies and technologies intersect with culture in meaningful ways (Martin & Nakayama). As was noted earlier, technology has created for some a global village where vast distances are now much shorter due to new technology that make travel and communication more accessible and convenient (McLuhan, 1967). However, as the following “Getting Plugged In” box indicates, there is also a digital divide, which refers to the unequal access to technology and related skills that exists in much of the world. People in most fields will be more successful if they are prepared to work in a globalized world. Obviously, the global market sets up the need to have intercultural competence for employees who travel between locations of a multinational corporation. Perhaps less obvious may be the need for teachers to work with students who do not speak English as their first language and for police officers, lawyers, managers, and medical personnel to be able to work with people who have various cultural identities.
“Getting Plugged In”
The Digital Divide
Many people who are now college age struggle to imagine a time without cell phones and the Internet. As “digital natives” it is probably also surprising to realize the number of people who do not have access to certain technologies. The digital divide was a term that initially referred to gaps in access to computers. The term expanded to include access to the Internet since it exploded onto the technology scene and is now connected to virtually all computing (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010). Approximately two billion people around the world now access the Internet regularl.
8413 906 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.comPage 1 .docxpriestmanmable
8/4/13 9:06 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.com
Page 1 of 4http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/sunday-review/life-in-a-toxic-country.html?ref=world&pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
August 3, 2013
Life in a Toxic Country
By EDWARD WONG
BEIJING — I RECENTLY found myself hauling a bag filled with 12 boxes of milk powder and a
cardboard container with two sets of air filters through San Francisco International Airport. I was
heading to my home in Beijing at the end of a work trip, bringing back what have become two of
the most sought-after items among parents here, and which were desperately needed in my own
household.
China is the world’s second largest economy, but the enormous costs of its growth are becoming
apparent. Residents of its boom cities and a growing number of rural regions question the safety of
the air they breathe, the water they drink and the food they eat. It is as if they were living in the
Chinese equivalent of the Chernobyl or Fukushima nuclear disaster areas.
Before this assignment, I spent three and a half years reporting in Iraq, where foreign
correspondents talked endlessly of the variety of ways in which one could die — car bombs,
firefights, being abducted and then beheaded. I survived those threats, only now to find myself
wondering: Is China doing irreparable harm to me and my family?
The environmental hazards here are legion, and the consequences might not manifest themselves
for years or even decades. The risks are magnified for young children. Expatriate workers
confronted with the decision of whether to live in Beijing weigh these factors, perhaps more than at
any time in recent decades. But for now, a correspondent’s job in China is still rewarding, and so I
am toughing it out a while longer. So is my wife, Tini, who has worked for more than a dozen years
as a journalist in Asia and has studied Chinese. That means we are subjecting our 9-month-old
daughter to the same risks that are striking fear into residents of cities across northern China, and
grappling with the guilt of doing so.
Like them, we take precautions. Here in Beijing, high-tech air purifiers are as coveted as luxury
sedans. Soon after I was posted to Beijing, in 2008, I set up a couple of European-made air
purifiers used by previous correspondents. In early April, I took out one of the filters for the first
time to check it: the layer of dust was as thick as moss on a forest floor. It nauseated me. I ordered
two new sets of filters to be picked up in San Francisco; those products are much cheaper in the
United States. My colleague Amy told me that during the Lunar New Year in February, a family
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/w/edward_wong/index.html
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/china/index.html?inline=nyt-geo
8/4/13 9:06 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.com
Page 2 of 4http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/sunday-review/life-in-a-toxic-country..
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2.docxpriestmanmable
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design: - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2 as independent variables)
Dr. Boonghee Yoo
[email protected]
RMI Distinguished Professor in Business and
Professor of Marketing & International Business
Make changes on the names, labels, and measure on the variable view.
Check the measure.
Have the same keys between “Name” and “Label.”
Run factor analysis for ys (dependent variables).
Select “Principal axis factoring” from “Extraction.”
The two-factor solution seems the best as (1) they are over one eigenvalue each and (2) the variance explained for is over 60%.
The new eigenvalues after the rotation.
The rotated factor matrix is clear.
But note that y3 and y1 are collapsed into one factor.
If not you should rerun factor analysis after removing the most problematic item one at a time.
Repeat this procedure until the rotated factor pattern has
(1) no cross-loading,
(2) no weak factor loading (< 0.5), and
(3) an adequate number of items (not more than 5 items per factor).
If a clear factor pattern is obtained, name the factors.
Attitude and purchase intention (y3 and y1)
Boycotting intention (y2)
Compute the reliability of the items of each factor
Make sure all responses were used.
Cronbach’s a (= Reliability a) must be greater than 0.70. Then, you can create the composite variable out of the member items.
Means and STDs must be similar among the items.
No a here should be greater than Cronbach’s a. If not, you should delete such item(s) to increase a.
Create the composite variable for each factor.
BI = mean (y2_1,y2_2,y2_3)
“PI” will be added to the data.
Go to the Variable View and change its “Name” and “Label.”
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design: - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2 as independent variables)
Dr. Boonghee Yoo
[email protected]
RMI Distinguished Professor in Business and
Professor of Marketing & International Business
BLOCK 1. Title and introductory paragraph.
Title and introductory paragraph
Plus, background questions
BLOCK 2 to 5. Show one of four treatments randomly.
x1(hi), x2 (hi)
x1 (hi), x2 (low)
x1 (low), x2 (hi)
x1 (low), x2 (low)
BLOCK 6. Questions.
Manipulation check questions (multi-item scales)
y1, y2, and y3 (multi-item scales)
Socio-demographic questions
Write “Thank you for participation.”
The questionnaire (6 blocks)
A 2x2 between-sample design: SQ (Service quality and ECON (Contribution to local economy)
Each of the four BLOCKs consist of:
The instruction: e.g., “Please read the following description of company ABC carefully.”
The scenario: An image file or written statement
(No questions inside the scenario blocks)
Qualtrics Survey Flow (6 blocks)
Manipulation check questions y1, y2, …, yn
Questions to verify that subjects were manipulated as intended. For example, if the stimulus is dollar-amount price, the manipulation check.
800 Words 42-year-old man presents to ED with 2-day history .docxpriestmanmable
800 Words
42-year-old man presents to ED with 2-day history of dysuria, low back pain, inability to fully empty his bladder, severe perineal pain along with fevers and chills. He says the pain is worse when he stands up and is somewhat relieved when he lies down. Vital signs T 104.0 F, pulse 138, respirations 24. PaO2 96% on room air. Digital rectal exam (DRE) reveals the prostate to be enlarged, extremely tender, swollen, and warm to touch.
In your Case Study Analysis related to the scenario provided, explain the following:
The factors that affect fertility (STDs).
Why inflammatory markers rise in STD/PID.
Why prostatitis and infection happen. Also explain the causes of systemic reaction.
Why a patient would need a splenectomy after a diagnosis of ITP.
Anemia and the different kinds of anemia (i.e., micro, and macrocytic).
.
8.1 What Is Corporate StrategyLO 8-1Define corporate strategy.docxpriestmanmable
8.1 What Is Corporate Strategy?
LO 8-1
Define corporate strategy and describe the three dimensions along which it is assessed.
Strategy formulation centers around the key questions of where and how to compete. Business strategy concerns the question of how to compete in a single product market. As discussed in Chapter 6, the two generic business strategies that firms can follow to pursue their quest for competitive advantage are to increase differentiation (while containing cost) or lower costs (while maintaining differentiation). If trade-offs can be reconciled, some firms might be able to pursue a blue ocean strategy by increasing differentiation and lowering costs. As firms grow, they are frequently expanding their business activities through seeking new markets both by offering new products and services and by competing in different geographies. Strategic leaders must formulate a corporate strategy to guide continued growth. To gain and sustain competitive advantage, therefore, any corporate strategy must align with and strengthen a firm’s business strategy, whether it is a differentiation, cost-leadership, or blue ocean strategy.
Corporate strategy comprises the decisions that leaders make and the goal-directed actions they take in the quest for competitive advantage in several industries and markets simultaneously.3 It provides answers to the key question of where to compete. Corporate strategy determines the boundaries of the firm along three dimensions: vertical integration along the industry value chain, diversification of products and services, and geographic scope (regional, national, or global markets). Strategic leaders must determine corporate strategy along the three dimensions:
1. Vertical integration: In what stages of the industry value chain should the company participate? The industry value chain describes the transformation of raw materials into finished goods and services along distinct vertical stages.
2. Diversification: What range of products and services should the company offer?
3. Geographic scope: Where should the company compete geographically in terms of regional, national, or international markets?
In most cases, underlying these three questions is an implicit desire for growth. The need for growth is sometimes taken so much for granted that not every manager understands all the reasons behind it. A clear understanding will help strategic leaders to pursue growth for the right reasons and make better decisions for the firm and its stakeholders.
WHY FIRMS NEED TO GROW
LO 8-2
Explain why firms need to grow, and evaluate different growth motives.
Several reasons explain why firms need to grow. These can be summarized as follows:
1. Increase profits.
2. Lower costs.
3. Increase market power.
4. Reduce risk.
5. Motivate management.
Let’s look at each reason in turn.
INCREASE PROFITS
Profitable growth allows businesses to provide a higher return for their shareholders, or owners, if privately held. For publicly trade.
8.0 RESEARCH METHODS These guidelines address postgr.docxpriestmanmable
8.0 RESEARCH METHODS
These guidelines address postgraduate students who have completed course
requirements and assumed to have sufficient background experience of high-level
engagement activities like recognizing, relating, applying, generating, reflecting and
theorizing issues. It is an ultimate period in our academic life when we feel confident
at embarking on independent research.
It cannot be overemphasized that we must enjoy the experience of research process
and not look at it as an academic chore.
To enable such a desired behaviour, these guidelines consider the research process
in terms of the skills and knowledge needed to develop independent and critical
styles of thinking in order to evaluate and use research as well as to conduct fresh
research.
The guidelines should be viewed as briefs which the Research Supervisors are expected
to exemplify based on their own experience as well as expertise.
8.1 Chapter 1 - Introduction
INTRODUCE the subject or problem to be studied. This might require the
identification of key managerial concerns, theories, laws and governmental rulings,
critical incidents or social changes, and current environmental issues, that make the
subject critical, relevant and worthy of managerial or research attention.
• To inform the Reader (stylistically - forthright, direct, and brief / concise),
• The first sentence should begin with `This Study was intended
to’….’ And immediately tell the Reader the nature of the study for the
reader's interest and desire to read on.
8.1.1 The Research Problem
What is the statement of the problem? The statement of the problem or problem
statement should follow logically from what has been set forth in the background of
the problem by defining the specific research need providing impetus for the
study, a need not met through previous research. Present a clear and precise
statement of the central question of research, formulated to address the need.
8.1.2 The Purpose of the Study
What is the purpose of the study? What are the RESEARCH QUESTION (S) of
the study? What are the specific objective (s) of the study? Define the specific
research objective (s) that would answer the research Question (s) of the study.
8.1.3 The Rationale of the Study:
1. Why in a general sense?
2. One or two brief references to previous research or theories critical in structuring
this study to support and understand the rationale.
3. The importance of the study for the reader to know, to fully appreciate the need
for the study - and its significance.
4. Own professional experience that stimulated the study or aroused interest in the
area of research.
5. The Need for the Study - will deal with valid questions or professional concerns
to provide data leading to an answer - reference to literature helpful and
appropriate.
8.1.4 The Significance of the Study:
1. Clearly .
95People of AppalachianHeritageChapter 5KATHLEEN.docxpriestmanmable
95
People of Appalachian
Heritage
Chapter 5
KATHLEEN W. HUTTLINGER and LARRY D. PURNELL
Overview, Inhabited Localities,
and Topography
OVERVIEW
Appalachia consists of that large geographic expanse in
the eastern United States that is associated with the
Appalachian mountain system, a 200,000-square-mile
region that extends from the northeastern United States
in southern New York to northern Mississippi. It includes
all of West Virginia and parts of Alabama, Georgia,
Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee,
and Virginia. This very rural area is characterized by a
rolling topography with very rugged ridges and hilltops,
some extending over 4000 feet high, with remote valleys
between them. The surrounding valleys are often 2000
feet or more in elevation and give one a sense of isolation,
peacefulness, and separateness from the lower and more
heavily traveled urban areas. This isolation and rough
topography have contributed to the development of
secluded communities in the hills and natural hollows or
narrow valleys where people, over time, have developed a
strong sense of independence and family cohesiveness.
These same isolated valleys and rugged mountains pre-
sent many transportation problems for those who do not
have access to cars or trucks. Very limited public trans-
portation is available only in the larger urbanized areas.
Even though the Appalachian region includes several
large cities, many people live in small settlements and in
inaccessible hollows or “hollers” (Huttlinger, Schaller-
Ayers, & Lawson, 2004a). The rugged location of many
communities in Appalachia results in a population that is
often isolated from the mainstream of health-care ser-
vices. In some areas of Appalachia, substandard secondary
and tertiary roads, as well as limited public bus, rail, and
airport facilities, prevent easy access to the area (Fig. 5–1).
Difficulty in accessing the area is partially responsible for
continued geographic and sociocultural isolation. The
rugged terrain can significantly delay ambulance response
time and is a deterrent to people who need health care
when their health condition is severe. This is one area in
which telehealth innovations can and often do provide
needed services.
Many of the approximately 24 million people who live
in Appalachia can trace their family roots back 150 or
more years, and it is common to find whole communities
comprising extended, related families. The cultural her-
itage of the region is rich and reflected in their distinctive
music, art, and literature. Even though family roots are
strong, many of the region’s younger residents have left
the area to pursue job opportunities in the larger urban
cities of the north. The remaining, older population
reflects a group that often has less than a high-school edu-
cation, is frequently unemployed, may be on welfare
and/or disability, and is regularly uninsured (20.4 per-
cent) (Virginia He.
8-10 slide Powerpoint The example company is Tesla.Instructions.docxpriestmanmable
8-10 slide Powerpoint The example company is Tesla.
Instructions
As the organization’s top leader, you are responsible for communicating the organization’s strategies in a way that makes the employees understand the role that they play in helping to achieve the organization’s strategies. Design a presentation that explains the following:
The company is Tesla
1. Your Organization's Mission and Vision
2. Your organization’s overall strategies and how they align with the Mission and Vision
3. At least five of your organization’ strategic SMART goals that align with the overall organizational strategy
4. At least three different departments’ specific roles in helping to achieve those strategic SMART goals
5. This can be a PowerPoint presentation with a voice-over or it can be a video presentation.
Length: 8 – 10 slides, not including title and reference slide.
Notes Length: 200-250 words for each slide.
References: Include a minimum of five scholarly resources.
I will do the voice over. I do not need a separate document of speaker notes as long as the PowerPoint has the requested 200-250 words for each slide
.
8Network Security April 2020FEATUREAre your IT staf.docxpriestmanmable
8
Network Security April 2020
FEATURE
Are your IT staff ready
for the pandemic-driven
insider threat? Phil Chapman
Obviously the threat to human life is
the top concern for everyone at this
moment. But businesses are also starting
to suffer as productivity slips globally
and the workforce itself is squeezed.
The UK Government’s March budget
did announce some measures, especially
for small and medium-size enterprises
(SMEs), that will make this period
slightly less painful for organisations.
However, as is apparent from the tank-
ing stock market (the FTSE 100 has
hit levels not seen since June 2012) the
economy and pretty much all businesses
in the country (unless you produce hand
sanitiser) are going to suffer. There is no
time like now for the UK to embrace
its mantra of ‘keep calm and carry on’
because that is what we must do if we’re
going to keep business flowing.
For the IT department at large there is
lots of urgent work to do to ensure that
the business is prepared to keep running
smoothly even if people are having to
work remotely. The task at hand for cyber
security professionals is arguably even
larger as Covid-19 is seeing cyber criminals
capitalising on the fact that the insider
threat is worse than ever, with more people
working remotely from personal devices
than many IT and cyber security teams
have likely ever prepared for.
This article will argue that the cyber
security workforce, which is already suf-
fering a digital skills crisis, may also be
lacking the adequate soft skills required
to effectively tackle the insider threat
that has been exacerbated by the pan-
demic. It will first examine the insider
threat, and why this has become so
much more insidious because of Covid-
19. It will then look into the essential
soft skills required to tackle this threat,
before examining how organisations can
effectively implement an apprentice-
ship strategy that generates professionals
with both hard and soft skills, includ-
ing advice from the CISO of globally
respected law firm Pinsent Masons, who
will provide insight into how he is mak-
ing his strategy work. It will conclude
that many of these issues could be solved
if the industry didn’t rely so heavily on
recruiting graduates and rather looked
towards hiring apprentices.
The insider threat
In the best of times, every cyber-pro-
fessional knows that the biggest threat
to an organisation’s IT infrastructure
is people, both malicious actors and
– much more often – employees and
partners making mistakes. The problem
is that people lack cyber knowledge and
so commit careless actions – for exam-
ple, forwarding sensitive information to
the wrong recipient over email or plug-
ging rogue USBs into their device (yes,
that still happens). Cyber criminals
capitalise on this ignorance by utilising
social engineering tactics ranging from
the painfully simple, like fake emails
from Amazon, to the very sophisticated,
such as.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 2000 by the American P.docx
1. Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 2000 by the American
Psychological Association, Inc.
2000, Vol. 85, No. 6, 869-879 0021-9010/00/$5.00 DOI:
10.1037//0021-9010.85.6.869
Personality and Job Performance: The Big Five Revisited
Gregory M. Hurtz
University at Albany, State University o f N e w York
John J. Donovan
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Prior meta-analyses investigating the relation between the Big 5
personality dimensions and job
performance have all contained a threat to construct validity, in
that much of the data included within
these analyses was not derived from actual Big 5 measures. In
addition, these reviews did not address the
relations between the Big 5 and contextual performance.
Therefore, the present study sought to provide
a meta-analytic estimate of the criterion-related validity of
explicit Big 5 measures for predicting job
performance and contextual performance. The results for job
performance closely paralleled 2 of the
previous meta-analyses, whereas analyses with contextual
performance showed more complex relations
among the Big 5 and performance. A more critical interpretation
of the Big 5-performance relationship
is presented, and suggestions for future research aimed at
enhancing the validity of personality predictors
are provided.
2. During the several decades prior to the 1990s, the use o f
personality testing in e m p l o y e e selection was generally
looked
down on by personnel selection specialists. This was primarily
due
to pessimistic conclusions drawn by researchers such as Guion
and
Gottier (1965) in their qualitative review o f the personality
testing
literature and by Schmitt, Gooding, Noe, and Kirsch (1984) in
their
quantitative meta-analysis o f various personnel selection tech-
niques. The general conclusion drawn by these researchers was
that personality tests did not demonstrate adequate predictive
validity to qualify their use in personnel selection. In fact,
Schmitt
et al. (1984) found that personality tests were among the least
valid
types o f selection tests, with an overall mean sample-size
weighted
correlation o f .21 for predicting j o b performance, and
concluded
that "personality tests have low validity" (p. 420).
Over the past several years, however, there has been an in-
creased sense o f optimism regarding the utility o f personality
tests
in personnel selection (Behling, 1998; Goldberg, 1993; Hogan,
Hogan, & Roberts, 1996; Hogan & Ones, 1997; Mount &
Barrick,
1995). In recent years, researchers have suggested that the true
predictive validity o f personality was obscured in earlier
research
by the lack o f a c o m m o n personality framework for
organizing the
3. traits being used as predictors (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hough,
1992; Mount & Barrick, 1995; Ones, Mount, Barrick, & Hunter,
1994). With increasing confidence in the robustness o f the
five-
factor model o f personality (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1993;
John,
Gregory M. Hurtz, Department of Psychology, University at
Albany,
State University of New York; John J. Donovan, Department of
Psychol-
ogy, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
A version of this study was presented at the 13th Annual
Conference of
the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
Dallas, Texas,
April 1998. We thank Kevin Williams, Stephen Dwight, and
Jesfs Salgado
for their helpful comments and suggestions.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Gregory
M. Hurtz, Department of Psychology, Social Sciences 112,
University at
Albany, State University of New York, Albany, New York
12222. Elec-
tronic mail may be sent to [email protected]
869
1990), researchers in the early 1990s began to adopt this Big
Five
framework for selection research (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Tett,
Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991).
Early meta-analytic work by B arrick and Mount (1991) and
4. Tett
et al. (1991) provided evidence suggesting that the Big Five
might
have some degree o f utility for selecting employees into a
variety
o f jobs. In both o f these reviews, the researchers used studies
that
provided correlations between any type o f personality variable
and
j o b performance, categorizing the various personality
variables
into one o f the Big Five dimensions to estimate the strength o
f
these variables' correlation with j o b performance. Although
their
results were not altogether consistent (see Ones et al., 1994, and
Tett, Jackson, Rothstein, & Reddon, 1994, for a discussion o f
reasons), the general consensus drawn by researchers and
practi-
tioners was that personality does in fact hold some utility as a
predictor o f j o b performance. The impact o f these studies
on
raising the status o f personality tests in employee selection has
been felt throughout the 1990s. Subsequent meta-analyses by
Mount and Barrick (1995) and Salgado (1997) have seemed to
solidify this newfound status granted to personality, particularly
to
Conscientiousness. Behling (1998), for example, recently
claimed
Conscientiousness as one o f the most valid predictors o f
perfor-
mance for most jobs, second only to general intelligence.
Much o f the recent enthusiasm for the Big Five in personnel
selection has been based on this body o f meta-analytic work,
especially the original work o f Barrick and Mount (1991). In
5. fact,
on the basis o f this work, most researchers seem satisfied to
conclude that Conscientiousness is a generally valid predictor o
f
j o b performance and that it represents the primary, if not the
sole,
personality dimension for use in personnel selection. W e feel
that
it is necessary to revisit and explore the Big Five in this domain
for
three main reasons.
First, we feel that there are methodological and statistical issues
pertaining to past meta-analytic reviews that warrant a critical
reanalysis o f the research literature that is commonly cited as
supporting the criterion-related validity o f the Big Five.
Second, as
several years have passed since the Big Five was adopted as the
8 7 0 HURTZ AND DONOVAN
dominant personality framework for personnel selection, we feel
it
would be beneficial to meta-analyze this body o f research in
which
actual measures o f the Big Five were correlated with j o b
perfor-
mance. Third, given recent developments in the research
explicat-
ing the j o b performance criterion domain (e.g., Borman &
Moto-
widlo, 1993, 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van
Scotter
& Motowidlo, 1996), we feel it would be beneficial to meta-
6. analytically explore the relations between the Big Five and
these
various dimensions of j o b performance.
M e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d S t a t i s t i c a l I s s u e s i n
P a s t R e v i e w s
With respect to prior meta-analytic work examining the utility
o f the Big Five in personnel selection, we feel that there are
two
main weaknesses in these reviews that need to be addressed
prior
to making conclusions about the use o f personality for
personnel
selection. First, it appears that all four major meta-analyses
pub-
lished up to this point (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Mount &
Barrick,
1995; Salgado, 1997; Tett et al., 1991) contain a potential threat
to
construct validity resulting from the methods the researchers
used
to derive their meta-analytic estimates o f criterion-related
validity.
This threat stems from the fact that these validity coefficients
were
largely based on studies that used measures that were not
designed
to explicitly measure the Big Five personality dimensions.
Instead,
all four of these reviews were based on data from a diverse
collection o f non-Big Five measures that were classified post
hoc
into the Big Five categories. Although these were gallant efforts
at
addressing the relation between the Big Five and j o b
7. performance
given the limited data available in the literature at that time,
this
post hoc classification procedure has raised some concern in the
personnel selection research community over the validity o f
the
results obtained in these past reviews (Hogan et al., 1996; Ones
et
al., 1994; Salgado, 1997; Tett et al., 1994).
The central issues concerning this classification procedure are
the suboptimal levels o f interrater agreement in the
classification
o f the various personality scales into the Big Five dimensions
and
the misclassification o f some scales into these dimensions. An
inspection o f the methods reported by both Barrick and Mount
(1991) and Tett et al. (1991) reveals that the level o f interrater
agreement achieved within each o f these reviews is not
entirely
satisfactory. For example, Barrick and Mount ( 1991) reported
only
83% or better rater agreement on 68% o f the classifications,
suggesting less than desirable interrater agreement. In light o f
such
difficulties in agreeing on scale classifications, it is not entirely
unlikely that errors may have been made in these
classifications.
As evidence o f this problem, Hogan et al. (1996) found that a
number o f errors had been made in how scales were classified
in
these early meta-analyses. Additionally, Salgado (1997)
indicated
that the same scales bad been classified into different categories
by
the different groups o f researchers when they conducted their
8. separate meta-analyses. He suggested that this situation arose
because there is a degree o f ambiguity about how several
scales
map onto the Big Five, making it difficult to assign them exclu-
sively to one dimension (Salgado, 1997). These facts raise some
questions about the accuracy o f the classifications and about
the
degree to which the meta-analytic findings map onto the actual
Big
Five constructs.
An issue that is related to the classification o f scales is the
methods used for aggregating validity coefficients within
dimen-
sions. When faced with multiple scales categorized into the
same
dimension from a single study, Barrick and Mount (1991)
entered
the average correlation across these scales into their meta-
analysis.
Tett et al. (1991) entered the average absolute value correlation
in
such instances. As Mount and Barrick (1995) noted, using the
average correlation underestimates the validity o f the higher
order
construct to which these scales purportedly belong. Instead, a
composite score correlation should be computed to reflect the
correlation between the sum o f the lower order constructs and
the
criterion. Mount and Barrick (1995) and Salgado (1997) used
this
composite-score correlation procedure and demonstrated a
result-
ing increase in the estimated validities o f the Big Five.
However,
9. the fact still remains that these are only estimates o f the
validities
o f actual Big Five measures, because these researchers' studies
did
not exclusively include correlations from actual Big Five mea-
sures. Thus, the degree to which these meta-analyses have pro-
vided accurate estimates o f the "true" validities of the actual
Big
Five remains to be seen.
I f we accept these previous estimates o f the relation between
the
Big Five and j o b performance, our second concern then
centers
around the overwhelmingly positive interpretation o f these
esti-
mates. As we mentioned previously, Schmitt et al. (1984) sug-
gested that a mean sample-size weighted observed correlation o
f
.21 for personality, averaged across various personality scales
without a unified framework, indicated that personality has low
validity for predicting j o b performance. Consistent with this
con-
clusion, the selection community generally looked down on the
use
o f personality as a means o f predicting j o b performance.
We find
it curious that a number o f years later, after the Big Five
frame-
work was adopted in subsequent recta-analyses, there have been
such positive conclusions concerning the criterion-related
validity
o f Conscientiousness, given that the mean sample-size
weighted
observed correlations for Conscientiousness were lower than
that
10. found by Schmitt et al. (1984; the mean sample-size weighted
observed ?s for Conscientiousness ranged f r o m . 10, Salgado,
1997,
to .18, Mount & Barrick, 1995, in these later meta-analyses). In
fact, even Barrick and M o u n t ' s (1991) estimate o f the true
corre-
lation for Conscientiousness, after corrections for range
restriction
and unreliability in both the predictors and criteria, was
approxi-
mately equal to Schmitt et al.'s uncorrected estimate. Despite
these
facts, these later reviews met with immediate enthusiasm for the
potentially valuable role o f Conscientiousness in selection.
In our view, this enthusiasm has resulted from two forces. First,
from a theoretical perspective, the Conscientiousness construct
does seem to be logically related to j o b performance. It makes
intuitive sense that individuals who have characteristic
tendencies
to be dependable, careful, thorough, and hardworking should be
better performers on the job. It is therefore understandable that
so
much interest has arisen in this construct as it relates to
employee
selection. Schmitt et al. (1984), on the other hand, had no
specific
construct to point to in their analysis, as their validity
coefficient
was obtained by combining results across a variety o f
personality
variables with no attempt at categorization.
Second, we believe that these validity coefficients for the Big
Five have often been interpreted in relative rather than in
absolute
11. terms. That is, in these meta-analyses (with the exception o f
Tett
et al., 1991), Conscientiousness has emerged as the most valid o
f
the Big Five, and this has often been interpreted as indicating
that
Conscientiousness is valid in an absolute sense. On the
contrary,
BIG FIVE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 871
three of the meta-analyses present estimated true correlations
for
Conscientiousness ranging from .15 to .22 (including statistical
corrections for range restriction, predictor unreliability, and
crite-
rion unreliability)--correlations that do not fare extremely well
when compared to absolute standards that have been used in
related research. A meta-analysis by Iaffaldano and Muchinsky
(1985), for example, obtained a correlation of .17 between j o b
satisfaction and j o b performance; this finding has been widely
cited as indicating that there is no meaningful relationship
between
these constructs. Similarly, Cohen (1988) suggested .20 as an
approximate standard that should be met for relationships
between
constructs to be considered meaningful. Furthermore, as we
noted
previously, Schmitt et al. (1984) concluded that a correlation of
.21
was too low to consider personality a useful predictor of j o b
performance. Finally, Mount and Barrick (1995) raised the stan-
dards even further by suggesting that validities below .30 are
questionable, given the wide range of more valid predictors we
12. have to choose from.
If we were to adopt this .30 standard, only Mount and Barrick
(1995) have provided evidence that Conscientiousness may be a
valid predictor of j o b performance in an absolute sense.
Whereas
Barrick and Mount (1991) and Salgado (1997) found the
estimated
true correlations between Conscientiousness and j o b
performance
to be .22 and .25, respectively, Mount and Barrick (1995) found
an
estimated overall true validity of .31. It is likely that this higher
true validity is due to Mount and Barrick's use of composites
score
correlations, as we discussed previously (Mount & Barrick,
1995).
However, Salgado's lower estimate of .25 was based on the use
of
composite score correlations as well and was also based on cor-
rections for predictor unreliability that Mount and Barrick did
not
perform. Thus, in our view, these findings still do not give
defin-
itive estimates of the true validities of explicit Big Five
measures
and do not allow for confident conclusions regarding the
validity
of Conscientiousness in an absolute rather than a relative sense.
At
best, they indicate a low to moderate criterion-related validity
for
Conscientiousness, despite recent enthusiasm that seems to
suggest
a much stronger role for Conscientiousness in personnel
selection
13. (e.g., Behling, 1998).
D e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e E x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e J
o b P e r f o r m a n c e
C r i t e r i o n D o m a i n
Another potential area in which the current body of meta-
analytic work can be improved on is the treatment of the
criterion
domain. Barrick and Mount (1991) performed a n u m b e r of
mod-
erator analyses for different types of criterion measures, and the
most clear finding was that their indicators of
Conscientiousness
had a somewhat greater impact on subjective ratings than on
various types of objective ratings. The results for the other Big
Five dimensions were less clear. Salgado (1997) split the
criterion
domain into subjective ratings, personnel data, and training
criteria
and again found Conscientiousness to have a somewhat higher
impact on subjective ratings than on objective criteria. Mount
and
Barrick (1995) were more careful to separate out dimensions of
performance criteria that were theoretically meaningful with re-
spect to their relation with Conscientiousness, and they did find
a
pattern of differences showing Conscientiousness to relate to
"will
do" or motivational factors more strongly than to "can do" or
ability factors. However, Mount and Barrick did not present
anal-
yses showing the relations between the other Big Five
dimensions
and those various criteria. Finally, Tett et al. (1991) performed
14. no
moderator analyses for criterion types but instead included only
correlations computed between personality scales and the
criterion
dimensions they were hypothesized to predict, and their results
were more positive in terms of the impact of Big Five factors
other
than Conscientiousness on j o b performance.
The findings of Tett et al. (1991) and Mount and Barrick (1995)
do provide some evidence that the link between the Big Five
and
j o b performance might be more complex than has recently
been
suggested, in that their degrees of validity depend on careful
selection of theoretically relevant criterion dimensions. Recent
work by Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994; Van Scotter & Mo-
towidlo, 1996) has likewise indicated that the Big Five have
differing relations with theoretically linked dimensions of j o b
performance within the task-versus-contextual distinction expli-
cated by Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997). This body of
work
has suggested that personality predictors should have their
largest
impact on contextual dimensions of j o b performance. Van
Scotter
and Motowidlo (1996) showed further that Extraversion and
Agreeableness were more strongly related to the interpersonal
facilitation component of contextual performance than they
were
to task performance. Although the magnitudes of these
correlations
were rather small, this finding does suggest that perhaps the Big
Five dimensions other than Conscientiousness take on
importance
for predicting certain dimensions of j o b p e r f o r m a n c e -
15. - a finding
that may have been masked in the earlier meta-analyses. Thus,
we
feel that the body of meta-analytic evidence relating the Big
Five
to j o b performance would benefit from an exploration of their
differential relations with task performance and the dimensions
of
contextual performance.
S u m m a r y a n d P u r p o s e
In summary, we are suggesting that the current body of meta-
analytic work investigating the Big Five as predictors of j o b
performance contains some deficiencies that can now be ad-
dressed. One major deficiency, in our view, is that all four of
the
previous meta-analyses (i.e., Barrick & Mount, 1991; Mount &
Barrick, 1995; Salgado, 1997; Tett et al., 1991) suffer a
potential
threat to construct validity in terms of the degree to which their
predictors map onto the actual Big Five personality dimensions.
This methodological deficiency may have led to inaccurate esti-
mates of the true relation between the Big Five and j o b
perfor-
mance. The current body of meta-analytic work in this area has
provided general hypotheses about the strength of relation
between
the actual Big Five dimensions and j o b performance,
suggesting
that actual Big Five measures of Conscientiousness can be ex-
pected to produce criterion-related validities that are low to
mod-
erate in magnitude.
In addition to overcoming this deficiency, we believe an explo-
16. ration of the criterion-related validity of the Big Five for task
versus contextual dimensions of j o b performance would aid in
furthering this area of research. Motowidlo and Van Scotter
(1994;
Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996) have begun to present
evidence
in support of Big Five factors having differential validity with
these different components of j o b performance. Thus, the
purpose
of the current study is both to meta-analytically summarize the
body of research that has developed in recent years where actual
872 H U R T Z A N D D O N O V A N
m e a s u r e s o f t h e B i g F i v e w e r e u s e d as p r e d
i c t o r s o f j o b p e r f o r -
m a n c e a n d to t e s t t h e c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a
l i d i t i e s o f t h e B i g F i v e f o r
t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n s o f j o b
p e r f o r m a n c e .
M e t h o d
Literature Search
W e used four separate methods to obtain validity coefficients
for the
present review. First, we conducted a computer-based literature
search in
PsycLit ( 1974 - 1996) and ERIC (1966 - 1996) using the key
words person -
ality and job performance, personality and training
17. performance, five
factor model, and the Big Five. Second, we conducted a manual
search in
the following journals tor the period of time from 1985 to 1998:
Academy
of Management Journal, Human Performance, Journal of
Applied Psy-
chology, Journal of Management, Journal of Personality and
Social Psy-
chology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, and
Personnel Psychology. Third, we hand searched conference
programs from
the last four annual conferences (1994-1997) o f both the
Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) and the
Academy of
Management for potential articles to be included in the present
review.
Finally, we conducted a citation search in which the reference
sections
from previously gathered articles were examined to identify any
potential
articles that m a y have been missed by earlier search methods.
Using the
selection criteria outlined below, we found 26 studies, yielding
3 5 - 4 5
independent correlations for each o f the Big Five dimensions.
Criteria ,for Inclusion
For a study to be included in the present quantitative review,
three
criteria had to be met. First, only studies using actual workers
as partici-
pants in the research were included. Second, the study had to
18. include a
personality inventory that was explicitly designed from its
inception to
measure the Big Five (i.e., the measure was constructed with the
Big Five
as its a priori conceptual basis). Four distinct measures were
identified in
the studies collected for the present review: the NEO
Personality Inventory
(NEO-PI), including the revised (NEO-PI-R) and five-factor
inventory
(NEO-FFI) versions (Costa & McCrae, 1992), Goldberg's Big
Five mark-
ers (Goldberg, 1992), the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI;
Hogan &
Hogan, 1995), and the Personal Characteristics Inventory (PCI;
Barrick &
Mount, 1993). Finally, the study had to include an explicit
measure of job
performance or training performance as the criterion of interest.
Coding o f Potential Moderators and Study Characteristics
Consistent with previous meta-analyses (Barrick & Mount,
1991; Sal-
gado, 1997), two study characteristics were coded and treated as
potential
moderators of the relations between the Big Five and job
performance: type
o f worker occupation and type o f performance criterion. Each
o f the
potential moderator variables was independently coded by both
Gregory
M. Hurtz and John J. Donovan to ensure accuracy and
completeness of
coding. Overall, a high degree of initial agreement (98%) was
19. obtained
between the two independent raters, and divergent ratings were
discussed
by the authors until there was an agreement about the proper
coding of the
study in question.
Worker occupation. The first characteristic coded for was the
occupa-
tion of the workers being examined in the study. A four-
category classi-
fication scheme was used to identify the occupation o f all
research partic-
ipants: sales workers, customer service representatives,
managers, and
skilled and semiskilled workers. Approximately 22% (10 of 45)
o f the
validity coefficients included in the present review c a m e
from studies
examining sales jobs, 27% (12 o f 45) c a m e from customer
service jobs, 9%
(4 o f 45) were based on managerial jobs, and 31% (14 o f 45)
c a m e from
skilled and semiskilled jobs. Approximately 11% (5 of 45) were
not
classifiable into one o f these categories because o f mixed
samples or
inadequate information. These studies were therefore excluded
from this
set of moderator analyses.
Criterion type. The type of criterion measure used when
examining the
predictive validity o f the Big Five was also coded as a
potential moderator
20. o f the personality-job performance relationship. The criterion
domain was
analyzed in two separate ways. First. a two-category
classification scheme
was used, with the various criteria categorized as either
measures o f job
proficiency or measures o f training proficiency.
Approximately 93% (42
out of 45) o f the correlations were based on job proficiency
criteria, and 37
of these were based on subjective ratings of job performance.
Previous
meta-analyses have analyzed subjective and objective
performance mea-
sures separately; in our data set, the objective analysis would
have con-
sisted entirely o f objective sales data, making it a subset o f
studies from the
moderator analysis o f the sales occupation. W e theretbre
decided to ex-
clude a separate moderator analysis for objective data. The
training profi-
ciency category included both ratings of training performance
and end-of-
training tests designed to evaluate learning and hands-on
demonstration of
skills. As very few training studies were found that used
explicit Big Five
measures, only 7% (3 out of 45) of the studies were based on
measures o f
training proficiency.
Second, we performed a separate analysis by partitioning the
criterion
domain into task performance, job dedication, and interpersonal
facilitation
21. (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo,
1996). Using
definitions provided by Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) and
Van
Scotter and Motowidlo (1996), we classified performance
criteria such as
technical performance, use of equipment, job knowledge,
completion o f
specified job duties, and objective performance data as
indicators of the
task performance category; ratings o f work dedication, effort,
persistence,
reliability, self-direction, c o m m i t m e n t to objectives, and
the like as indi-
cators o f the job dedication category; and ratings of
interpersonal relations,
cooperation, quality of interactions with others, being
courteous, and being
a team player as indicators o f interpersonal facilitation. Using
these defi-
nitions, we located within our sample 7 - 1 2 validity
coefficients (across Big
Five dimensions) for the prediction of task performance criteria,
1 4 - l 7 for
j o b dedication criteria, and 1 9 - 2 3 for criteria fitting the
definition of
interpersonal facilitation.
Computation o f Validity Coefficients
Within individual studies, there were instances in which
correlation
coefficients from a single sample had to be combined. On the
predictor
side, for the HPI, some studies reported separate correlations
for the
22. Ambition and Sociability subscales o f the Extraversion
dimension and tbr
the Intellectance and School Success subscales o f the
Opennessfintellect
dimension, rather than correlations at the dimension level. In
these cases,
rather than averaging across the subscales, we computed the
composite
score correlation (see Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, pp. 4 5 4 - 4 6 3
) to estimate
the correlation between the s u m o f the two lower level
subscales and job
performance. W h e n correlations between the lower level
subscales were
not provided in a study, we entered the correlations presented in
the HPI
manual into the composite score correlation formula. Combining
the lower
level scales in this m a n n e r is entirely consistent with the
tact that these
subscales were derived directly from the dimension-level scales;
thus, their
s u m directly assesses the dimension-level construct.
Therefore, this does
not undermine our purpose o f including only explicit Big Five
measures.
Similarly on the criterion side, some studies provided
correlations be-
tween the Big Five and separate dimensions o f job
performance without
providing a correlation with the composite criterion score. In
these cases,
we again estimated the composite score correlation rather than
simply
averaging across performance dimensions. When the
23. correlations between
performance dimensions were not provided, we entered .55 into
the com-
posite score formula. We derived this estimate by first
computing the
average correlation among dimensions within the studies that
did provide
BIG FIVE A N D JOB P E R F O R M A N C E 873
such information and then computing the m e a n sample-size
weighted
correlation across these studies. For the separate analyses o f
task and
contextual performance dimensions, we used the same
procedure for c o m -
bining correlations from a single sample that were based on
multiple rating
scales classified into a c o m m o n dimension.
W h e n conducting the actual meta-analysis, we used the H u n
t e r - S c h m i d t
validity generalization framework (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990).
Using this
framework, we obtained the mean sample size-weighted
correlations, the
estimated true or operational validities corrected for sampling
error, range
restriction, criterion unreliability, and the estimated true-score
correlations
with additional corrections for predictor unreliability.
As in the previous meta-analyses we have j u s t reviewed,
these correc-
24. tions had to be m a d e by way of artifact distributions because
of a low rate
o f reporting the statistics that are necessary for applying
corrections to the
individual coefficients. Two artifact distributions were created
for the
criterion reliabilities. For analyses in which only subjective
ratings o f
performance were involved, we created a distribution by
augmenting the
few interrater reliability coefficients obtained from our sample
o f studies
with those presented in Rothstein (1990). This distribution had
a mean
criterion reliability o f .53 (SD = .15). For those analyses in
which a
combination o f objective and subjective criteria were used, we
added to the
previous distribution the reliabilities presented in our sample
for objective
criteria and those presented by Hunter, Schmidt, and Judeisch
(1990).
Adding these reliabilities created a distribution with a mean o f
.59 (SD =
.19). Although this combined distribution is weighted rather
heavily with
subjective ratings, this is entirely consistent with the fact that
approxi-
mately 90% of the criteria in our sample of studies were
subjective in
nature.
For corrections for predictor unreliability, we created separate
artifact
distributions for each of the Big Five dimensions by augmenting
the
25. reliability estimates provided in our sample o f studies with
those from the
inventory manuals. This provided distributions with mean
predictor reli-
abilities ranging from .76 (SD = .08; Agreeableness) to .86 (SD
= .04;
Emotional Stability). For range restriction corrections, we found
very few
unrestricted standard deviations reported in the studies for
computing the u
values. Thus, we used two strategies for obtaining unrestricted
standard
deviations. First, we attempted to contact the authors o f the
inventories to
obtain standard deviations from unrestricted samples o f
applicants. Second,
following Salgado's (1997) strategy, we used standard
deviations provided
in the inventory manuals as the unrestricted values. As we did
not have
e n o u g h information to create reliable separate distributions
for each o f the
five dimensions, we created a single artifact distribution for use
in all our
analyses. This distribution o f u values had a m e a n o f .92
(SD = .27).
Overall, our artifact distributions were very similar to those
used in the
previous meta-analyses. Corrections based on these
distributions were
conducted interactively using software described by Hunter and
Schmidt
(1990), on the basis of the recommendations o f Law, Schmidt,
and Hunter
(1994).
26. R e s u l t s
Overall Validity Coefficients
T a b l e 1 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e o m n i b u
s m e t a - a n a l y s i s
a c r o s s o c c u p a t i o n s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t
e r i a . T h e s e a n a l y s e s
w e r e b a s e d o n a r a n g e o f 3 5 - 4 5 c o r r e l a t i o
n s a n d 5 , 5 2 5 - 8 , 0 8 3
j o b a p p l i c a n t s a n d i n c u m b e n t s . T h e m e a n
s a m p l e - s i z e w e i g h t e d
c o r r e l a t i o n s (?) r a n g e d f r o m . 0 4 to . 1 4 a c r o
s s d i m e n s i o n s a n d
a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r t h a n t h e m e a n c o r
r e l a t i o n o f .21 f o u n d
b y S c h m i t t et al. ( 1 9 8 4 ) a n d v e r y s i m i l a r to t
h o s e f o u n d b y
B a r r i c k a n d M o u n t ( 1 9 9 1 ; r a n g i n g . 0 3 - .
13) a n d S a l g a d o ( 1 9 9 7 ;
r a n g i n g . 0 1 - . 10). T h e e s t i m a t e d t r u e v a l i d
i t i e s (Pv) f o r e x p l i c i t
m e a s u r e s o f t h e B i g F i v e r a n g e d f r o m . 0 6
to . 2 0 , a n d t h e
e s t i m a t e d t r u e - s c o r e c o r r e l a t i o n s (Pc) r a n
g e d f r o m .07 to .22.
27. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h B a r r i c k a n d M o u n t ( 1 9 9 1
) a n d S a l g a d o ( 1 9 9 7 ) ,
t h e h i g h e s t v a l i d i t y o f t h e B i g F i v e d i m e
n s i o n s w a s t h a t f o r
C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s (Pv = . 2 0 ) , w h i c h d e m o
n s t r a t e d a l o w to
m o d e r a t e l e v e l o f v a l i d i t y . T h e 9 0 % c r e d
i b i l i t y i n t e r v a l f o r t h i s
d i m e n s i o n d i d n o t i n c l u d e z e r o , s u g g e s t i
n g t h e a b s e n c e o f
m o d e r a t o r s i n t h i s e s t i m a t e o f t h e t r u e v a
l i d i t y ( H u n t e r &
S c h m i d t , 1 9 9 0 ; W h i t e n e r , 1 9 9 0 ) . E m o t i o
n a l S t a b i l i t y a l s o h a d a
c r e d i b i l i t y i n t e r v a l t h a t w a s g r e a t e r t h a
n z e r o , a l t h o u g h i t s
e s t i m a t e d t r u e v a l i d i t y w a s s u b s t a n t i a l l
y l o w e r (p~ = .13).
Validity Coefficients by Occupation
T a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m o d e r a
t o r a n a l y s i s f o r t h e
o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s . D e s p i t e t h e l a c
k o f m o d e r a t o r s i n d i c a t e d
28. b y t h e c r e d i b i l i t y i n t e r v a l s f o r C o n s c i e n
t i o u s n e s s a n d E m o t i o n a l
S t a b i l i t y in t h e o m n i b u s a n a l y s i s , w e c a r d
e d o u t all m o d e r a t o r
a n a l y s e s f o r e a c h o f t h e B i g F i v e f o r t h e s
a k e o f c o m p a r i s o n . F o r
all f o u r o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s , C
o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s e x h i b -
i t e d t h e h i g h e s t e s t i m a t e d t r u e v a l i d i t y .
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t
d e s p i t e t h e i n d i c a t i o n o f n o m o d e r a t o r s f
o r C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s , t h e
e s t i m a t e d t r u e v a l i d i t y f o r t h i s d i m e n s i o
n r a n g e d f r o m .15 to . 2 6
a c r o s s o c c u p a t i o n s . Its h i g h e s t v a l i d i t i e s
w e r e f o r s a l e s (p~ = .26)
a n d c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e (Pv = .25) j o b s . T h e m a
g n i t u d e s o f t h e s e
v a l i d i t i e s a r e m o d e r a t e , a n d t h o s e f o r t h
e r e m a i n i n g B i g F i v e
d i m e n s i o n s r e m a i n e d l o w a c r o s s all o c c u p
a t i o n s .
It is n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , t h a t s o m e o f t h e
l o w v a l i d i t i e s f o r t h e
29. o t h e r B i g F i v e d i m e n s i o n s a p p e a r to b e r a t
h e r s t a b l e , in t h a t t h e i r
c r e d i b i l i t y i n t e r v a l s fall a b o v e z e r o . F o r s
a l e s j o b s , E m o t i o n a l
S t a b i l i t y (Pv = -13) a n d E x t r a v e r s i o n (p~ = .15)
a p p e a r to h a v e
T a b l e 1
Overall Validity Coefficients by Personality Dimension
2 Big Five dimension k N ? S~ S~ S . . . . SLs % VE Pc Pv
SDo,. 90% CV
Conscientiousness 45 8,083 .14 .0161 .0054 .0016 .0091 44 .22
.20 .14 .03
Emotional Stability 37 5,671 .09 .0084 .0065 .0007 .0013 85 .14
.13 .05 .06
Agreeableness 40 6,447 .07 .0108 .0062 .0005 .0041 62 .13 .11
.09 - .01
Extraversion 39 6,453 .06 .0111 .0060 .0004 .0047 57 .10 .09
.10 - .04
Openness to Experience 35 5,525 .04 .0093 .0064 .0002 .0028
70 .07 .06 .08 - . 0 4
Note. k = number o f validity coefficients; N = total sample
size; g = sample-size weighted m e a n observed validity; S~ =
total observed variance in ~;
S~ = variance due to sampling error; S21eas = variance due to
m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; S~e s = residual variance; % VE
= percentage of variance accounted
for by sampling error and m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; Pc =
true-score correlation; Pv = true (operational) validity; SDpv =
standard deviation o f true validity;
30. CV = credibility value (lower bound of credibility interval for
Or).
8 7 4 HURTZ AND DONOVAN
T a b l e 2
Validity Coefficients for Personality Dimensions by
Occupational Category
Big Five dimension k N ? S2r Be 2 S2 are s" % VE Pc Pv SDo,,
90% CV
Sales
Conscientiousness 10 1,369 .18 .0117 .0069 .0026 .0021 82 .29
.26 .07 .17
Emotional Stability 7 799 .09 .0082 .0087 .0007 .0000 115 .15
.13 .00 .13
Agreeableness 8 959 .03 .0098 .0084 .0001 .0013 87 .06 .05 .05
- . 0 2
Extraversion 8 1,044 .10 .0117 .0076 .0009 .0033 72 .16 .15 .08
.04
Openness to Experience 6 732 .03 .0150 .0083 .0001 .0067 55
.04 .04 .12 - . 1 2
Customer service
Conscientiousness 12 1,849 .17 .0121 .0062 .0023 .0036 70 .27
.25 .09 .13
Emotional Stability 10 1,614 .08 .0052 .0062 .0006 .0000 129
.13 .12 .00 .12
Agreeableness 11 1,719 .11 .0038 .0063 .0011 .0000 193 .19 .17
.00 .17
32. percentage o f variance accounted
for by sampling error and measurement artifacts; Pc = true-
score correlation; Pv = true (operational) validity; SDov =
standard deviation o f true validity:
CV = credibility value (lower bound o f credibility interval for
Pv).
l o w b u t stable true v a l i d i t i e s . T h i s s a m e g e n e
r a l p a t t e r n e m e r g e d
f o r m a n a g e r i a l j o b s , a l t h o u g h t h e s m a l l n
u m b e r o f s t u d i e s (k = 4)
l o c a t e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g this t r u e v a l i d i t y m
a y r e n d e r this f i n d i n g
t e n u o u s . C u s t o m e r s e r v i c e j o b s a p p e a r m
o r e c o m p l e x in that
E m o t i o n a l S t a b i l i t y (Pv = .12), A g r e e a b l e n e
s s (Pv = .17), a n d
O p e n n e s s to E x p e r i e n c e (Pv = -15) e x h i b i t e d
r a t h e r l o w b u t stable
true validities. T h i s m a y i n d i c a t e a s o m e w h a t m
o r e c o m p l e x pat-
tern o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l i t y
a n d p e r f o r m a n c e in j o b s
that i n v o l v e i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s t h
a n is c a p t u r e d s o l e l y b y
a s s e s s i n g C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s . In c o n t r a s t
, t h e true validity e s t i -
m a t e s f o r s k i l l e d a n d s e m i s k i l l e d j o b s , w
h i c h m a y o f t e n i n v o l v e a
s m a l l e r i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m p o n e n t o f p e r f
o r m a n c e , t e n d e d to b e
r a t h e r s m a l l a c r o s s all o f t h e B i g F i v e , a n d
t h e s e v a l i d i t i e s a p p e a r
r a t h e r u n s t a b l e in l i g h t o f t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t
y intervals.
33. Validity Coefficients by Criterion Type
T a b l e 3 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m o d e r a
t o r a n a l y s i s f o r t h e
s e p a r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f j o b p r o f i c i e n c y a
n d t r a i n i n g p r o f i c i e n c y .
F o r j o b p r o f i c i e n c y , v i r t u a l l y t h e s a m e p
a t t e r n a n d m a g n i t u d e o f
v a l i d i t i e s e m e r g e d as w a s f o u n d in t h e o m n
i b u s a n a l y s i s , w h i c h is
n o t s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n t h e fact that o v e r 9 0 % o
f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o r r e l a t i o n s a c r o s s d i m e n s i o n s i n v o l v e d
j o b p r o f i c i e n c y criteria.
T h e s m a l l n u m b e r o f c o r r e l a t i o n s s u m m a r
i z e d f o r t r a i n i n g p r o f i -
c i e n c y r e n d e r s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r u e
v a l i d i t y e s t i m a t e s t e n u o u s ,
a l t h o u g h E x t r a v e r s i o n (Pv = -17) a n d A g r e e a
b l e n e s s (Pv = • 18)
h a d t h e h i g h e s t validities.
T a b l e 4 s h o w s t h e s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s o f t h
e B i g F i v e as p r e d i c -
tors o f t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e , j o b d e d i c a t i o n , a
n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c i l i -
tation. R e c e n t r e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y e x p l i c a t i
n g t h e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y
o f t h e j o b p e r f o r m a n c e d o m a i n h a s s u g g e s
t e d that p e r s o n a l i t y
34. s h o u l d p r e d i c t t h e c o n t e x t u a l p e r f o r m a n
c e d i m e n s i o n s o f j o b d e d -
i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c i l i t a t i o n m
o r e s t r o n g l y than task p e r -
f o r m a n c e d o e s ( B o r m a n & M o t o w i d l o , 1993,
1997; M o t o w i d l o &
V a n S c o t t e r , 1994; V a n S c o t t e r & M o t o w i d l
o , 1996). O u r a n a l y s e s
s h o w that C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s p r e d i c t e d all t
h r e e criteria w i t h a p -
p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e level o f t r u e v a l i d i t y
(Pv = . 1 5 - . 18), al-
t h o u g h t h e c r e d i b i l i t y i n t e r v a l s i n d i c a t e
that this true validity w a s
o n l y stable f o r t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c i l i t a t i
o n c r i t e r i o n . E m o t i o n a l
Stability a p p e a r e d to h a v e a l o w b u t v e r y s t a b l
e t r u e validity a c r o s s
t h e s e t h r e e c r i t e r i a (Pv = • 1 3 - . 16). F o r t h e i
n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c i l i t a t i o n
c r i t e r i o n , A g r e e a b l e n e s s (Pv = • 17) r i v a l e d
b o t h C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s
(Pv = .16) a n d E m o t i o n a l Stability (Pv = • 16) in its e s
t i m a t e d true
validity. T h i s s u p p o r t s V a n S c o t t e r a n d M o t o
35. w i d l o ' s f i n d i n g that
a l t h o u g h A g r e e a b l e n e s s d o e s n o t i n f l u e n
c e task p e r f o r m a n c e , it
d o e s a p p e a r to i n f l u e n c e r a t i n g s o f i n t e r p
e r s o n a l facilitation. It
s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t n o n e o f t h
e s e a n a l y s e s f o r t h e task
a n d c o n t e x t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e criteria r e v e a l e
d s t r o n g e r true v a l i d i -
ties t h a n d i d t h e o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e a n a l
y s e s .
BIG FIVE A N D JOB P E R F O R M A N C E
T a b l e 3
Validity Coefficients f o r Personality Dimensions by Criterion
Type
875
2 2 Big Five dimension k N ~ S 2 S~ Sme~ S~.~ % VE pc p~
SDov 90% CV
Job performance
Conscientiousness 42 7,342 .15 .0148 .0055 .0019 .0074 50 .24
.22 .13 .06
Emotional Stability 35 5,027 .09 .0089 .0069 .0007 .0013 85 .15
.14 .05 .07
Agreeableness 38 5,803 .07 .0111 .0065 .0004 .0042 62 .12 .10
.10 - . 0 2
36. Extraversion 37 5,809 .06 .0118 .0064 .0003 .0051 57 .09 .09
.11 - . 0 5
Openness to Experience 33 4,881 .03 .0097 .0068 .0001 .0028
71 .06 .05 .08 - . 0 5
Training performance
Conscientiousness 3 741 .02 .0145 .0041 .0000 .0104 28 .03 .03
.15 - . 1 6
Emotional Stability 2 644 .06 .0030 .0031 .0003 .0000 111 .09
.08 .00 .08
Agreeableness 2 644 .12 .0049 .0030 .0013 .0006 88 .21 .18 .04
.13
Extraversion 2 644 .12 .0020 .0030 .0012 .0000 207 .19 .17 .00
.17
Openness to Experience 2 644 .08 .0042 .0031 .0007 .0005 88
.14 .13 .03 .08
Note. k = n u m b e r o f validity coefficients; N = total sample
size; ~ = sample-size weighted m e a n observed validity; S~ =
total observed variance in ~;
S~ = variance due to sampling error; SZmea~ = variance due to
m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; S ~ = residual variance; % VE =
percentage o f variance accounted
for by sampling error and m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; pc =
true-score correlation; p~ = true (operational) validity; SDo~ =
standard deviation o f true validity;
CV = credibility value (lower bound o f credibility interval for
P0.
Discussion
T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w a s to p r o v
i d e a c o n f i r m a t o r y
m e t a - a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h
37. e B i g F i v e a n d j o b p e r f o r -
m a n c e b y i n c l u d i n g o n l y s c a l e s t h a t w e r e
e x p l i c i t l y d e s i g n e d to
m e a s u r e t h e B i g F i v e p e r s o n a l i t y d i m e n s i
o n s . O u r o v e r a l l r e s u l t s
w e r e h i g h l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l
w o r k o f B a r r i c k a n d
M o u n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , in t h a t C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s
w a s a g a i n f o u n d to h a v e
t h e h i g h e s t v a l i d i t y o f t h e B i g F i v e d i m e
n s i o n s f o r o v e r a l l j o b
p e r f o r m a n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , o u r e s t i m a t e
d t r u e - s c o r e c o r r e l a t i o n o f
.22 ( a n d t r u e v a l i d i t y o f .20) w a s v i r t u a l l y i
d e n t i c a l i n m a g n i t u d e
to B a r r i c k a n d M o u n t ' s e s t i m a t e . T h i s f i n
d i n g a l l e v i a t e s c o n c e r n
t h a t B a r r i c k a n d M o u n t ' s h e a v i l y c i t e d r e
s u l t s u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h e
o v e r a l l t r u e v a l i d i t y o f t h e C o n s c i e n t i o u
s n e s s d i m e n s i o n as a r e s u l t
o f t h e i r c a t e g o r i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . O n t h
e o t h e r h a n d , o u r f i n d i n g s
i n d i c a t e t h a t at l e a s t f o r s i n g l e - s c a l e , g l
38. o b a l B i g F i v e m e a s u r e s , t h e
T a b l e 4
Validity Coefficients f o r Personality Dimensions by Criterion
Dimension
Big Five dimension k N ~ S~ S~ S~ea~ Sr%s % VE Pc Pv SDpv
90% CV
Task performance
Conscientiousness 12 2,197 .10 .0138 .0054 .0008 .0076 45 .16
.15 .13 - . 0 2
Emotional Stability 8 1,243 .09 .0015 .0064 .0007 .0000 463 .14
.13 .00 .13
Agreeableness 9 1,754 .05 .0090 .0051 .0002 .0037 59 .08 .07
.09 - .05
Extraversion 9 1,839 .04 .0052 .0049 .0002 .0001 98 .07 .06 .02
.04
O p e n n e s s to Experience 7 1,176 - . 0 1 .0237 .0060 .0000
.0177 25 - . 0 1 - . 0 1 .20 - . 2 6
Job dedication
Conscientiousness 17 3,197 . l 2 .0203 .0052 .0013 .0139 32 .20
.18 .17 - .04
Emotional Stability 15 2,581 .09 .0059 .0058 .0007 .0000 109
.14 .13 .00 .13
Agreeableness 17 3,197 .06 .0096 .0053 .0003 .0040 59 .10 .08
.09 - . 0 3
Extraversion 16 3,130 .03 .0111 .0051 .0001 .0059 47 .05 .05
.11 - . 1 0
Openness to Experience 14 2,514 .01 .0108 .0056 .0000 .0052
52 .01 .01 .11 - . 1 3
39. Interpersonal facilitation
Conscientiousness 23 4,301 .11 .0083 .0053 .0010 .0020 76 .18
.16 .07 .07
Emotional Stability 21 3,685 .10 .0046 .0056 .0010 .0000 142
.17 .16 .00 .16
Agreeableness 23 4,301 .11 .0117 .0052 .0012 .0053 55 .20 .17
.11 .03
Extraversion 21 4,155 .06 .0105 .0050 .0004 .0051 52 .11 .10
.11 - . 0 4
Openness to Experience 19 3,539 .03 .0075 .0054 .0001 .0020
73 .05 .05 .07 - . 0 4
Note. k = n u m b e r o f validity coefficients; N = total sample
size; ~ = sample-size weighted m e a n observed validity; Sr 2 -
= total observed variance in f;
S~ 2 = variance due to sampling error; S~mea~ = variance due
to m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; S~s = residual variance; % VE
= percentage of variance accounted
for by sampling error and m e a s u r e m e n t artifacts; Pc =
true-score correlation; Pv = true (operational) validity; SDpv =
standard deviation o f true validity;
CV = credibility value (lower bound o f credibility interval for
pv).
8 7 6 HURTZ AND DONOVAN
validity estimates for Conscientiousness provided by Mount and
B arrick (1995 ) and S algado (1997 ) appear to be
overestimates. We
offer from our results an estimated true criterion-related
validity of
.20 for actual Big Five measures of Conscientiousness.
40. It is also noteworthy that Emotional Stability shows rather
consistent (although low) levels of criterion-related validity. In
addition, the separate analyses for the different occupational
cat-
egories provide a more complex picture of the validities of the
Big
Five than do prior reviews, in that the dimensions beyond Con-
scientiousness begin to show low but rather stable validities for
certain occupations. In particular, for jobs involving customer
service, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Emotional
Stability had low levels of validity (pv s r a n g i n g . 12-. 17)
but zero
residual variance in the population estimate after the effects of
sampling error and measurement artifacts were removed.
Similarly
for sales and perhaps for managerial jobs, Emotional Stability
and
Extraversion had rather low but stable validities. A common
theme
running through customer service, sales, and managerial jobs
that
differentiates them from skilled and semiskilled jobs is the
inter-
personal component of performing these jobs; this probably ac-
counts for the more stable validities of these personality dimen-
sions for these types of jobs.
The results of partitioning the criterion domain into task perfor-
mance, j o b dedication, and interpersonal facilitation shed
further
light on these issues. Contrary to our expectations, our analyses
showed that partitioning the criterion domain in this manner did
not bring about stronger criterion-related validities in
comparison
with analyzing a general j o b proficiency category.
Conscientious-
41. ness predicted all three performance dimensions equally well
(Pv = .15-.18), and the same was found for Emotional Stability
(Or = • 13-. 16). However, Agreeableness did emerge as a
poten-
tially valid predictor, predicting interpersonal facilitation as
strongly as did Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability.
When
one considers the validities and credibility intervals together,
Con-
scientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Agreeableness appear
to
have a rather stable impact on the interpersonal facilitation
criteria,
suggesting that perhaps this performance dimension is
influenced
in a consistent manner by certain personality traits. This is con-
sistent with the previous suggestion that personality may have a
more stable impact on jobs that are more interpersonal in nature
(e.g., customer service, sales, management). The same statement
may be true of j o b performance dimensions that are more
inter-
personal in nature.
Although these findings shed some light on the potential impact
of personality variables on dimensions of j o b performance, we
now return to the issue of the absolute magnitudes of the
estimated
true validity coefficients for these variables and the
implications of
these validities for the utility of the Big Five for personnel
selec-
tion. In general, our analyses suggest that the validities of the
Big
Five, including Conscientiousness, tend to be low to moderate
in
magnitude. One of the major implications of this meta-analysis,
42. then, is that stating that Conscientiousness is a valid predictor
of
j o b performance paints an inaccurate image of the true
validity of
these global Big Five measures in an absolute sense. We suggest
that the estimated true validity of .20 for the global
Conscientious-
ness dimension is not as impressive as one would expect, given
the
recent enthusiasm surrounding its use as a predictor of j o b
performance.
What degree of utility do these global Big Five measures offer
for predicting j o b performance? Overall, it appears that global
measures of Conscientiousness can be expected to consistently
add
a small portion of explained variance in j o b performance
across
jobs and across criterion dimensions. In addition, for certain
jobs
and for certain criterion dimensions, certain other Big Five
dimen-
sions will likely add a very small but consistent degree of ex-
plained variance. If the global Big Five measure is uncorrelated
with the other predictors that are currently used ~br a j o b
(e.g.,
personality tends to be uncorrelated with cognitive ability; Day
&
Silverman, 1989; Rosse, Miller, & Barnes, 1991), then even this
small incremental explained variance can, under certain circum-
stances, make a practically significant contribution to predictive
efficiency for a j o b and perhaps contribute to a reduction in
adverse impact (Hattrup, Rock, & Scalia, 1997; Murphy &
Shiarella, 1997; Schmitt, Rogers, Chan, Sheppard, & Jennings,
1997; but see Ryan, Ployhart, & Friedel, 1998).
43. However, if the relevant aspects of the applicant's personality
are already partially captured through other selection techniques
such as reference checks and interviews, the small potential
con-
tribution of a global Big Five measure will likely diminish. In
addition, the potentially negative impact of faking on the utility
of
personality measures (Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, &
Rothstein,
1994; Ellingson, Sackett, & Hough, 1999; Rosse, Stecher,
Miller,
& Levin, 1998) and the potentially negative applicant reactions
(Rosse, Miller, & Stecher, 1994; Steiner & Gilliland, 1996) also
raise the question of whether this small addition of explained
variance should be interpreted as enthusiastically as it recently
has
been. Thus, although the low to moderate validity coefficient
for
Conscientiousness tends to generalize quite well across occupa-
tions and j o b performance criteria and although other Big
Five
dimensions appear to have meaningful relations with certain cri-
teria or for certain jobs, we do not see evidence that Conscien-
tiousness or any of the other Big Five dimensions should be
granted a status similar to that of general cognitive ability for
personnel selection purposes (cf. Behling, 1998).
In terms of theory rather than practice, however, we do interpret
our findings as indicating a pattern of theoretically meaningful
relations between the broad personality dimensions and j o b
per-
formance that should be explored in future research, perhaps
using
facet scales of the Big Five dimensions. Although the strength
of
the relations are low to moderate, different personality
44. dimensions
appear to affect performance in different types of jobs or along
different dimensions. In a relative sense, the Conscientiousness
dimension does appear to have the strongest relation to overall j
o b
performance. People who describe themselves as hard-working,
reliable, organized, and so on do appear to perform somewhat
better than do those who believe they are less strong in these
characteristics. It is also interesting that Emotional Stability
showed a rather stable influence on performance throughout
nearly
all of our analyses. It appears that being calm, secure, well-
adjusted, and low in anxiety has a small but consistent impact
on
j o b performance. Agreeableness also gains importance for
those
jobs that require interpersonal interactions, so that being
likeable,
cooperative, and good-natured has a small but consistent impact
on
performance. Finally, being Extraverted appears to influence
sales
and perhaps managerial jobs, and Openness to Experience
appears
to affect performance in customer service jobs. Although these
theoretically meaningful relations are rather low in magnitude
at
BIG FIVE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 8 7 7
the broad dimension level of the Big Five, the magnitude of
these
correlations might be enhanced if the most relevant specific
facets
45. of these broad dimensions could be specified.
We suggest, then, that the Big Five framework and the patterns
of small to moderate validities for these broad dimensions that
have begun to emerge should be used in future research to help
guide the selection back "downward" toward somewhat
narrower
personality facets with theoretical links to the performance
dimen-
sions under investigation. If a broad, global performance
criterion
is of interest, perhaps a global Conscientiousness scale will
suffice
with a moderate level of validity. However, if multiple perfor-
mance dimensions such as those distinguishing task
performance
from contextual performance, or perhaps those consistent with
other typologies such as that presented by Campbell (1990),
will
be delineated, then perhaps narrower facets of performance with
strong theoretical links to those criteria can be identified and
used
individually or in combination to enhance their criterion-related
validity.
We also note that the formation of optimal composites may
involve grouping facets from across the five broad dimensions.
For
example, combining selected facets of Conscientiousness, Emo-
tional Stability, and Agreeableness may optimize the prediction
of
an interpersonal facilitation criterion. The circumplex models of
the Big Five presented by Hofstee, de Raad, and Goldberg
(1992)
and Johnson and Ostendorf (1993) could also prove useful in
this
46. regard by guiding the formation of predictor scales that simulta-
neously represent aspects of two dimensions, in a sense falling
between two of the broader dimensions. This is a hypothesis
that
deserves consideration in future research.
In addition to further exploration of more specific links between
dimensions of personality and j o b performance, research that
more
completely delineates the nomological network connecting
person-
ality to j o b performance is needed. Much of the research to
date
has taken a very practical perspective, focusing on the bivariate
correlation between personality and performance. However, if
we
are to truly understand the relationship between personality and
j o b performance, we must move beyond this bivariate
relationship
and toward specifying the intervening variables that link these
domains. The Conscientiousness trait, for example, is often dis-
cussed in a m a n n e r that assumes it has motivational
implications.
Motivational variables, then, should be examined more
extensively
as intervening variables in a multivariate model. Some research
has, in fact, found Conscientiousness to influence performance
through its effects on such motivational variables as
performance
expectancies, self-efficacy, and goal setting (Barrick, Mount, &
Strauss, 1993; Gellatly, 1996; Martocchio & Judge, 1997).
Better
explication of this nomological network for different
conceptual-
izations of the personality domain (e.g., narrower facets or Big
Five dimensions other than Conscientiousness) and for different
47. dimensions of j o b performance may aid in a better
understanding
of how personality affects j o b performance. With better
identifi-
cation of intervening variables, the total effects of personality
on
j o b performance may emerge more strongly than the simple
biva-
riate correlation coefficient has demonstrated.
Finally, for the sake of understanding the impact of personality
on j o b performance, it would also be interesting to explore
these
relations using alternative measurement methods. Mount,
Barrick,
and Strauss (1994), for example, presented some evidence that
supervisor, coworker, and customer ratings of personality
consis-
tently had equivalent or higher levels of criterion-related
validity
in comparison with employees' self-reports. Although the
practice
of using rating sources other than oneself is not likely to be
adopted in personnel selection practice, such alternative
measure-
ment methods could help gain a better understanding of the
aspects
of personality that affect performance.
Limitations
At least two limitations of the current meta-analysis should be
pointed out. First, several of our moderator analyses were based
on
a relatively small n u m b e r of correlations, especially for the
48. man-
agerial occupation category and for training proficiency. This
renders any conclusions based on these moderator categories
ten-
uous. It is especially unfortunate that so little research has been
published using managers, because clarification on the impact
of
the Big Five for this occupation would be beneficial for
selection
research and practice.
Second, our categorization of j o b performance dimensions
into
task performance, j o b dedication, and interpersonal
facilitation
could be criticized on the same grounds that we used to criticize
the earlier meta-analyses for their categorization of personality
measures into the Big Five. Perhaps as the body of research on
dimensions of j o b performance develops, an assessment of the
predictability of these or other performance dimensions using a
priori measures of the relevant dimensions can be undertaken so
as
to avoid any problems with this type of classification procedure.
Given that we found few effects of such potential for
classification
errors on the resulting validities for the Big Five, we may be
able
to predict that such an analysis would yield results that differ
little
from those we obtained in this study. However, this is an
empirical
question that would need to be addressed directly in future
research.
Conclusions
49. In summary, the present meta-analysis provides a review of the
criterion-related validities of the Big Five personality
dimensions,
as measured by scales that were developed explicitly according
to
the five-factor model. Although we have interpreted this
evidence
of the criterion-related validity of Conscientiousness somewhat
less optimistically than many researchers have tended to do in
recent years, we nevertheless suggest that the potential exists
for
improving the validity of personality predictors. We encourage
future research aimed at theory-based matching of personality
constructs and dimensions of j o b performance, perhaps using
composites of narrower Big Five facets. We also encourage re-
search aimed at building a more extensive multivariate model of
the personality-job performance relation.
We conclude that global measures of the Conscientiousness
dimension have a rather moderate impact on performance, al-
though this validity does appear rather stable and generalizable
across occupations and criteria. Although they are less
generaliz-
able, we also conclude that personality traits other than
Conscien-
tiousness are nearly equally important for certain occupations
and
criteria. Our hope is that the results of this review encourage
realistic expectations about the potential contribution of
Consci-
entiousness measures to selection utility and encourage further
878 HURTZ AND DONOVAN
50. e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y
v a r i a b l e s o n j o b p e r f o r -
m a n c e b e y o n d t h e g l o b a l C o n s c i e n t i o u s n
e s s d i m e n s i o n .
R e f e r e n c e s
R e f e r e n c e s m a r k e d w i t h a n a s t e r i s k i n d i c
a t e s t u d i e s t h a t c o n -
t r i b u t e d a v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t to t h e m e t a
- a n a l y s i s .
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five
personality dimen-
sions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel
Psychology, 44,
1-26.
*Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1993). Autonomy as a
moderator o f the
relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and
job
performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 111-118.
*Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1996). Effects o f impression
manage-
ment and self-deception on the predictive validity o f
personality con-
structs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 261-272.
*Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Strauss, J. P. (1993).
Conscientiousness
and performance o f sales representatives: Test of the
mediating effects
51. o f goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 715-722.
*Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Strauss, J. P. (1994).
Antecedents o f
involuntary turnover due to a reduction in force. Personnel
Psychol-
ogy, 47, 515-535.
Behling, O. (1998). Employee selection: Will intelligence and
conscien-
tiousness do the job? Academy of Management Executive, 12,
77-86.
Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the
criterion
domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N.
Schmitt &
W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations (pp.
71-98).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1997). Task performance
and con-
textual performance: The meaning for personnel selection
research.
Human Performance, 10, 99-109.
Campbell, J. P. (1990). Modeling the performance prediction
problem in
industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette &
L. M.
Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational
psychology
(2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 687-732). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists
Press.
52. *Cellar, D. F., DeGrendel, D. J. D., Klawsky, J. D., & Miller,
M. L. (1996).
The validity of personality, service orientation, and reading
comprehen-
sion measures as predictors o f flight attendant training
performance.
Journal of Business and Psychology, 11, 43-55.
*Cellar, D. F., Miller, M. L., Doverspike, D. D., & Klawsky, J.
D. (1996).
Comparison o f factor structures and criterion related validity
coefficients
for two measures o f personality based on the five factor
model. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 81, 694-704.
Christiansen, N. D., Goffin, R. D., Johnston, N. G., &
Rothstein, M. G.
(1994). Correcting the 16PF for faking: Effects on criterion-
related
validity and individual hiring decisions. Personnel Psychology,
47,
847- 860.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral
sciences
(2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO
Personality
Inventory (NEO-P1-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-
FF1) pro-
fessional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment
Resources.
53. *Crant, J. M. (1995). The Proactive Personality Scale and
objective job
performance among real estate agents. Journal of Applied
Psychol-
ogy, 80, 532-537.
Day, D. V., & Silverman, S. B. (1989). Personality and job
performance:
Evidence of incremental validity. Personnel Psychology, 42, 25-
36.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence o f the
five-factor
model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417- 440.
Ellingson, J. E., Sackett, P. R., & Hough, L. M. (1999). Social
desirability
corrections in personality measurement: Issues o f applicant
comparison
and construct validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 155-
166.
Gellatly, I. R. (1996). Conscientiousness and task performance:
Test o f a
cognitive process model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 4 7
4 - 4 8 2 .
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers o f the
big-five factor
structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 2 6 - 4 2 .
Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure o f phenotypic
personality traits.
American Psychologist, 48, 26-34.
Guion, R. M., & Gottier, R. F. (1965). Validity of personality
54. measures in
personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 18, 135-164.
Hattrup, K., Rock, J., & Scalia, C. (1997). The effects o f
varying concep-
tualizations of job performance on adverse impact, minority
hiring, and
predicted performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 656-
664.
*Hayes, T. L., Roehm, H. A., & Castellano, J. P. (1994).
Personality
correlates o f success in total quality manufacturing. Journal of
Business
and Psychology, 8, 397-411.
Hofstee, W. K. B., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. (1992).
Integration o f
the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure.
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 146-163.
Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (1995). Hogan Personality Inventory
manual.
Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems.
Hogan, R., Hogan, J., & Roberts, B. W. (1996). Personality
measurement
and employment decisions: Questions and answers. American
Psychol-
ogist, 51, 469-477.
Hogan, J., & Ones, D. S. (1997). Conscientiousness and
integrity at work.
In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of
personality
55. psychology (pp. 849-870). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
*Hogan, J., Rybicki, S. L., Motowidlo, S. J., & Borman, W. C.
(1998).
Relations between contextual performance, personality, and
occupa-
tional advancement. Human Performance, 11, 189-207.
Hough, L. M. (1992). The "Big Five" personality variables-
construct
confusion: Description versus prediction. Human Performance,
5, 139-
155.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods ofmeta-
analysis: Cor-
recting error and bias in research findings. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Judiesch, M. K. (1990).
Individual
differences in output variability as a function of job complexity.
Journal
of Applied Psychology, 75, 2 8 - 4 3 .
Iaffaldano, M. T., & Muchinsky, P. M. (1985). Job satisfaction
and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-
273.
*Jacobs, R. R., Conte, J. M., Day, D. V., Silva, J. M., & Harris,
R. (1996).
Selecting bus drivers: Multiple predictors, multiple perspectives
on
validity, and multiple estimates o f utility. Human
Performance, 9, 199-
56. 217.
John, O. P. (1990). The "Big Five" factor taxonomy:
Dimensions o f
personality in the natural language and in questionnaires. In L.
A. Pervin
(Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 66-
100).
New York: Guilford.
Johnson, J. A., & Ostendorf, F. (1993). Clarification o f the
five-factor
model with the abridged Big Five dimensional circumplex.
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 563-576.
*Kolz, A. R., Cardillo, E. P., & Pena, S. A. (1998, April).
Cognitive ability
and personality as predictors of performance and
counterproductive
behavior. Paper presented at the annual conference o f the
Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.
Law, K. S., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1994). A test of two
refinements in procedures for meta-analysis. Journal c~"
Applied Psy-
chology, 79, 978-986.
*Lyne, R., Sinclair, R. R., & Gerhold, C. (1997, April).
Personality and job
performance: Matching predictor and criterion domains. Paper
pre-
sented at the annual conference o f the Society for Industrial
and Orga-
nizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.
57. *Mabon, H. (1998). Utility aspects of personality and
performance. Human
Performance, 11, 289-304.
*Martocchio, J. J., & Judge, T. A. (1997). Relationship between
consci-
entiousness and learning in employee training: Mediating
influences of
BIG FIVE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 879
self-deception and self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Psychology,
82,
764 -773.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (1994). Evidence that
task perfor-
mance should be distinguished from contextual performance.
Journal of
Applied Psychology, 79, 4 7 5 - 4 8 0 .
Mount, M. K., & Barrick, M. R. (1995). The Big Five
personality dimen-
sions: Implications for research and practice in human resources
man-
agement. In K. M. Rowland & G. Fen-is (Eds.), Research in
personnel
and human resources management (Vol. 13, pp. 153-200).
Greenwich,
CT: JAI Press.
*Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Stewart, G. L. (1998). Five-
factor model
58. of personality and performance in jobs involving interpersonal
interac-
tions. Human Performance, 11, 145-165.
*Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Strauss, J. P. (1994). Validity
of
observer ratings of the Big Five personality factors. Journal of
Applied
Psychology, 79, 272-280.
Murphy, K. R., & Shiarella, H. (1997). Implications of the
multidimen-
sional nature of job performance for the validity of selection
tests:
Multivariate frameworks for studying test validity. Personnel
Psychol-
ogy, 50, 823-854.
Ones, D. S., Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Hunter, J. E.
(1994).
Personality and j o b performance: A critique of the Tett,
Jackson, and
Rothstein (1991) meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 47, 147-
156.
*Piedmont, R. L., & Weinstein, H. P. (1994). Predicting
supervisor ratings
of job performance using the NEO Personality Inventory.
Journal of
Psychology, 128, 255-265.
*Robie, C., & Ryan, A. M. (1998, April). Effects of non-
linearity and
heteroscedasticity on the validity of conscientiousness in
predicting
overall job performance. Paper presented at the annual
59. conference of the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas,
TX.
*Rose, R. M., Fogg, L. F., Helmreich, R. L., & McFadden, T. J.
(1994).
Psychological predictors of astronaut effectiveness. Aviation,
Space, and
Environmental Medicine, 65, 9 1 0 - 9 1 5 .
Rosse, J. G., Miller, H. E., & Barnes, L. K. (1991). Combining
personality
and cognitive ability predictors for hiring service-oriented
employees.
Journal of Business and Psychology, 5, 4 3 1 - 4 4 5 .
Rosse, J. G., Miller, J. L., & Stecher, M. D. (1994). A field
study of job
applicants' reactions to personality and cognitive ability testing.
Journal
of Applied Psychology, 79, 987-992.
Rosse, J. G., Stecher, M. D., Miller, J. L., & Levin, R. A.
(1998). The
impact of response distortion on preemployment personality
testing and
hiring decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 6 3 4 - 6 4
4 .
Rothstein, H. R. (1990). Interrater reliability of job performance
ratings:
Growth to asymptote level with increasing opportunity to
observe.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 322-327.
Ryan, A. M., Ployhart, R. E., & Friedel, L. A. (1998). Using
60. personality
testing to reduce adverse impact: A cautionary note. Journal of
Applied
Psychology, 83, 2 9 8 - 3 0 7 .
*Rybicki, S. L., & Klippel, D. C. (1997, April). Exploring the
impact of
personality syndromes on job performance. Poster session
presented at
the 12th annual convention for the Society of Industrial and
Organiza-
tional Psychology, St. Louis, MO.
Salgado, J. F. (1997). The five factor model of personality and j
o b perfor-
mance in the European community. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 82,
3 0 - 4 3 .
*Salgado, J. F., & Rumbo, A. (1997). Personality and job
performance in
financial services managers. International Journal of Selection
and
Assessment, 5, 91-99.
*Schmit, M. J., Motowidlo, S. J., Degroot, T. G., Cross, T. C.,
& Kiker,
D. S. (1996, April). Explaining the relationship between
personality and
job performance. In J. M. Collins (Chair), Personality predictors
of job
performance: Controversial issues. Symposium conducted at the
annual
convention for the Society of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology,
61. San Diego, CA.
Schmitt, N. W., Gooding, R. Z., Noe, R. A., & Kirsch, M.
(1984).
Meta-analyses o f validity studies published between 1964 and
1982 and
the investigation of study characteristics. Personnel Psychology,
37,
4 0 7 - 4 2 2 .
Schmitt, N., Rogers, W., Chan, D., Sheppard, L., & Jennings, D.
(1997).
Adverse impact and predictive efficiency of various predictor
combina-
tions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 7 1 9 - 7 3 0 .
Steiner, D. D., & Gilliland, S. W. (1996). Fairness reactions to
personnel
selection techniques in France and the United States. Journal of
Applied
Psychology, 81, 134-141.
*Stewart, G. L. (1996). Reward structure as a moderator of the
relationship
between extraversion and sales performance. Journal of Applied
Psy-
chology, 81, 6 1 9 - 6 2 7 .
*Stewart, G. L. (1997, August). Applicants versus incumbents:
Assessing
the impact of validation design on personality research. In N.
Schmitt
(Chair), Relating personality to job attitudes and job
performance.
Symposium conducted at the 1997 Annual Meeting of the
Academy of
62. Management, Boston.
*Stewart, G. L., & Carson, K. P. (1995). Personality dimensions
and
domains of service performance: A field investigation. Journal
of Busi-
ness and Psychology, 9, 365-378.
*Stewart, G. L., Carson, K. P., & Cardy, R. L. (1996). The joint
effects of
conscientiousness and self-leadership training on employee self-
directed
behavior in a service setting. Personnel Psychology, 49, 143-
164.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality
measures
as predictors of job performance: A meta-analytic review.
Personnel
Psychology, 44, 703-742.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., Rothstein, M., & Reddon, J. R.
(1994).
Meta-analysis of personality-job performance relations: A reply
to
Ones, Mount, Barrick, and Hunter (1994). Personnel
Psychology, 47,
157-172.
*Van Scotter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1996). Interpersonal
facilitation
and j o b dedication as separate facets of contextual
performance. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 81, 525-531.
Whitener, E. M. (1990). Confusion of confidence intervals and
63. credibility
intervals in meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75,
315-321.
R e c e i v e d N o v e m b e r 30, 1 9 9 8
R e v i s i o n r e c e i v e d N o v e m b e r 8, 1 9 9 9
A c c e p t e d N o v e m b e r 11, 1 9 9 9 •