Is There a Need for a New Environmental Ethic?
By Richard Sylvan
This essay was originally published in Proceedings of the XII World Congress of Philosophy,
No. 1. Varna, Bulgaria, 1973, pp. 205-210.
Richard Sylvan (formerly Routley) was a fellow of the Research School of Social Sciences at the
Australian National University in Canberra.
It is increasingly said that civilization, Western civilization at least, stands in need of a new ethic
(and derivatively of a new economics) setting out people's relations to the natural environment,
in Leopold's words "an ethic dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants
which grow upon it."[1] It is not of course that old and prevailing ethics do not deal with man's
relation to nature; they do, and on the prevailing view man is free to deal with nature as he
pleases, i.e., his relations with nature, insofar at least as they do not affect others, are not subject
to moral censure. Thus assertions such as "Crusoe ought not to be mutilating those trees" are
significant and morally determinate but, inasmuch at least as Crusoe's actions do not interfere
with others, they are false or do not hold -- and trees are not, in a good sense, moral objects.[2] It
is to this, to the values and evaluations of the prevailing ethics, that Leopold and others in fact
take exception. Leopold regards as subject to moral criticism, as wrong, behaviour that on
prevailing views is morally permissible. But it is not, as Leopold seems to think, that such
behaviour is beyond the scope of the prevailing ethics and that an extension of traditional
morality is required to cover such cases, to fill a moral void. If Leopold is right in his criticism of
prevailing conduct what is required is a change in the ethics, in attitudes, values and evaluations.
For as matters stand, as he himself explains, men do not feel morally ashamed if they interfere
with a wilderness, if they maltreat the land, extract from it whatever it will yield, and then move
on; and such conduct is not taken to interfere with and does not rouse the moral indignation of
others. "A farmer who clears the woods off a 75% slope, turns his cows into the clearing, and
dumps its rainfall, rocks, and soil into the community creek, is still (if otherwise decent) a
respected member of society."[3] Under what we shall call an environmental ethic such
traditionally permissible conduct would be accounted morally wrong, and the farmer subject to
proper moral criticism.
Let us grant such evaluations for the purpose of the argument. What is not so clear is that a new
ethic is required even for such radical judgments. For one thing it is none too clear what is going
to count as a new ethic, much as it is often unclear whether a new development in physics counts
as a new physics or just as a modification or extension of the old. For, notoriously, ethics are not
clearly articulated or at all well worked out, so that the appli.
Geography, value paradigms and environmental justice lynnFábio Coltro
1) The document discusses whether environmental justice is inherently anthropocentric, or only values human well-being. It argues that while environmental justice focuses on human impacts, it does not need to be exclusively anthropocentric.
2) A non-anthropocentric view of environmental justice recognizes moral value in non-human animals and nature. This would mean considering justice for environmental harms to animals and habitats.
3) Taking a non-anthropocentric approach could help environmental justice and nature advocacy groups find common ground, by sharing a moral concern for both human and non-human well-being.
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics as an academic discipline. It discusses: (1) how environmental ethics challenges anthropocentrism in traditional Western ethics by arguing that non-human entities have intrinsic moral value; (2) the early development of environmental ethics in the 1960s-70s, sparked by works highlighting environmental crises; and (3) key debates around assigning intrinsic versus instrumental value to the natural world.
The document discusses three main approaches to environmental ethics: anthropocentric, sentientist, and biocentric. It provides details on the
anthropocentric view, which believes nature exists to satisfy human interests and harming the environment is only bad if it also harms humans. The
document also discusses William Baxter, a proponent of the anthropocentric approach, and his views that living in a clean environment is not a clear
goal and clear goals are needed to address environmental issues.
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This document discusses how concepts of creation order and eschatological hope can help form an ethical response to current financial, economic, and ecological crises. It explores how creation order, as discussed in reformational philosophy, and concepts of cosmos and eschatology in eco-theology, can provide important resources for constructing a Christian environmental ethic. While creation order and universal revelation are contested ideas theologically, properly understanding humanity's role in creation through Christ-centered ethics may help address criticisms and formulate responses to the crises. The document aims to contribute to the development of a conceptual framework on these topics.
Outlines on environmental philosophy part 2Steven Ghezzo
The document discusses environmental and cultural limits. It summarizes that Western civilization often does not respect physical limits imposed by the biosphere. It analyzes the industrial revolution as a prominent cause of global environmental harm and the speeds of current harm as needing radical changes. It investigates Illich's model of multidimensional equilibrium and suitable human and natural scales. It advocates for greater psychological investigation in environmental decision making and examines the steady state economy model.
1. The document discusses the emergence of environmental ethics as a new field in philosophy in the 1970s in response to growing concerns about the environmental crisis and humanity's relationship with nature.
2. It explores early influences on the field like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring and Lynn White Jr.'s argument that Judeo-Christian traditions encouraged domination of nature. It also discusses key figures who advocated extending moral consideration to the environment like Aldo Leopold.
3. Richard Routley and others argued against traditional anthropocentrism, proposing that natural entities have intrinsic value independent of their usefulness to humans. This challenged the field to develop new ethical theories justifying environmental protection.
Ethics is a system of moral principles and the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc. research is steady progress by which we have gained a better understanding, greater ability of prediction and ever-increasing control over the world.
Geography, value paradigms and environmental justice lynnFábio Coltro
1) The document discusses whether environmental justice is inherently anthropocentric, or only values human well-being. It argues that while environmental justice focuses on human impacts, it does not need to be exclusively anthropocentric.
2) A non-anthropocentric view of environmental justice recognizes moral value in non-human animals and nature. This would mean considering justice for environmental harms to animals and habitats.
3) Taking a non-anthropocentric approach could help environmental justice and nature advocacy groups find common ground, by sharing a moral concern for both human and non-human well-being.
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics as an academic discipline. It discusses: (1) how environmental ethics challenges anthropocentrism in traditional Western ethics by arguing that non-human entities have intrinsic moral value; (2) the early development of environmental ethics in the 1960s-70s, sparked by works highlighting environmental crises; and (3) key debates around assigning intrinsic versus instrumental value to the natural world.
The document discusses three main approaches to environmental ethics: anthropocentric, sentientist, and biocentric. It provides details on the
anthropocentric view, which believes nature exists to satisfy human interests and harming the environment is only bad if it also harms humans. The
document also discusses William Baxter, a proponent of the anthropocentric approach, and his views that living in a clean environment is not a clear
goal and clear goals are needed to address environmental issues.
A Natural Quot Benchmark Quot For Ecosystem FunctionAndrew Molina
The document discusses the concept of "natural" as a benchmark for evaluating ecosystem function and management options. It argues that the term "natural" lacks clear meaning and cannot offer a definitive benchmark for several reasons: 1) All human activities are based on natural processes; 2) There is no way to clearly distinguish human-induced from naturally-induced processes; 3) Novelty can occur through both human and natural causes, so it does not indicate what is truly natural. Instead of relying on the ambiguous term "natural", the author argues criteria should be based on maintaining ecosystems' ability to sustain life and preventing environmental deterioration.
Notes Presentation: How can the concepts of creation order and eschatological...Martin de Wit
This document discusses how concepts of creation order and eschatological hope can help form an ethical response to current financial, economic, and ecological crises. It explores how creation order, as discussed in reformational philosophy, and concepts of cosmos and eschatology in eco-theology, can provide important resources for constructing a Christian environmental ethic. While creation order and universal revelation are contested ideas theologically, properly understanding humanity's role in creation through Christ-centered ethics may help address criticisms and formulate responses to the crises. The document aims to contribute to the development of a conceptual framework on these topics.
Outlines on environmental philosophy part 2Steven Ghezzo
The document discusses environmental and cultural limits. It summarizes that Western civilization often does not respect physical limits imposed by the biosphere. It analyzes the industrial revolution as a prominent cause of global environmental harm and the speeds of current harm as needing radical changes. It investigates Illich's model of multidimensional equilibrium and suitable human and natural scales. It advocates for greater psychological investigation in environmental decision making and examines the steady state economy model.
1. The document discusses the emergence of environmental ethics as a new field in philosophy in the 1970s in response to growing concerns about the environmental crisis and humanity's relationship with nature.
2. It explores early influences on the field like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring and Lynn White Jr.'s argument that Judeo-Christian traditions encouraged domination of nature. It also discusses key figures who advocated extending moral consideration to the environment like Aldo Leopold.
3. Richard Routley and others argued against traditional anthropocentrism, proposing that natural entities have intrinsic value independent of their usefulness to humans. This challenged the field to develop new ethical theories justifying environmental protection.
Ethics is a system of moral principles and the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc. research is steady progress by which we have gained a better understanding, greater ability of prediction and ever-increasing control over the world.
Environmental ethics examines the moral relationship between humans and the environment. It considers how ethical principles like justice, sustainability, sufficiency, compassion, solidarity, and participation can guide environmental decision-making and behavior. Applying these principles involves considering all stakeholders affected by an issue, including future generations, other species, and ecosystems. It also means ensuring all parties, especially vulnerable groups, can meaningfully participate in decisions that impact them. Overall, environmental ethics aims to promote equitable, sustainable, and compassionate treatment of both humans and non-humans.
This essay discusses environmental ethics and the responsibility of the present generation to protect the environment. The author argues that current environmental damage is largely due to past generations, so the solution must start with the present generation. The essay notes several environmental issues facing the planet, such as global warming and population growth, and argues that humans must change their actions to prevent worse conditions for future generations. Failing to act will only make problems worse over time.
This document provides an outline and summary of key topics in modern ethical theory:
1. It defines ethics as rules of conduct that prescribe what is morally right and wrong according to a social system, culture, or philosophical school. It compares ethics to morals.
2. It examines how ethics relates and compares to other fields that study human behavior and societies, such as psychology, sociology, logic, anthropology, and moral theology.
3. It discusses perspectives on the basis of morality, including that man is uniquely capable of distinguishing right from wrong, and theories that morality stems from reason, compassion, or evolutionary traits like empathy.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND AWARENESS - PresentationTaruna Deshwal
The document discusses several topics related to environmental issues:
1) Animal ethics examines how humans should treat animals. It includes debates around animal rights, welfare, and testing. Theories of ethics like utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics are applied.
2) Biocentrism holds that all living things have equal intrinsic value. It challenges human exceptionalism and views humans as interdependent with nature. The theory of biocentrism proposes that life created the universe.
3) Ecocentrism sees the biosphere as the source of all life and values ecosystems over human needs. It believes ecosystems have intrinsic worth regardless of human use.
4) Poverty and environmental problems are
This document discusses various approaches to ethical reasoning including idealism, relativism, teleology/consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. It explores how individuals and companies make decisions about right and wrong based on these different philosophical approaches. Additionally, it examines how cultural context can influence ethical judgments and outlines challenges with finding universal moral standards.
Virtue ethics focuses on developing good character and moral virtues rather than rules or consequences. This essay discusses virtue ethics and how developing the virtue of patience is important for overcoming obstacles in life. The author has chosen to work on being more patient, as it is a virtue that can help deal with challenges of the present day, such as peer pressure. According to Aristotle, every virtue has a vice of excess or deficit, and patience falls in between the extremes of indifference and irritability. The author's dog helps remind them to remain patient in the mornings.
Ethics is defined as the science that judges human conduct in society as right or wrong. As human societies developed, ethical rules were established to help ensure sustainable life. Environmental ethics then emerged as a field recognizing that ethics should consider the non-human world and humans' influence on a large scale of disciplines. It aims to establish norms for humans' conduct regarding both other humans and non-human animals and the environment, recognizing their interdependence for life on Earth.
Ethics concept series by Tirthankar Roychowdhary Sir. Follow the set of 8 articles... and stay connected to daily updates on the EDEN IAS website (www.edenias.com) & Telegram channel.
https://edenias.com/
https://edenias.com/ethics-course-by-tirthankar-sir-batch-starts-by-12th-october
Cultural relativism poses a challenge to the possibility of ethics by claiming that:
1) Different cultures have differing moral codes, so what is right/wrong depends on the particular culture.
2) There are no objective moral standards that apply universally across cultures.
3) We should tolerate the moral beliefs of other cultures and not impose our own standards.
However, critics argue that cultural relativism is flawed because:
1) Moral differences may be due to non-moral beliefs/circumstances rather than genuine differences.
2) The diversity of beliefs does not prove no objective truth exists or that all beliefs are equally valid.
3) Relativism undermines its own principle of tolerance by
6th International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC 2016 Integrative Risk Management - Towards Resilient Cities. 28 August - 01 September 2016 in Davos, Switzerland
This document provides an analysis of the environmental ethic of the U.S. government as demonstrated through key policies and the missions of major environmental agencies. It finds that the U.S. practices a holistic, anthropocentric approach. National policies like NEPA, the Clean Water Act, and Clean Air Act value the environment for its benefits to human health, economy and future generations. Agencies like the EPA, USFWS and USFS have missions centered around protecting natural resources and wildlife for their sustainable use by Americans now and in the future. They manage the environment as an interconnected system to achieve these human-centered goals.
This document discusses environmental ethics and provides definitions of key concepts. It begins by stating that ethics are important for development and societies without ethical principles can experience moral decay. It then defines concepts like values, morals, environment, ecology, ecosystem, and different perspectives on environmental ethics like anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. The document examines environmental ethics as the application of ethical standards to human relationships with the environment and poses example ethical dilemmas. It explores expanding ethical consideration to include animals, communities, and nature. In closing, it recommends developing a holistic perspective that preserves ecological connections.
Here are the questions from the passage:
1. What are the two main lessons we should learn from cultural relativism according to the author?
The two main lessons are:
1) Cultural relativism warns us that not all of our practices are based on some absolute rational standard, and some are merely conventional to our society.
2) Cultural relativism keeps an open mind and reminds us that our feelings are not necessarily perceptions of truth, but may be due to cultural conditioning. This helps broaden our minds.
2. How does the author say we can understand the appeal of cultural relativism despite its shortcomings?
The author says we can understand the appeal of cultural relativism despite its shortcomings
Bioethics examines major ethical theories that can provide principles for making moral decisions in medical contexts. These include utilitarianism, deontology, Rawls' theory of justice, natural law ethics, virtue ethics, and care ethics. Utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their consequences and producing the greatest good. Deontology focuses on duties and rules. Rawls combines aspects of utilitarianism and deontology. Natural law ethics and virtue ethics determine rightness based on human nature and character respectively. Care ethics prioritizes caring relationships in decision making. The document then provides examples of applying some of these theories to specific medical cases and dilemmas in bioethics.
A Utilitarian Perspective On Business EthicsJoe Andelija
This document provides an overview of utilitarianism and business ethics from a utilitarian perspective. It discusses the meaning and origins of utilitarianism, which stems from the works of Jeremy Bentham and William Stanley Jevons. It then uses the example of the Ford Pinto, where the car's rushed development process prioritized style over safety, resulting in vulnerable gas tanks that could rupture in rear-end collisions. The document examines the moral responsibility of Ford in this case from a utilitarian standpoint of weighing costs and benefits. Overall, the summary introduces utilitarianism and applies its principles to analyze an example of questionable business decisions and their ethical implications.
1. Andrew Light argues that environmental ethics should take a more pragmatic approach and embrace both biocentric and anthropocentric views to engage the public on environmental issues. This will make environmental ethics more accessible and allow environmental philosophers to better persuade people.
2. Ramachandra Guha provides a developing world perspective on environmental ethics, arguing that Western conservation models can harm indigenous communities. Sustainability approaches must consider how local human populations interact with nature.
3. Brian Walker and David Salt introduce resilience thinking, which focuses on systems' ability to withstand disturbances rather than optimization. Considering interconnected social and ecological systems can increase nature's value and support sustainability.
This document provides an audit course report on professional ethics and etiquette submitted for a third year computer engineering course. It begins with an acknowledgment thanking those who provided guidance during the course. The introduction defines ethics and etiquette. The objectives of professional ethics and etiquette are outlined. The scope of study for ethics and etiquette is explained, covering moral, social, religious, and political spheres for ethics and types of etiquette. A literature review discusses the importance and evolution of etiquette. The conclusion emphasizes that professional ethics express the values of a profession and etiquette produces a respectful work environment. References are provided.
Here are the key points made in the passages:
Singer: Pacifists view the use of violence as absolutely wrong regardless of consequences. This assumes a distinction between acts (using violence) and omissions (not using violence).
Thomson: Introduces the violinist thought experiment where a person is hooked up to a famous unconscious violinist who will die if unplugged. The doctor says it's only for 9 months. Thomson asks if one is obligated to remain hooked up for that time against their will.
The passages present contrasting views on moral obligations and consequences. Singer questions an absolute prohibition on violence by pointing to consequences. Thomson uses a thought experiment to question if we have an obligation to aid
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics. It begins by defining what environmental ethics is and is not. It then discusses some key concepts in ethics like anthropocentrism. Much of environmental ethics can be summarized by a diagram called the "Environmental Ethics Rectangle" which outlines different approaches. The document discusses several influential thinkers in environmental ethics like Singer, Regan, Taylor and their ideas. It also discusses how a virtue ethics approach could frame environmental issues and provides some practical suggestions from pragmatist philosophers on developing an environmental ethics.
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics. It begins by defining what environmental ethics is and is not. It then discusses some key concepts in ethics like anthropocentrism. Much of environmental ethics can be summarized by a diagram called the "Environmental Ethics Rectangle" which outlines different approaches. The document discusses several influential thinkers in environmental ethics like Singer, Regan, Taylor and their ideas. It also discusses how a virtue ethics approach could frame environmental issues and provides some practical suggestions from pragmatist philosophers on developing an environmental ethics.
100 Original WorkZero PlagiarismGraduate Level Writing Required.docxchristiandean12115
This document provides instructions for a 1,250- to 1,400-word paper that is due on March 6, 2021. Students must choose between the topics of immigration, drug legislation, or three-strikes sentencing. For the selected topic, students must describe how each branch of the US government (executive, legislative, judicial) participates in the policy. The paper must follow APA formatting guidelines and include at least three peer-reviewed literature references, excluding sources like Wikipedia.
10.11771066480704270150THE FAMILY JOURNAL COUNSELING AND THE.docxchristiandean12115
10.1177/1066480704270150THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / January 2005Lambert / GAY AND LESBIAN FAMILIES
❖ Literature Review—Research
Gay and Lesbian Families:
What We Know and Where to Go From Here
Serena Lambert
Idaho State University
The author reviewed the research on gay and lesbian parents and
their children. The current body of research has been clear and con-
sistent in establishing that children of gay and lesbian parents are as
psychologically healthy as their peers from heterosexual homes.
However, this comparison approach to research design appears to
have limited the scope of research on gay and lesbian families, leav-
ing much of the experience of these families yet to be investigated.
Keywords: gay men; lesbians; parenting; families
The relationships and family lives of gay and lesbian peo-ple have been the focus of much controversy in the past
decade. The legal and social implications of gay and lesbian
parents appear to have clearly affected the direction that
researchers in the fields of psychology and sociology have
taken in regard to these diverse families. As clinicians, educa-
tors, and researchers, counselors need to be aware of and
involved with issues related to lesbian and gay family life for
several reasons. First, our professional code of ethics charges
us with the ethical responsibility to demonstrate a commit-
ment to gaining knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity,
and skills significant for working with diverse populations
(American Counseling Association, 1995; International
Association of Marriage and Family Counselors, n.d.). Coun-
selors are also in a unique position to advocate for diverse
clients and families in their communities as well as in their
practices but must possess the knowledge to do so effectively
(Eriksen, 1999). It is believed that work in this area not only
has the potential to affect the lives of our gay and lesbian cli-
ents and their children but also influences developmental and
family theory and informs public policies for the future
(Patterson, 1995, 2000; Savin-Williams & Esterberg, 2000).
This article will review the recent research regarding fami-
lies headed by gay men and lesbians. Studies reviewed in-
clude investigations of gay or lesbian versus homosexual par-
ents, sources of diversity among gay and lesbian parents, and
the personal and sociological development of the children of
gay and lesbian parents. Implications for counselors as well
as directions for future research will also be discussed.
GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS
How Many Are Out There?
Unfortunately, accurate statistics regarding the numbers
of families headed by gay men and lesbians in our culture are
difficult to determine. Due to fear of discrimination in one or
more aspects of their lives, many gay men and lesbians have
carefully kept their sexual orientation concealed—even from
their own children in some cases (Huggins, 1989). Patterson
(2000) noted that it is es.
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The passages present contrasting views on moral obligations and consequences. Singer questions an absolute prohibition on violence by pointing to consequences. Thomson uses a thought experiment to question if we have an obligation to aid
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics. It begins by defining what environmental ethics is and is not. It then discusses some key concepts in ethics like anthropocentrism. Much of environmental ethics can be summarized by a diagram called the "Environmental Ethics Rectangle" which outlines different approaches. The document discusses several influential thinkers in environmental ethics like Singer, Regan, Taylor and their ideas. It also discusses how a virtue ethics approach could frame environmental issues and provides some practical suggestions from pragmatist philosophers on developing an environmental ethics.
This document provides an overview of environmental ethics. It begins by defining what environmental ethics is and is not. It then discusses some key concepts in ethics like anthropocentrism. Much of environmental ethics can be summarized by a diagram called the "Environmental Ethics Rectangle" which outlines different approaches. The document discusses several influential thinkers in environmental ethics like Singer, Regan, Taylor and their ideas. It also discusses how a virtue ethics approach could frame environmental issues and provides some practical suggestions from pragmatist philosophers on developing an environmental ethics.
Similar to Is There a Need for a New Environmental Ethic By Richard Sy.docx (20)
100 Original WorkZero PlagiarismGraduate Level Writing Required.docxchristiandean12115
This document provides instructions for a 1,250- to 1,400-word paper that is due on March 6, 2021. Students must choose between the topics of immigration, drug legislation, or three-strikes sentencing. For the selected topic, students must describe how each branch of the US government (executive, legislative, judicial) participates in the policy. The paper must follow APA formatting guidelines and include at least three peer-reviewed literature references, excluding sources like Wikipedia.
10.11771066480704270150THE FAMILY JOURNAL COUNSELING AND THE.docxchristiandean12115
10.1177/1066480704270150THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / January 2005Lambert / GAY AND LESBIAN FAMILIES
❖ Literature Review—Research
Gay and Lesbian Families:
What We Know and Where to Go From Here
Serena Lambert
Idaho State University
The author reviewed the research on gay and lesbian parents and
their children. The current body of research has been clear and con-
sistent in establishing that children of gay and lesbian parents are as
psychologically healthy as their peers from heterosexual homes.
However, this comparison approach to research design appears to
have limited the scope of research on gay and lesbian families, leav-
ing much of the experience of these families yet to be investigated.
Keywords: gay men; lesbians; parenting; families
The relationships and family lives of gay and lesbian peo-ple have been the focus of much controversy in the past
decade. The legal and social implications of gay and lesbian
parents appear to have clearly affected the direction that
researchers in the fields of psychology and sociology have
taken in regard to these diverse families. As clinicians, educa-
tors, and researchers, counselors need to be aware of and
involved with issues related to lesbian and gay family life for
several reasons. First, our professional code of ethics charges
us with the ethical responsibility to demonstrate a commit-
ment to gaining knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity,
and skills significant for working with diverse populations
(American Counseling Association, 1995; International
Association of Marriage and Family Counselors, n.d.). Coun-
selors are also in a unique position to advocate for diverse
clients and families in their communities as well as in their
practices but must possess the knowledge to do so effectively
(Eriksen, 1999). It is believed that work in this area not only
has the potential to affect the lives of our gay and lesbian cli-
ents and their children but also influences developmental and
family theory and informs public policies for the future
(Patterson, 1995, 2000; Savin-Williams & Esterberg, 2000).
This article will review the recent research regarding fami-
lies headed by gay men and lesbians. Studies reviewed in-
clude investigations of gay or lesbian versus homosexual par-
ents, sources of diversity among gay and lesbian parents, and
the personal and sociological development of the children of
gay and lesbian parents. Implications for counselors as well
as directions for future research will also be discussed.
GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS
How Many Are Out There?
Unfortunately, accurate statistics regarding the numbers
of families headed by gay men and lesbians in our culture are
difficult to determine. Due to fear of discrimination in one or
more aspects of their lives, many gay men and lesbians have
carefully kept their sexual orientation concealed—even from
their own children in some cases (Huggins, 1989). Patterson
(2000) noted that it is es.
10.11771066480703252339 ARTICLETHE FAMILY JOURNAL COUNSELING.docxchristiandean12115
10.1177/1066480703252339 ARTICLETHE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / July 2003Fall, Lyons / ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
❖ Ethics
Ethical Considerations of Family Secret
Disclosure and Post-Session Safety Management
Kevin A. Fall
Christy Lyons
Loyola University—New Orleans
The ethical issues involved in the disclosure of family secrets in ther-
apy have been addressed in the literature, but the focus has typically
been on secrets disclosed in individual sessions. The literature
largely ignores the ethical issues surrounding in-session disclosure
and the concomitant liability of the family therapist for the post-ses-
sion well-being of the system’s members. This article explores types
of family secrets, provides a case example of in-session disclosure,
and presents ethical considerations and practice recommendations.
Keywords: family secrets; ethics; confidentiality; abuse; safety
A
family without secrets is like a two-year-old without
tantrums: a rarity. Virtually every family has secrets
involving academic problems, relationship dynamics, or even
various illegalities. Secrets permeate the family system
before therapy begins, but with the introduction of the thera-
pist, the system begins to change. The therapist ideally creates
an environment that challenges the boundaries and rules of
the system; this is the nature of therapy. As a result of the
sense of safety within the session, it is conceivable that a fam-
ily member may disclose information that has been hidden for
a wide variety of reasons. Any unearthing of hidden material
will create a disequilibrium within the system. Family thera-
pists are trained to handle the consequences of such a disclo-
sure in session and ethically lay the groundwork for timely
disclosures. Dealing with this disclosure and its impact on the
system often becomes the primary focus of the therapy, as the
perturbation caused by the disclosure can serve as a catalyst to
reorganize the system.
However, not all information is disclosed at the “perfect
time.” In fact, the idiosyncratic internal sensing of safety by
any member of the family may trigger a disclosure prema-
turely. Secrets are such an omnipresent dynamic in the life of
family systems that it seems unlikely that any family therapist
could avoid untimely disclosures. Even in these unpredict-
able moments, a disclosure creates a disequilibrium that can
be productive in the therapy process as the secret and the pro-
cess of maintaining the secret are worked through in an
atmosphere of trust and safety. The ethical question here is
two-fold: What is the therapist’s responsibility in preparing
the family members for the potential risks of counseling that
may arise from such disclosures, and what is the responsibil-
ity of the family therapist to maintain the safety of the mem-
bers after a disclosure?
Although the International Association of Marriage and
Family Counselors’ (IAMFC).
10.11770022427803260263ARTICLEJOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AN.docxchristiandean12115
This document summarizes competing theories on whether the perceived risk of punishment deters criminally prone individuals from committing crimes. It discusses three main perspectives: 1) that all individuals are equally deterred regardless of criminal propensity, 2) that criminally prone individuals are less deterred due to their impulsivity and focus on immediate gratification, and 3) that criminally prone individuals are more deterred since socialized individuals act based on moral obligations rather than costs/benefits. The article then analyzes data from a longitudinal study in New Zealand to test the relationship between criminal propensity, perceived punishment risks, and criminal behavior.
10.11770022487105285962Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57,.docxchristiandean12115
10.1177/0022487105285962Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. XX, XXX/XXX 2006Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. XX, XXX/XXX 2006
CONSTRUCTING 21st-CENTURY TEACHER EDUCATION
Linda Darling-Hammond
Stanford University
Much of what teachers need to know to be successful is invisible to lay observers, leading to the view
that teaching requires little formal study and to frequent disdain for teacher education programs. The
weakness of traditional program models that are collections of largely unrelated courses reinforce this
low regard. This article argues that we have learned a great deal about how to create stronger, more ef-
fective teacher education programs. Three critical components of such programs include tight coher-
ence and integration among courses and between course work and clinical work in schools, extensive
and intensely supervised clinical work integrated with course work using pedagogies linking theory
and practice, and closer, proactive relationships with schools that serve diverse learners effectively
and develop and model good teaching. Also, schools of education should resist pressures to water
down preparation, which ultimately undermine the preparation of entering teachers, the reputation
of schools of education, and the strength of the profession.
Keywords: field-based experiences; foundations of education; student teaching; supervision; theo-
ries of teacher education
The previous articles have articulated a spectac-
ular array of things that teachers should know
and be able to do in their work. These include
understanding many things about how people
learn and how to teach effectively, including as-
pects of pedagogical content knowledge that in-
corporate language, culture, and community
contexts for learning. Teachers also need to un-
derstand the person, the spirit, of every child
and find a way to nurture that spirit. And they
need the skills to construct and manage class-
room activities efficiently, communicate well,
use technology, and reflect on their practice to
learn from and improve it continually.
The importance of powerful teaching is
increasingly important in contemporary soci-
ety. Standards for learning are now higher than
they have ever been before, as citizens and
workers need greater knowledge and skill to
survive and succeed. Education is increasingly
important to the success of both individuals and
nations, and growing evidence demonstrates
that—among all educational resources—teach-
ers’ abilities are especially crucial contributors
t o s t u d e n t s ’ le a r n i n g . F u r t h e r m o re , t h e
demands on teachers are increasing. Teachers
need not only to be able to keep order and pro-
vide useful information to students but also to
be increasingly effective in enabling a diverse
group of students to learn ever more complex
material. In previous decades, they were
expected to prepare only a small minority for
ambitious intellectual work, whereas they are
now expected to prep.
10.1 What are three broad mechanisms that malware can use to propa.docxchristiandean12115
10.1 What are three broad mechanisms that malware can use to propagate?
10.2 What are four broad categories of payloads that malware may carry?
10.3 What are typical phases of operation of a virus or worm?
10.4 What mechanisms can a virus use to conceal itself?
10.5 What is the difference between machine-executable and macro viruses?
10.6 What means can a worm use to access remote systems to propagate?
10.7 What is a “drive-by-download” and how does it differ from a worm?
10.8 What is a “logic bomb”?
10.9 Differentiate among the following: a backdoor, a bot, a keylogger, spyware, and a rootkit? Can they all be present in the same malware?
10.10 List some of the different levels in a system that a rootkit may use.
10.11 Describe some malware countermeasure elements.
10.12 List three places malware mitigation mechanisms may be located.
10.13 Briefly describe the four generations of antivirus software.
10.14 How does behavior-blocking software work?
10.15 What is a distributed denial-of-service system?
.
10.0 ptsPresentation of information was exceptional and included.docxchristiandean12115
10.0 pts
Presentation of information was exceptional and included all of the following elements: Identifies the role of concept analysis within theory development. Identifies the selected nursing concept. Identifies the nursing theory from which the selected concept was obtained. A nursing theory was used. Identifies the sections of the paper. Scholarly support from nursing literature was provided.
9.0 pts
Presentation of information was good, but was superficial in places and included all of the following elements: Identifies the role of concept analysis within theory development. Identifies the selected nursing concept. Identifies the nursing theory from which the selected concept was obtained. A nursing theory was used. Identifies the sections of the paper. Scholarly support from nursing literature was provided.
8.0 pts
Presentation of information was minimally demonstrated in the all of the following elements: Identifies the role of concept analysis within theory development. Identifies the selected nursing concept. Identifies the nursing theory from which the selected concept was obtained. A nursing theory was used. Identifies the sections of the paper. Limited scholarly support from nursing literature was provided.
4.0 pts
Presentation of information in one or two of the following elements fails to meet expectations: Identifies the role of concept analysis within theory development. Identifies the selected nursing concept. Identifies the nursing theory from which the selected concept was obtained. A nursing theory was used. Identifies the sections of the paper. Limited or no scholarly support from nursing literature was provided.
0.0 pts
Presentation of information is unsatisfactory in three or more of the following elements: Identifies the role of concept analysis within theory development. Identifies the selected nursing concept. Identifies the nursing theory from which the selected concept was obtained. A nursing theory was used. Identifies the sections of the paper. Limited or no scholarly support from nursing literature was provided.
10.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Definition/Explanation of Selected Concept
25.0 pts
Presentation of information was exceptional and included all of the following elements: Defines/explains the concept using scholarly literature (a dictionary maybe used for this section ONLY, and additional scholarly nursing references are required). Provides support from scholarly sources.
22.0 pts
Presentation of information was good, but was superficial in places and included all of the following elements: Defines/explains the concept using scholarly literature (a dictionary maybe used for this section ONLY, and additional scholarly nursing references are required). Provides support from scholarly sources.
20.0 pts
Presentation of information was minimally demonstrated in the all of the following elements: Defines/explains the concept using scholarly literature (a dictionary maybe used for thi.
10-K
1
f12312012-10k.htm
10-K
UNITED STATES
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION
Washington, DC 20549
FORM 10-K
(Mark One)
R
Annual report pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934
For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2012
or
o
Transition report pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934
For the transition period from __________ to __________
Commission file number 1-3950
Ford Motor Company
(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter)
Delaware
38-0549190
(State of incorporation)
(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)
One American Road, Dearborn, Michigan
48126
(Address of principal executive offices)
(Zip Code)
313-322-3000
(Registrant’s telephone number, including area code)
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:
Title of each class
Name of each exchange on which registered*
Common Stock, par value $.01 per share
New York Stock Exchange
__________
* In addition, shares of Common Stock of Ford are listed on certain stock exchanges in Europe.
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None.
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act. Yes o No R
Indicate by check mark if the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically and posted on its corporate Web site, if any, every Interactive Data File required to be submitted and posted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit and post such files). Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark if disclosure of delinquent filers pursuant to Item 405 of Regulation S-K (§229.405 of this chapter) is not contained herein, and will not be contained, to the best of registrant’s knowledge, in definitive proxy or information statements incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K or any amendment to this Form 10-K. R
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or a smaller reporting company. See definitions of "large accelerated filer," "accelerated filer," and "smaller reporting company" in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act. Large accelerated filer R Accelerated filer o Non-accelerated filer o Smaller reporting company o
Indicate by check mark whether the registra.
10-K 1 f12312012-10k.htm 10-K UNITED STATESSECURITIES AN.docxchristiandean12115
10-K 1 f12312012-10k.htm 10-K
UNITED STATES
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION
Washington, DC 20549
FORM 10-K
(Mark One)
R Annual report pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934
For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2012
or
o Transition report pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934
For the transition period from __________ to __________
Commission file number 1-3950
Ford Motor Company
(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter)
Delaware 38-0549190
(State of incorporation) (I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)
One American Road, Dearborn, Michigan 48126
(Address of principal executive offices) (Zip Code)
313-322-3000
(Registrant’s telephone number, including area code)
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:
Title of each class Name of each exchange on which registered*
Common Stock, par value $.01 per share New York Stock Exchange
__________
* In addition, shares of Common Stock of Ford are listed on certain stock exchanges in Europe.
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None.
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.
Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.
Yes o No R
Indicate by check mark if the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities
Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such
reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically and posted on its corporate Web site, if any,
every Interactive Data File required to be submitted and posted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this
Page 1 of 216F 12.31.2012- 10K
3/7/2019https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/37996/000003799613000014/f12312012-10k.htm
chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit and post such
files). Yes R No o
Indicate by check mark if disclosure of delinquent filers pursuant to Item 405 of Regulation S-K (§229.405 of this chapter)
is not contained herein, and will not be contained, to the best of registrant’s knowledge, in definitive proxy or information
statements incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K or any amendment to this Form 10-K. R
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or a
smaller reporting company. See definitions of "large accelerated filer," "accelerated filer," and "smaller reporting company" in
Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act. Large accelerated filer R Accelerated filer .
10 What does a golfer, tennis player or cricketer (or any othe.docxchristiandean12115
10 What does a golfer, tennis player or cricketer (or any other professional sportsperson) focus on to achieve high performance? They nearly always give the same answer: “Repeat my process (that is the process they have practised a million times) – replicate it under real pressure and trust in my ability” That’s why Matthew Lloyd throws the grass up under the roof at Etihad Stadium. It is why Ricky Ponting taps the bat, looks down,
looks up and mouths “watch the ball”. It’s
unnecessary for Matthew Lloyd to toss the
grass. There’s no wind under the roof – it’s
simply a routine that enables him to replicate
his process under pressure.
Ricky Pointing knows you have to watch the
ball. Ponting wants the auto pilot light in his
brain to fl ick on as he mutters “watch the ball”.
High performance in sport is achieved through focusing on your
processes, not the scores.
It is absolutely no different in local government. Our business
is governance and we need to be focusing very hard on our
governance processes. We need to learn these processes, modify
them when necessary, understand them deeply, repeat them
under pressure and trust in our capabilities to deliver. If we do
that, the scores will look after themselves.
I want to share with you my ten most important elements in
the governance process. Let me fi rst say that good governance is
the set of processes, protocols, rules, relationships and behaviours
which lead to consistently good decisions. In the end good
governance is good decisions. You could make lots of good
decisions without good governance. But you will eventually
run out of luck – eventually, bad governance process will lead
to bad decisions. Consistently good decisions come from good
governance processes and practices.
Good governance is not only a prerequisite for consistently
good decisions, it is almost the sole determinant of your
reputation. The way you govern, the ‘vibe’ in the community
and in the local paper about the way you govern is almost the
sole determinant of your reputation. Believe me, if reputation
matters to you, then drive improvements through good
governance.
So here are the ten core elements:
1. THE COUNCIL PLAN
An articulate council plan is a fundamental fi rst step to achieving
your goals. It is your set of promises to your community for a
four-year term.
Unfortunately, there are too many wrong plans:
• Claytons Plans – say too little and are too bland. Delete the
name of the council from these plans and you can’t tell whose
it is! There’s no ‘vibe’ at all.
• Agreeable Plans – where everyone gets their bit in the plan.
There’s no sense of priorities, everyone agrees with everything
in the plan and we save all the real fi ghts and confl icts to be
fought out one by one over the four-year term.
• Opposition-creating Plans – we don’t do this so often but we
sometimes ‘use the numbers’ to enable the dominant group of
councillors to achieve their goals and fail to a.
10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruct.docxchristiandean12115
10 Research-Based Tips
for Enhancing Literacy
Instruction for Students
With Intellectual
Disability
Christopher J. Lemons, Jill H. Allor, Stephanie Al Otaiba,
and Lauren M. LeJeune
Literacy
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TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2016 19
In the past 2 decades, researchers
(often working closely with parents,
teachers, and other school staff
members) have conducted studies that
have substantially increased
understanding how to effectively teach
children and adolescents with
intellectual disability (ID) to read. This
research focus has been fueled by
increased societal expectations for
individuals with ID, advocacy efforts,
and legislative priorities (e.g.,
strengthened accountability standards).
Findings from this body of work
indicate that children and adolescents
with ID can obtain higher levels of
reading achievement than previously
anticipated (Allor, Mathes, Roberts,
Cheatham, & Al Otaiba, 2014). Recent
research also suggests that the historic
focus on functional reading (e.g., signs,
restaurant words) for this population of
learners is likely too limited of a focus
for many (Browder et al., 2009).
Research outcomes suggest that
integrating components of traditional
reading instruction (e.g., phonics,
phonemic awareness) into programs
for students with ID will lead to
increases in independent reading skills
for many (Allor, Al Otaiba, Ortiz, &
Folsom, 2014). These increased reading
abilities are likely to lead to greater
postsecondary outcomes, including
employment, independence, and
quality of life. Unfortunately, many
teachers remain unsure of how to best
design and deliver reading intervention
for students with ID.
We offer a set of 10 research-based
tips for special education teachers,
general education teachers, and other
members of IEP teams to consider when
planning literacy instruction for students
with ID in order to maximize student
outcomes. For each tip, we describe our
rationale for the recommendation and
provide implementation guidance. Our
Literacy Instruction and Support
Planning Tool can be used by team
members to organize information to
guide planning. Our aim is to provide
educators and IEP team members with a
framework for reflecting on current
reading practices in order to make
research-based adjustments that are
likely to improve student outcomes.
The Conceptual Model of Literacy
Browder and colleagues (2009) proposed
a conceptual model for early literacy
instruction for students with severe
developmental disabilities. We believe
their framework provides guidance for
designing and delivering literacy
instruction for all students wit.
10 Strategic Points for the Prospectus, Proposal, and Direct Pract.docxchristiandean12115
10 Strategic Points for the Prospectus, Proposal, and Direct Practice Improvement Project
Week Two Assignment Instructions DNP 820
Please read the instructions thoroughly
Tutor MUST have a good command of the English language
The Rubric must be followed, and all the requirements met
This is a thorough professor, and she has strict requirements
I have attached the PICOT and the first 10 points (DNP 815) assignment. This is a continuation of that assignment. Please read the attachments
The following needs to be addressed:
Please note the followings: The introduction and the literature review are complete and thorough. The problem statement is written clearly PICOT is clear and very good Sample:
· How will you determine the sample size?
· What are the inclusion/exclusion criteria of the subjects? Methodology: Why is the selected methodology is appropriate? Please justify!
· Data collection approach needs to be clear. How will you collect your data? What is needed here is to describe the process of collecting data form signing the informed consent until completing the measuring.
· Data analysis-What test will you use to answer your research question?
Clinical/PICOT Questions:
“In adult patients with CVC at a Clear Lake Regional Medical Center, does interventional staff education about hub hygiene provided to RN’s who access the CVC impact CLABSI rates compared to standard care over a one-month period?”
P: Patients with Central Venous Catheters
I: Staff re-education related to Hygiene of the hub
C: Other hospitals
O: Reduce probability of CLABSIs
T: Two months
“In Patients > 65 years of age with central line catheters at a Clear Lake Regional Medical Center, how does staff training of key personnel and reinforcement of central line catheter hub hygiene after its insertion, along with the apt cleansing of the insertion site, before every approach compared with other area hospitals, reduce the incidence of CLABSIs (Central Line Associated Blood-stream Infections) over a one-month period?”
P: Patients > 65 years of age with a Central line
I: Staff training and reinforcement of Central Catheter, Hub Hygiene
C: Other area hospitals
O: Reduce probability of CLABSIs
“In adult patients, with define CVC (CVC), does interventional staff education about hub hygiene provided to RN’s who access the CVC impact CLABSI rates compared to pre and post-intervention assessments
1. I used central Missouri as an example, replace with a description of your site.
2. While you might be interested in CLASBI rates as a primary variable, there are other patient outcomes that would also be important to consider
3. Ensure you can find validity and reliability measures on CLASBI rates if you cannot, we need to determine another question to help
4. How are your two comparison groups different, as they are currently stated the groups seem very much the same, could you state, standard care instead of pre and post intervention assessments?
5. One month is the longe.
10 Most Common Errors in Suicide Assessment/Intervention
Robert Neimeyer & Angela Pfeiffer
1. Avoidance of Strong Feelings – Diverting discussions away from powerful, intense
emotion and toward a more abstract or intellectualized exchange. These responses keep
interactions on a purely cognitive level and prevent exploration of the more profound
feelings of distress, which may hold the key to successful treatment. Do not retreat to
professionalism, advice-giving, or passivity when faced with intense depression, grief, or
fear.
• Do not analyze and ask why they feel that way.
• USE empathy! “With all the hurt you’ve been experiencing it must be impossible
to hold those tears in.”
• Tears and sobbing are often met with silence of tangential issues instead of
putting into words what the client is mutely expressing: “With all the pain you’re
feeling, it must be impossible to hold those tears in.”
• “I don’t think anyone really cares whether I live or die.” Helpers often shift to
discussing why/asking questions as opposed to reflecting emotional content.
2. Superficial Reassurance – trivial responses to clients’ expressions of acute distress and
hopelessness can do more harm than good. Rather than reassuring clients, these responses
risk alienating them and deepening their feelings of being isolated in their distress.
• Attempts to emphasize more positive or optimistic aspects of the situation: “But
you’re so young and have so much to live for!”
• Premature offering of a prepackaged meaning for the client’s difficulties: “Well
life works in mysterious ways. Maybe this is life’s way of challenging you.”
• Directly contradicting the client’s protest of anguish: “Things can’t be all that
bad.”
3. Professionalism – Insulating or protecting by distancing and detaching from the brutal,
exhausting realities of clients’ lives by seeking refuge in the comfortable boundaries of role
definition. The exaggerated air of objectivity/disinterest implies a hierarchical relationship,
which may disempower the client. Although intended to put a person at ease, this can come
across as disinterest or hierarchical. Empathy is a more facilitative response.
• “My thoughts are so awful I could never tell anyone” is often met with, “You can
tell me. I’m a professional” as opposed to the riskier, empathic reply.
4. Inadequate Assessment of Suicidal Intent – Implicit negation of suicide threat by
responding to indirect and direct expressions of risk with avoidance or reassurance rather
than a prompt assessment of the level of intent, planning, and lethality. Most common
among physicians and master’s level counselors – due to time pressures, personal theories
or discomfort with intense feelings.
• What they’ve been thinking, For how long, Specific plans/means, Previous
attempts
1
• “There’s nowhere left to turn” and “I’d be better off dead” should be met with
“You sound so miserable. Are y.
10 Customer Acquisition and Relationship ManagementDmitry .docxchristiandean12115
10 Customer Acquisition and Relationship Management
Dmitry Kalinovsky/iStock/Thinkstock
Patronage by loyal customers yields 65 percent of a typical business’ volume.
—American Management Association
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Identify how organizational growth is best achieved by an HCO, and state the effect of the product life cycle
on an organization’s revenues.
• Discuss several approaches that an HCO can use to attract new customers, or patients.
• Delineate the premises upon which customer relationship management is based.
• Explain the advantages of database marketing, and identify ways for an organization to use a marketing
database.
• Provide examples of how an HCO can effectively manage real and virtual customer interactions.
Section 10.1Organizational Growth
Introduction
This chapter focuses on how to attract and keep patients through understanding and meeting
their needs. The long-term success of an HCO depends on its ability to attract new patients
and turn them into loyal customers who not only return for needed services, but recommend
the HCO’s services to others. This is especially important because of the nature of the life cycle
for products and services, from their introduction to their decline. Attracting new customers
and keeping existing ones involves interacting internally and externally with patients, analyz-
ing data on current patients, and managing real and virtual interactions with patients. Manag-
ing relationships with patients helps to ensure that patients stay informed and feel connected
to the HCO through its internal and external customer relationship efforts.
10.1 Organizational Growth
Most organizations have growth as a basic goal. Growth means an increase in revenue and
a greater impact on the communities served. Growth also creates opportunities for staff to
advance and take on new responsibilities. While many activities can help an HCO grow, the
most important is the development of an effective marketing plan to provide a consistent
platform for the organization’s visibility and to brand the HCO as an attractive option for
medical services. The development of an effective marketing plan was stressed in Chapter 8
as a basic marketing need for an HCO: that is, to inform new and existing customers of the
organization’s services and to persuade them to continue using or to try using these services.
Product/Service Life Cycles
Like people, products and services have a life cycle. The term product life cycle refers to the
stages that a product or service goes through from the time it is introduced until it is taken
off the market or “dies.” The stages of the product life cycle, illustrated in Figure 10.1, usually
include the following descriptions:
• Introduction—The stage of researching, developing, and launching the product or
service.
• Growth—The stage when revenues are increasing at a fast rate.
• M.
10 ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE (FROM A TO Z) 1 PLOT (seri.docxchristiandean12115
10 ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE (FROM A TO Z)
1 PLOT (series of events which make-up a story)
A 5-POINT PLOT SEQUENCE:
Exposition: initial part of a story where readers are exposed to setting and characters.
Situation: event in the story which kicks the action forward and begs for an outcome.
Complication: difficulties faced by characters as they experience internal and external conflicts.
Climax: watershed moment when it becomes apparent that major conflicts will be resolved.
Resolution: (Denouement): tying up of the loose ends of the story.
B SUB-PLOTS: PLOTS BENEATH AND AROUND THE MAJOR PLOT.
Foreshadowing: hints and clues of plot.
Flashback: portion of a plot when a character relives a past experience.
Frame story: plot which begins in the present, quickly goes to the past for story, then returns.
Episodic plot: a large plot sequence that is made up of a series of minor plot sequences.
Plausibility: likelihood that certain events within a plot can occur.
Soap Opera: multiple stories told along the sequence and spaced to sustain continual interest.
2 POINT OF VIEW (eyes through which a story is told)
C First Person major (participant major): narrator is the major character in the story.
First Person minor (participant minor): narrator is a minor character in the story.
Third Person omniscient (non-participant omniscient): narrator is outside the story and capable of
seeing into the heart, mind and motivations of all characters.
Third Person limited (non-participant limited): narrator is outside the story and capable of seeing, at
most, into the heart, mind, and motivations of one character. Narrator is
objective if not omniscient.
3 SETTING (time and place of a story, both physical and psychological)
D Physical (external) Setting: the time and place of a story, general and specific.
Psychological (internal) Setting: mood, tone, and temper of story.
E Major Tempers: Romanticism: man is free to choose against moral, spiritual backdrops. If you make
good decisions, you will be rewarded. There is a God that is in control
Existentialism: man is free to choose absent backdrops other than his own. If he feels it is right, then it is
right.
Naturalism: man is largely trapped, a cog in the impersonal machinery. He has no real way of
changing his circumstances.
Realism: eclectic view, but leaning toward the naturalistic position. Sometimes good things happen to
bad people, and sometimes bad things happen to good people. That is just the way it is.
F Other Tempers: Classicism: Man is free, but appears to be trapped due to conflicting codes.
Transcendentalism: Offshoot of romanticism, nature is a window to divine.
Nihilism: Fallout of either extreme existentialism or naturalism. Life is horrible and painful. It
lacks meaning.
4 CONFLICT (nature of the problems faced)
G Four Universal Conflicts: Person versus self
Pe.
10 ers. Although one can learn definitions favor- able to .docxchristiandean12115
10
ers. Although one can learn definitions favor-
able to crime from law-abiding individuals,
one is most likely to learn such definitions
fiom delinquent friends or criminal family
A Theory of sociation members. with These delinquent studies typically others find is the that best as-
Differential predictor of crime, and that these delinquent others partly influence crime by leading the
individual to adopt beliefs conducive to
Association crime (see Agnew, 2000; Akers, 1998; Akers and Sellers, 2004; Waw, 2001 for summaries
of such studies).
Sutherland 's theory has also inspired
Edwin H. Sutherland dnd much additional theorizing in criminology.
Theorists have attempted to better describe
Donald R. Cressey the nature ofthose definitions favorable to vi-
olation of the law (see the next selection in
Chapter 11 by Sykes and Matza). They have
Before Sutherland developed his theory, attempted to better describe the processes by
crime was usually explained in t e r n ofmul- which we learn criminal behavior from oth-
tiple factors-like social class, broken homes, ers (see the description o f social learning the-
age, race, urban or rural location, and mental ory by Akers in Chapter 12). And they have
disorder. Sutherland developed his theory of drawn on Sutherland in an effort to explain
differential association in an effort to explain group differences in crime rates (see the Wolf-
why these various factors were related to gang and Ferracuti and Anderson selections
crime. In doing so, he hoped to organize and in this part). Sutherland's theory o f differen-
integrate the research on crime u p to that tial association, then, is one of the enduring
point, as well as to guide future research. classics in criminology (for excellent discus-
Sutherlandk theory is stated in the f o m o f sions ofthe current state o f differential asso-
nine propositions. He argues that criminal ciation theory, see Matsueda, 1988, and Waw,
behavior is learned by interacting with oth- 2001).
ers, especially intimate others. Criminals
learn both the techniques of committing
crime and the definitions favorable to crime References
from these others. The s k t h proposition> Agnew Robe*. '2000. "Sources of Mminality:
which f o r n the heart of the theory, states Strain and Subcultural Theories." In Joseph F.
that 'h person becomes delinquent because of Sheley (ed.), Criminology: A Contemporary ,
an excess of definitions favorable to law vio- Handbook, 3rd edition, pp. 349-371. Belmont,
lation over definitions unfavorable to viola- CA: Wadsworth.
tion oflaw."According to Sutherland, factors Akers, Ronald L. 1998. Social Learning and So-
such as social class, race, and broken homes cia1 Structure: A General Theory of Crime and
influence crime because they affect the likeli- Deviance. Boston: Northeastern University
hood that individuals willdssociate with oth- Press.
ers who present definitions favorable to Akers, Ronal.
10 academic sources about the topic (Why is America so violent).docxchristiandean12115
10 academic sources about the topic (Why is America so violent?)
*Address all 10 academic sources in the literature review
*What have they added to the literature?
*End literature review with "What has not been addressed is.... "and with "What I'm Addressing....." (I am addressing that overpopulation is the main reason America is so violent).
*Literature review should be a minimum of 2-2 1/2 pages
Attached are my 10 academic sources.
.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
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Is There a Need for a New Environmental Ethic By Richard Sy.docx
1. Is There a Need for a New Environmental Ethic?
By Richard Sylvan
This essay was originally published in Proceedings of the XII
World Congress of Philosophy,
No. 1. Varna, Bulgaria, 1973, pp. 205-210.
Richard Sylvan (formerly Routley) was a fellow of the Research
School of Social Sciences at the
Australian National University in Canberra.
It is increasingly said that civilization, Western civilization at
least, stands in need of a new ethic
(and derivatively of a new economics) setting out people's
relations to the natural environment,
in Leopold's words "an ethic dealing with man's relation to land
and to the animals and plants
which grow upon it."[1] It is not of course that old and
prevailing ethics do not deal with man's
relation to nature; they do, and on the prevailing view man is
free to deal with nature as he
pleases, i.e., his relations with nature, insofar at least as they do
not affect others, are not subject
to moral censure. Thus assertions such as "Crusoe ought not to
be mutilating those trees" are
significant and morally determinate but, inasmuch at least as
Crusoe's actions do not interfere
with others, they are false or do not hold -- and trees are not, in
a good sense, moral objects.[2] It
is to this, to the values and evaluations of the prevailing ethics,
that Leopold and others in fact
2. take exception. Leopold regards as subject to moral criticism, as
wrong, behaviour that on
prevailing views is morally permissible. But it is not, as
Leopold seems to think, that such
behaviour is beyond the scope of the prevailing ethics and that
an extension of traditional
morality is required to cover such cases, to fill a moral void. If
Leopold is right in his criticism of
prevailing conduct what is required is a change in the ethics, in
attitudes, values and evaluations.
For as matters stand, as he himself explains, men do not feel
morally ashamed if they interfere
with a wilderness, if they maltreat the land, extract from it
whatever it will yield, and then move
on; and such conduct is not taken to interfere with and does not
rouse the moral indignation of
others. "A farmer who clears the woods off a 75% slope, turns
his cows into the clearing, and
dumps its rainfall, rocks, and soil into the community creek, is
still (if otherwise decent) a
respected member of society."[3] Under what we shall call an
environmental ethic such
traditionally permissible conduct would be accounted morally
wrong, and the farmer subject to
proper moral criticism.
Let us grant such evaluations for the purpose of the argument.
What is not so clear is that a new
ethic is required even for such radical judgments. For one thing
it is none too clear what is going
to count as a new ethic, much as it is often unclear whether a
new development in physics counts
as a new physics or just as a modification or extension of the
old. For, notoriously, ethics are not
clearly articulated or at all well worked out, so that the
application of identity criteria for ethics
3. may remain obscure.[4] Furthermore we tend to cluster a family
of ethical systems which do not
differ on core or fundamental principles together as one ethic;
e.g. the Christian ethic, which is
an umbrella notion covering a cluster of differing and even
competing systems. In fact then there
are two other possibilities, apart from a new environmental
ethic, which might cater for the
evaluations, namely that of an extension or modification of the
prevailing ethics or that of the
development of principles that are already encompassed or
latent within the prevailing ethic. The
second possibility, that environmental evaluations can be
incorporated within (and ecological
problems solved within) the framework of prevailing Western
ethics, is open because there isn't a
single ethical system uniquely assumed in Western civilization:
on many issues, and especially
on controversial issues such as infanticide, women's rights, and
drugs, there are competing sets
of principles. Talk of a new ethic and prevailing ethics tends to
suggest a sort of monolithic
structure, a uniformity, that prevailing ethics, and even a single
ethic, need not have.
Indeed Passmore has mapped out three important traditions in
Western ethical views concerning
man's relation to nature; a dominant tradition, the despotic
position, with man as despot (or
tyrant), and two lesser traditions, the stewardship position, with
man as custodian, and the co-
operative position with man as perfecter. [5] Nor are these the
only traditions; primitivism is
4. another, and both romanticism and mysticism have influenced
Western views.
The dominant Western view is simply inconsistent with an
environmental ethic; for according to
it nature is the dominion of man and he is free to deal with it as
he pleases (since -- at least on the
mainstream Stoic-Augustine view -- it exists only for his sake),
whereas on an environmental
ethic man is not so free to do as he pleases. But it is not quite
so obvious that an environmental
ethic cannot be coupled with one of the lesser traditions. Part of
the problem is that the lesser
traditions are by no means adequately characterized anywhere,
especially when the religious
backdrop is removed, e.g. who is man steward for and
responsible to? However both traditions
are inconsistent with an environmental ethic because they imply
policies of complete
interference, whereas on an environmental ethic some
worthwhile parts of the earth's surface
should be preserved from substantial human interference,
whether of the "improving" sort or not.
Both traditions would in fact prefer to see the earth's land
surfaces reshaped along the lines of the
tame and comfortable north-European small farm and village
landscape. According to the co-
operative position man's proper role is to develop, cultivate and
perfect nature -- all nature
eventually -- by bringing out its potentialities, the test of
perfection being primarily usefulness
for human purposes; while on the stewardship view man's role,
like that of a farm manager, is to
make nature productive by his efforts though not by means that
will deliberately degrade its
resources. Although these positions both depart from the
5. dominant position in a way which
enables the incorporation of some evaluations of an
environmental ethic, e.g. some of those
concerning the irresponsible farmer, they do not go far enough:
for in the present situation of
expanding populations confined to finite natural areas, they will
lead to, and enjoin, the
perfecting, farming and utilizing of all natural areas. Indeed
these lesser traditions lead to, what a
thoroughgoing environmental ethic would reject, a principle of
total use, implying that every
natural area should be cultivated or otherwise used for human
ends, "humanized." [6]
As the important Western traditions exclude an environmental
ethic, it would appear that such an
ethic, not primitive, mystical or romantic, would be new all
right. The matter is not so
straightforward; for the dominant ethic has been substantially
qualified by the rider that one is
not always entitled to do as one pleases where this physically
interferes with others. Maybe some
such proviso was implicit all along (despite evidence to the
contrary), and it was simply assumed
that doing what one pleased with natural items would not affect
others (the non-interference
assumption). Be this as it may, the modified dominant position
appears, at least for many
thinkers, to have supplanted the dominant position; and the
modified position can undoubtedly
go much further towards an environmental ethic. For example,
the farmer's polluting of a
community stream may be ruled immoral on the grounds that it
physically interferes with others
6. who use or would use the streams. Likewise business enterprises
which destroy the natural
environment for no satisfactory returns or which cause pollution
deleterious to the health of
future humans, can be criticized on the sort of welfare basis
(e.g. that of Barkley and Seckler)
that blends with the modified position; and so on.[7] The
position may even serve to restrict the
sort of family size one is entitled to have since in a finite
situation excessive population levels
will interfere with future people. Nonetheless neither the
modified dominant position nor its
Western variants, obtained by combining it with the lesser
traditions, is adequate as an
environmental ethic, as I shall try to show. A new ethic is
wanted.
As we noticed (an) ethic is ambiguous, as between a specific
ethical system, a specific ethic, and
a more generic notion, a super ethic, under which specific ethics
cluster.[8] An ethical system S
is, near enough, a propositional system (i.e. a structured set of
propositions) or theory which
includes (like individuals of a theory) a set of values and (like
postulates of a theory) a set of
general evaluative judgments concerning conduct, typically of
what is obligatory, permissible
and wrong, of what are rights, what is valued, and so forth. A
general or law-like proposition of a
system is a principle; and certainly if systems S1 and S2 contain
different principles, then they
are different systems. It follows that any environmental ethic
differs from the important
traditional ethics outlined. Moreover if environmental ethics
7. differ from Western ethical systems
on some core principle embedded in Western systems, then
these systems differ from the
Western super ethic (assuming, what seems to be so, that it can
be uniquely characterized) -- in
which case if an environmental ethic is needed then a new ethic
is wanted. It suffices then to
locate a core principle and to provide environmental counter
examples to it.
It is commonly assumed that there are, what amount to, core
principles of Western ethical
systems, principles that will accordingly belong to the super
ethic. The fairness principle
inscribed in the Golden Rule provides one example. Directly
relevant here, as a good stab at a
core principle, is the commonly formulated liberal principle of
the modified dominance position.
A recent formulation runs as follows:
"The liberal philosophy of the Western world holds that one
should be able to do what lie
wishes, providing (1) that lie does not harm others and (2) that
he is not likely to harm himself
irreparably. "[9]
Let its call this principle basic (human) chauvinism -- because
under it humans, or people, come
first and everything else a bad last -- though sometimes the
principle is hailed as a freedom
principle because it gives permission to perform a wide range of
actions (including actions which
mess up the environment and natural things) providing they do
not harm others. In fact it tends to
cunningly shift the onus of proof to others. It is worth
remarking that harming others in the
8. restriction is narrower than a restriction to the (usual) interests
of others; it is not enough that it is
in my interests, because I detest you, that you stop breathing;
you are free to breathe, for the time
being anyway, because it does not harm me. There remains a
problem however as to exactly
what counts as harm or interference. Moreover the width of the
principle is so far obscure
because "other" may be filled out in significantly different
ways: it makes a difference to the
extent, and privilege, of the chauvinism whether "other"
expands to "other human" -- which is
too restrictive -- or to "other person" or to "other sentient
being"; and it makes a difference to the
adequacy of the principle, and inversely to its economic
applicability, to which class of others it
is intended to apply, whether to future as well as to present
others, whether to remote future
others or only to non-discountable future others and whether to
possible others. The latter would
make the principle completely unworkable, and it is generally
assumed that it applies at most to
present and future others.
It is taken for granted in designing counter examples to basic
chauvinist principles, that a
semantic analysis of permissibility and obligation statements
stretches out over ideal situations
(which may be incomplete or even inconsistent), so that what is
permissible holds in some ideal
situation, what is obligatory in every ideal situation, and what is
wrong is excluded in every ideal
situation. But the main point to grasp for the counter examples
9. that follow, is that ethical
principles if correct are universal and are assessed over the
class of ideal situations.
(i) The last man example. The last man (or person) surviving
the collapse of the world system
lays about him, eliminating, as far as he can, every living thing,
animal or plant (but painlessly if
you like, as at the best abattoirs). What he does is quite
permissible according to basic
chauvinism, but on environmental grounds what he does is
wrong. Moreover one does not have
to be committed to esoteric values to regard Mr. Last Man as
behaving badly (the reason being
perhaps that radical thinking and values have shifted in an
environmental direction in advance of
corresponding shifts in the formulation of fundamental
evaluative principles).
(ii) The last people example. The last man example can be
broadened to the last people example.
We can assume that they know they are the last people, e.g.
because they are aware that radiation
effects have blocked any chance of reproduction. One considers
the last people in order to rule
out the possibility that what these people do harms or somehow
physically interferes with later
people. Otherwise one could as well consider science fiction
cases where people arrive at a new
planet and destroy its ecosystems, whether with good intentions
such as perfecting the planet for
their ends and making it more fruitful or, forgetting the lesser
traditions, just for the hell of it.
Let us assume that the last people are very numerous. They
10. humanely exterminate every wild
animal and they eliminate the fish of the seas, they put all
arable land under intensive cultivation,
and all remaining forests disappear in favour of quarries or
plantations, and so on. They may give
various familiar reasons for this, e.g. they believe it is the way
to salvation or to perfection, or
they are simply satisfying reasonable needs, or even that it is
needed to keep the last people
employed or occupied so that they do not worry too much about
their impending extinction. On
an environmental ethic the last people have behaved badly; they
have simplified and largely
destroyed all the natural ecosystems, and with their demise the
world will soon be an ugly and
largely wrecked place. But this conduct may conform with the
basic chauvinist principle, and as
well with the principles enjoined by the lesser traditions. Indeed
the main point of elaborating
this example is because, as the last man example reveals, basic
chauvinism may conflict with
stewardship or co-operation principles. The conflict may be
removed it seems by conjoining a
further proviso to the basic principle, the effect (3) that he does
not willfully destroy natural
resources. But as the last people do not destroy resources
willfully, but perhaps "for the best of
reasons," the variant is still environmentally inadequate.
(iii) The great entrepreneur example. The last man example can
be adjusted so as to not fall foul
of clause (3). The last man is an industrialist; he runs a giant
complex of automated factories and
farms which he proceeds to extend. He produces automobiles
11. among other things, from
renewable and recyclable resources of course -- only he dumps
and recycles these shortly after
manufacture and sale to a dummy buyer instead of putting them
on the road for a short time as
we do. Of course lie has the best of reasons for his activity, e.g.
lie is increasing gross world
product, or he is improving output to fulfill some plan, and lie
will be increasing his own and
general welfare since lie much prefers increased output and
productivity. The entrepreneur's
behaviour is on the Western ethic quite permissible; indeed his
conduct is commonly thought to
be quite fine and may even meet Pareto optimality requirements
given prevailing notions of
being "better off."
Just as we can extend the last man example to a class of last
people, so we can extend this
example to the industrial society example: the society looks
rather like ours.
(iv) The vanishing species example. Consider the blue whale, a
mixed good on the economic
picture. The blue whale is on the verge of extinction because of
his qualities as a private good, as
a source of valuable oil and meat. The catching and marketing
of blue whales does not harm the
whalers; it does not harm or physically interfere with others in
any good sense, though it may
upset them and they may be prepared to compensate the whalers
if they desist; nor need whale
hunting be willful destruction. (Slightly different examples
which eliminate the hunting aspect of
the blue whale example are provided by cases where a species is
eliminated or threatened
through destruction of its habitat by man's activity or the
12. activities of animals he has introduced,
e.g. many plains-dwelling Australian marsupials and the
Arabian oryx.) The behaviour of the
whalers in eliminating this magnificent species of whale is
accordingly quite permissible -- at
least according to basic chauvinism. But on an environmental
ethic it is not. However, the free-
market mechanism will not cease allocating whales to
commercial uses, as a satisfactory
environmental economics would; instead the market model will
grind inexorably along the
private demand curve until the blue whale population is no
longer viable -- if that point has not
already been passed.[10]
In sum, the class of permissible actions that rebound on the
environment is more narrowly
circumscribed on an environmental ethic than it is in the
Western super ethic. But aren't
environmentalists going too far in claiming that these people,
those of the examples and
respected industrialists, fishermen and farmers are behaving,
when engaging in environmentally
degrading activities of the sort described, in a morally
impermissible way? No, what these people
do is to a greater or lesser extent evil, and hence in serious
cases morally impermissible. For
example, insofar as the killing or forced displacement of
primitive peoples who stand in the way
of an industrial development is morally indefensible and
impermissible, so also is the slaughter
of the last remaining blue whales for private profit. But how to
reformulate basic chauvinism as a
satisfactory freedom principle is a more difficult matter. A
tentative, but none too adequate
beginning might be made by extending (2) to include harm to or
13. interference with others who
would be so affected by the action in question were they placed
in the environment and (3) to
exclude speciecide. It may be preferable, in view of the way the
freedom principle sets the onus
of proof, simply to scrap it altogether, and instead to specify
classes of rights and permissible
conduct, as in a bill of rights.
A radical change in a theory sometimes forces changes in the
meta-theory; e.g. a logic which
rejects the Reference Theory in a thoroughgoing way requires a
modification of the usual meta-
theory which also accepts the Reference Theory and indeed
which is tailored to cater only for
logics which do conform. A somewhat similar phenomenon
seems to occur in the case of a meta-
ethic adequate for an environmental ethic. Quite apart from
introducing several environmentally
important notions, such as conservation, pollution, growth and
preservation, for meta-ethical
analysis, an environmental ethic compels re-examination and
modified analyses of such
characteristic actions as natural right, ground of right, and of
the relations of obligation and
permissibility to rights; it may well require re-assessment of
traditional analyses of such notions
as value and right, especially where these are based on
chauvinist assumptions; and it forces the
rejection of many of the more prominent meta-ethical positions.
These points are illustrated by a
very brief examination of accounts of natural right and then by
a sketch of the species bias of
some major positions.[11]
14. Hart accepts, subject to defeating conditions which are here
irrelevant, the classical doctrine of
natural rights according to which, among other things, "any
adult human ... capable of choice is
at liberty to do (i.e. is under no obligation to abstain from) any
action which is not one coercing
or restraining or designed to injure other persons."[12] But this
sufficient condition for a human
natural right depends on accepting the very human chauvinist
principle an environmental ethic
rejects, since if a person has a natural right he has a right; so
too the definition of a natural right
adopted by classical theorists and accepted with minor
qualifications by Hart presupposes the
same defective principle. Accordingly an environmental ethic
would have to amend the classical
notion of a natural right, a far from straightforward matter now
that human rights with respect to
animals and the natural environment are, like those with respect
to slaves not all that long ago,
undergoing major re- evaluation.
An environmental ethic does not commit one to the view that
natural objects such as trees have
rights (though such a view is occasionally held, e.g. by
pantheists. But pantheism is false since
artefacts are not alive). For moral prohibitions forbidding
certain actions with respect to an
object do not award that object a correlative right. That it would
be wrong to mutilate a given
tree or piece of property does not entail that the tree or piece of
property has a correlative right
not to be mutilated (without seriously stretching the notion of a
right). Environmental views can
stick with mainstream theses according to which rights are
15. coupled with corresponding
responsibilities and so with bearing obligations, and with
corresponding interests and concern;
i.e. at least, whatever has a right also has responsibilities and
therefore obligations, and whatever
has a right has interests. Thus although any person may have a
right by no means every living
thing can (significantly) have rights, and arguably most sentient
objects other than persons
cannot have rights. But persons can relate morally, through
obligations, prohibitions and so forth,
to practically anything at all.
The species bias of certain ethical and economic positions
which aim to make principles of
conduct or reasonable economic behaviour calculable is easily
brought out. These positions
typically employ a single criterion p, such as preference or
happiness, as a summum bonnum;
characteristically each individual of some base class, almost
always humans, but perhaps
including future humans, is supposed to have an ordinal p
ranking of the states in question (e.g.
of affairs, of the economy); then some principle is supplied to
determine a collective p ranking of
these states in terms of individual p rankings, and what is best
or ought to be done is determined
either directly, as in act-utilitarianism under the Greatest
Happiness principle, or indirectly, as in
rule-utilitarianism, in terms of some optimization principle
applied to the collective ranking. The
species bias is transparent from the selection of the base class.
And even if the base class is
16. extended to embrace persons, or even some animals (at the cost,
like that of including remotely
future humans, of losing testability), the positions are open to
familiar criticism, namely that the
whole of the base class may be prejudiced in a way which leads
to unjust principles. For example
if every member of the base class detests dingoes, on the basis
of mistaken data as to dingoes'
behaviour, then by the Pareto ranking test the collective ranking
will rank states where dingoes
are exterminated very highly, from which it will generally be
concluded that dingoes ought to be
exterminated (the evaluation of most Australian farmers
anyway). Likewise it would just be a
happy accident, it seems, if collective demand (horizontally
summed from individual demand)
for a state of the economy with blue whales as a mixed good,
were to succeed in outweighing
private whaling demands; for if no one in the base class
happened to know that blue whales exist
or cared a jot that they do then "rational" economic decision-
making would do nothing to prevent
their extinction. Whether the blue whale survives should not
have to depend on what humans
know or what they see on television. Human interests and
preferences are far too parochial to
provide a satisfactory basis for deciding on what is
environmentally desirable.
These ethical and economic theories are not alone in their
species chauvinism; much the same
applies to most going meta-ethical theories which, unlike
intuitionistic theories, try to offer some
rationale for their basic principles. For instance, on social
contract positions obligations are a
matter of mutual agreements between individuals of the base
17. class; on a social justice picture
rights and obligations spring from the application of
symmetrical fairness principles to members
of the base class, usually a rather special class of persons, while
on a Kantian position which has
some vague obligations somehow arise from respect for
members of the base class persons. In
each case if members of the base class happen to be ill-disposed
to items outside the base class
then that is too bad for them: that is (rough) justice.
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NOTES
[1] Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac with Essays on
Conservation from Round River
(New York: Ballantine, 1966), p. 238.
[2] A view occasionally tempered by the idea that trees house
spirits.
[3] Leopold, Sand County, p. 245.
[4] To the consternation no doubt of Quineans. But the fact is
that we can talk perfectly well
about inchoate and fragmentary systems the identity of which
may be indeterminate.
[5] John Passmore, Man's Responsibility for Nature: Ecological
Problems and Western
Traditions (New York: Scribner's, 1974).
[6] If 'use' is extended, somewhat illicitly, to include use for
18. preservation, this total use principle
is rendered innocuous at least as regards its actual effects. Note
that the total use principle is tied
to the resource view of nature.
[7] P. W. Barkley and D. W. Seckler, Economic Growth and
Environmental Decay: The
Solution
Becomes the Problem (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich,
1972).
[8] A meta-ethic is, as usual, a theory about ethics, super ethics,
their features and fundamental
notions.
[9] Barkley and Seckler, Economic Growth and Environmental
Decay, p. 58. A related principle
is that (modified) free enterprise can operate within similar
limits.
[10] For the tragedy of the commons type reasons well
explained in Barkley and Seckler,
Economic Growth and Environmental Decay.
19. [11] Some of these points are developed by those protesting
about human maltreatment of
animals; see especially the essays collected in S. and R.
Godlovitch and J. Harris, eds., Animals,
Men and Morals: An Enquiry into the Maltreatment of Non-
humans (New York: Grove Press,
1971).
[12] H. L. A. Hart, "Are There any Natural Rights?" reprinted in
A. Quinton, ed., Political
Philosophy (London: Oxford University Press, 1967).