The present study aimed to examine the application of accurate and principle-based evaluation of a measuring instrument called the Form Tester in determining and detecting the wear phenomenon in the cylinder liner of agricultural tractors. For this purpose, a cylinder liner of the Perkins 4-248 engine (related to the Massey Ferguson 285 tractor) was manufactured by Keyhan Sanat Ghaem Company was used. The geometric parameters that were measured in this research included roundness, straightness, and concentricity of the cylinder liner. The evaluations on roundness and concentricity of cylinder liner were conducted in 12 circular positions with the same longitudinal distances. The straightness was measured in five lines with the same longitudinal distances in 90° around the cylinder liner environment. The results of the measurements were discussed and analyzed to evaluate the engine status along the functional path of the piston within the cylinder liner. The degree of deviation rate of the parameters indicated significant wear within the cylindrical liner. The wear rate in cross-sections at high and low dead points was significantly greater than that of the same cross-section in the vicinity of the midpoint of the piston movement path inside the cylinder, as well as the cross-sections near the high dead point. The results of this research provide feedbacks for engine designers to apply various changes to the engine and for maintenance and repair engineers to ensure the correct implementation as well as preventive and predictive repair and maintenance strategies.
Fe Analysis of Effect of Tyre Overload and Inflation Pressure on Rolling Loss...IJERA Editor
Rolling loss or rolling resistance is an ever important property for the tyre and automotive industries because of its
practical implication. Fuel consumption and tyre rolling loss in all types of automobiles have become increasingly
important because of adverse environmental effects (air pollution and global warming) and economic costs (high
petroleum price).
In this thesis, the effect of rolling resistance and overload on fuel consumption of automobile car tyres is discussed.
The investigations are made on two tyre models of automobile cars Skoda Rapid and Ford Classic. Theoretical
calculations are also done to determine the rolling resistance due to inflation pressure. The default weight is
considered for 5 persons and also the tyre overload is considered by taking 6 and 7 people’s weight.
Fe Analysis of Effect of Tyre Overload and Inflation Pressure on Rolling Loss...IJERA Editor
Rolling loss or rolling resistance is an ever important property for the tyre and automotive industries because of its
practical implication. Fuel consumption and tyre rolling loss in all types of automobiles have become increasingly
important because of adverse environmental effects (air pollution and global warming) and economic costs (high
petroleum price).
In this thesis, the effect of rolling resistance and overload on fuel consumption of automobile car tyres is discussed.
The investigations are made on two tyre models of automobile cars Skoda Rapid and Ford Classic. Theoretical
calculations are also done to determine the rolling resistance due to inflation pressure. The default weight is
considered for 5 persons and also the tyre overload is considered by taking 6 and 7 people’s weight.
Heat transfer through journal bearing a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract A journal bearing is designed for specific application. The bearing is designed according to the data available for the given bearing understudy. This analysis can usually be done with the advanced designed tool like FEA. This papers deal with the theoretical thermal analysis of a journal bearing by showing temperature distribution, heat generated and heat dissipated through the surfaces of the journal bearing. The tool used for FEM analysis on journal bearing is ANSYS. Keywords: Journal bearing, Temperature distribution, Heat generation, FEA analysis.
Analysis of vibration characteristics of transport utility vehicle by finite ...Dr.Vikas Deulgaonkar
Present work deals with the design and analysis vibration characteristics for transport utility vehicle. The transport utility vehicle is designed using automotive industry standards. The dynamic behaviour of vehicle depends on the selection of overall dimensions, wheel base, track width, overall height and width that are decided using central motor vehicle rules. The selected dimensions for vertical and horizontal pillar members of the transport bus are modified to enhance the strength, stiffness and stability of the superstructure during travel. This increased stability enhances the ride comfort and passenger safety. Analysing the effect of utilizing manual meshing in complex areas of a transport utility vehicle for vibration analysis and passenger ride comfort has also been carried out. Modal analysis to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of transport utility vehicle model is also carried. Further with the use of finite element analysis deflection vehicle structure is evaluated. The outcomes from the analysis are compared with the behaviour of chassis mounted platform in dynamic conditions and are found in close correlation. The vehicle structure behaves as a single entity in dynamic situations, so surface model is prepared. Element selection for the finite element analysis is carried by considering plane stress condition. Two-dimensional quadrilateral shell elements are extensively used for meshing of the computer model of the vehicle structure. Complex areas in the optimized vehicle structure are meshed using relevant combination of quads & trias. The values of vector sum displacement and frequencies are found to be in good agreement with the experimental ones.
Based On Oil Analysis Applicable To Transportation Fleets Using A Viscosimeterijceronline
At the present paper we try to explain the analysis techniques use in engine oil for the lubricating in a maintenance period of a city bus (Mercedes Benz Boxer 40), in a transportation company. This experiment is done to estimate the optimal time for the oil change. using devices such as the rotational viscometer and the atomic absorption spectrometer as they can detect the incipient form when the oil loses its lubricating properties, and therefore cannot protect the mechanical components of diesel engines such these trucks. Timely detection of lost property in the oil, allows us taking preventive plan maintenance for the truck and subsequently these methodologies could be use in a fleet.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Balancing Time and Cost in Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Using Meta...J. Agricultural Machinery
Agricultural production involves a series of tasks including tillage, planting, and harvesting, which must be done at the right time for each region and type of product. Failing to complete these tasks on time can lead to a decrease in yield. Farmers may wrongly attribute this to factors such as infertile land, pests, diseases, and uneven rainfall distribution. However, this decrease in yield may not always be evident or tangible. To avoid such losses and unforeseen expenses, it is crucial to plan agricultural mechanization projects using the principles of project control. Agricultural projects, like industrial projects, must be carried out in the correct order and at the right time to achieve optimal results. Given the limited availability of resources for mechanization projects, it is imperative to meticulously plan activities to ensure that they are carried out on time and with maximum utilization of resources. To address these challenges, researchers have used meta-heuristic methods in project control, such as the colonial competition algorithm, which has been proven effective in solving the issue of scheduling projects with limited resources. The algorithm has been tested across various industrial activities and projects, and its performance in scheduling the Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) has been validated by researchers globally.
Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer in a Refractance Window Dryer for Aloe v...J. Agricultural Machinery
Drying is one of the oldest methods of food preservation. To increase the efficiency of heat and mass transfer while maintaining product quality, the study of the drying process is crucial scientifically and meticulously. It is possible to conduct experimental tests, trial and error, in the drying process. However, this approach consumes time and cost, with a significant amount of energy resources. By harnessing available software and leveraging technological advancement to develop a general model for drying food under varying initial conditions, the drying process can be significantly optimized.
More Related Content
Similar to Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear in Agricultural Tractors
Heat transfer through journal bearing a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract A journal bearing is designed for specific application. The bearing is designed according to the data available for the given bearing understudy. This analysis can usually be done with the advanced designed tool like FEA. This papers deal with the theoretical thermal analysis of a journal bearing by showing temperature distribution, heat generated and heat dissipated through the surfaces of the journal bearing. The tool used for FEM analysis on journal bearing is ANSYS. Keywords: Journal bearing, Temperature distribution, Heat generation, FEA analysis.
Analysis of vibration characteristics of transport utility vehicle by finite ...Dr.Vikas Deulgaonkar
Present work deals with the design and analysis vibration characteristics for transport utility vehicle. The transport utility vehicle is designed using automotive industry standards. The dynamic behaviour of vehicle depends on the selection of overall dimensions, wheel base, track width, overall height and width that are decided using central motor vehicle rules. The selected dimensions for vertical and horizontal pillar members of the transport bus are modified to enhance the strength, stiffness and stability of the superstructure during travel. This increased stability enhances the ride comfort and passenger safety. Analysing the effect of utilizing manual meshing in complex areas of a transport utility vehicle for vibration analysis and passenger ride comfort has also been carried out. Modal analysis to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of transport utility vehicle model is also carried. Further with the use of finite element analysis deflection vehicle structure is evaluated. The outcomes from the analysis are compared with the behaviour of chassis mounted platform in dynamic conditions and are found in close correlation. The vehicle structure behaves as a single entity in dynamic situations, so surface model is prepared. Element selection for the finite element analysis is carried by considering plane stress condition. Two-dimensional quadrilateral shell elements are extensively used for meshing of the computer model of the vehicle structure. Complex areas in the optimized vehicle structure are meshed using relevant combination of quads & trias. The values of vector sum displacement and frequencies are found to be in good agreement with the experimental ones.
Based On Oil Analysis Applicable To Transportation Fleets Using A Viscosimeterijceronline
At the present paper we try to explain the analysis techniques use in engine oil for the lubricating in a maintenance period of a city bus (Mercedes Benz Boxer 40), in a transportation company. This experiment is done to estimate the optimal time for the oil change. using devices such as the rotational viscometer and the atomic absorption spectrometer as they can detect the incipient form when the oil loses its lubricating properties, and therefore cannot protect the mechanical components of diesel engines such these trucks. Timely detection of lost property in the oil, allows us taking preventive plan maintenance for the truck and subsequently these methodologies could be use in a fleet.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Balancing Time and Cost in Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Using Meta...J. Agricultural Machinery
Agricultural production involves a series of tasks including tillage, planting, and harvesting, which must be done at the right time for each region and type of product. Failing to complete these tasks on time can lead to a decrease in yield. Farmers may wrongly attribute this to factors such as infertile land, pests, diseases, and uneven rainfall distribution. However, this decrease in yield may not always be evident or tangible. To avoid such losses and unforeseen expenses, it is crucial to plan agricultural mechanization projects using the principles of project control. Agricultural projects, like industrial projects, must be carried out in the correct order and at the right time to achieve optimal results. Given the limited availability of resources for mechanization projects, it is imperative to meticulously plan activities to ensure that they are carried out on time and with maximum utilization of resources. To address these challenges, researchers have used meta-heuristic methods in project control, such as the colonial competition algorithm, which has been proven effective in solving the issue of scheduling projects with limited resources. The algorithm has been tested across various industrial activities and projects, and its performance in scheduling the Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) has been validated by researchers globally.
Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer in a Refractance Window Dryer for Aloe v...J. Agricultural Machinery
Drying is one of the oldest methods of food preservation. To increase the efficiency of heat and mass transfer while maintaining product quality, the study of the drying process is crucial scientifically and meticulously. It is possible to conduct experimental tests, trial and error, in the drying process. However, this approach consumes time and cost, with a significant amount of energy resources. By harnessing available software and leveraging technological advancement to develop a general model for drying food under varying initial conditions, the drying process can be significantly optimized.
Evaluation of the Energy Efficiency of a Solar Parabolic Collector Equipped w...J. Agricultural Machinery
With increasing the world's population, the demand for supply water resources is also increasing. Nevertheless, climate change has severely impacted the accessibility of fresh water resources. Consequently, researchers have been focusing on producing drinkable water from seas and oceans. Iran, with its significant levels of solar radiation and access to open water from the north and south, is an ideal country for fresh water production. Using solar water desalination systems is a reliable and cost-effective solution for producing drinking water from salt water sources. The purpose of this research is to enhance the performance of the solar water desalination system by using the latent heat storage system and a solar tracking system. In this experimental setup for fresh water production, water was used as the working fluid, while a parabolic collector functioned as the source of thermal energy.
Simulation of Natural Frequencies of Orange Fruit Using Finite Element MethodJ. Agricultural Machinery
The growing consumer demand for high-quality products has led to the development of new technologies for assessing the quality of agricultural products. Iran is the 9th largest orange producer in the world. Every year, large quantities of agricultural products lose their optimal quality due to mechanical and physical damage during various operations such as harvesting, packaging, transportation, sorting, processing, and storage. This study is performed to identify the natural frequencies and vibration modes of the Thomson orange fruit using finite element modal analysis by ANSYS software. In addition, physical properties including mass, volume, density, and principal dimensions were measured, and mechanical properties were determined using Instron Texture Profile Analysis. The dynamic behavior of the orange fruit was simulated using the pendulum impact test. Afterward, the obtained impact was applied to the orange fruit by force gauge and three-axis accelerometer sensors in both polar and equatorial directions. The three-dimensional geometric model of the orange fruit was drawn in the ANSYS software. After meshing and applying the boundary conditions, the first 20 modes and corresponding natural frequencies were obtained. Since the objective of this study was to identify the natural frequencies of the orange fruit, it was considered to have free movement and rotation in space. The results showed that the natural frequencies of orange fruit are in the range of 0 to 248.41 Hz. Knowledge of the texture characteristics and dynamic behavior of horticultural products is essential for the design and development of agricultural machinery. Furthermore, the design and development of agricultural machinery are directly related to the biological properties of agricultural products.
Design, Construction, and Optimization of Performance of Electrodynamic Spray...J. Agricultural Machinery
Due to the increasing need for agricultural products, protection of products against pathogens and preventing them from being wasted is important. Studies on droplet charging systems result in the reduction of chemical usage and an increase in the deposition of droplets on the target. Conventional sprayers used in Iran have numerous disadvantages such as drift, environmental pollution, lack of complete and homogeneous coverage of the spraying surface, phytotoxicity, and crop losses. Therefore, evaluation of new spraying methods and using a variety of electrical sprayers as alternatives to conventional spraying is essential. This study aims to design, construct, and optimize the performance of the electrodynamic head of an atomizer motorized knapsack sprayer, and study the effects of the angle of the target position, spraying distance, and wind speed on the performance of the electrodynamic sprayer.
Performance Evaluation of the UAV Sprayer in Controlling Brevicoryne Brassica...J. Agricultural Machinery
About 30% of the annual losses of agricultural products are caused by pests, diseases, and weeds. Spraying is currently the most common method of their control. At present, various manual and tractor-mounted sprayers are used for spraying. Manual spraying has very low work efficiency and is damaging as the spray might be applied irregularly and consumed by the labor or the product at poisonous levels. Tractor-mounted sprayers are more efficient than manual sprayers and require less labor. However, their use is associated with issues such as compacting the soil or crushing the product. In recent years, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) sprayers have been used to spray farms and orchards. UAV spraying can increase the spraying efficiency by more than 60% and reduce the volume of spray used by 20-30%. Based on the capabilities of the UAV sprayer and the limitations of other current spraying methods, the purpose of this research is to evaluate the performance of the UAV sprayer in controlling Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) and compare the results with a turbo liner sprayer.
Rapid and Non-destructive Estimation of Apple Tree NPK Contents based on Leaf...J. Agricultural Machinery
Apple is one of the most frequently consumed fruits in the world. It is a source of minerals, fiber, various biological compounds such as vitamin C, and phenolic compounds (natural antioxidants). The amount of nutrients plays a significant role in the growth, reproduction, and performance of agricultural products and plants. Chemical inputs can be accurately managed by predicting these elements. Thus, timely and accurate monitoring and managing the status of crop nutrition is crucial for adjusting fertilization, increasing the yield, and improving the quality. This approach minimizes the application of chemical fertilizers and reduces the risk of environmental degradation. In crop plants, leaf samples are typically analyzed to diagnose nutrient deficiencies and imbalances, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of the current nutrient management system. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to estimate the level of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) elements in the leaves of the apple tree using the non-destructive method of Visible/Near-infrared (Vis/NIR) spectroscopy at the wavelength range of 500 to 1000 nm coupled with chemometrics analysis.
On the field and in the paddy milling factory dryer losses have always been challenging issues in the rice industry. Different forms of losses in brown rice may occur depending on the field and factory conditions. To reduce the losses, proper management during pre-harvest, harvesting, and post-harvest operations is essential. In this study, different on-field drying and tempering methods were investigated to detect different forms of brown rice losses
Cold Plasma Technique in Controlling Contamination and Improving the Physiolo...J. Agricultural Machinery
Today, almost half of the total human food, especially in Asia, is directly supplied from grains, and nearly 70% of the cultivated area of the world, which is one billion hectares, is used for growing grains. Therefore, non-destructive methods must be found and developed to increase seed quality in agriculture and industry. Cold plasma is a novel and efficient method that can be used in the agricultural and food sectors for the inactivation of surface microorganisms and the excitation of seeds. This review presents a summary of the effectiveness of cold plasma treatment on the characteristics of four important cereal plants: wheat, rice, corn, and barley. The focus is on the effects of this treatment on seed germination, surface property changes, water uptake of seeds, growth parameters of root, shoot, and seedling length, biomass parameters, and metabolic activities. By examining the research conducted by the researchers, it can be seen that the cereal seeds treated with cold plasma had better germination power, water absorption, shoot length, growth efficiency, shoot and root weight, and metabolic activity. This review can provide insight into the promising trends in utilizing plasma as a method to decrease the prevalence of harmful plant diseases transmitted through seeds and reduce the dormancy of hard seeds.
Modeling Soil Pressure-Sinkage Characteristic as Affected by Sinkage rate usi...J. Agricultural Machinery
Due to the numerous variables that may influence the soil-machine interaction systems, predicting the mechanical response of soil interacting with off-road traction equipment is challenging. In this study, deep neural networks (DNNs) are chosen as a potential solution for explaining the varying soil sinkage rates because of their ability to model complex, multivariate, and dynamic systems. Plate sinkage tests were carried out using a Bevameter in a fixed-type soil bin with a 24 m length, 2 m width, and 1 m depth. Experimental tests were conducted at three sinkage rates for two plate sizes, with a soil water content of 10%. The provided empirical data on the soil pressure-sinkage relationship served as the basis for an algorithm capable of discerning the soil-machine interaction. From the iterative process, it was determined that a DNN, specifically a feed-forward back-propagation DNN with three hidden layers, is the optimal choice. The optimized DNN architecture is structured as 3-8-15-10-1, as determined by the Grey Wolf Optimization algorithm. While the Bekker equation had traditionally been employed as a widely accepted method for predicting soil pressure-sinkage behavior, it typically disregarded the influence of sinkage velocity of the soil. However, the findings revealed the significant impact of sinkage velocity on the parameters governing the soil deformation response. The trained DNN successfully incorporated the sinkage velocity into its structure and provided accurate results with an MSE value of 0.0871.
A Finite Element Model of Soil-Stress Probe Interaction under a Moving Rigid ...J. Agricultural Machinery
Machinery traffic is associated with the application of stress onto the soil surface and is the main reason for agricultural soil compaction. Currently, probes are used for studying the stress propagation in soil and measuring soil stress. However, because of the physical presence of a probe, the measured stress may differ from the actual stress, i.e. the stress induced in the soil under machinery traffic in the absence of a probe. Hence, we need to model the soil-stress probe interaction to study the difference in stress caused by the probe under varying loading geometries, loading time, depth, and soil properties to find correction factors for probe-measured stress. This study aims to simulate the soil-stress probe interaction under a moving rigid wheel using finite element method (FEM) to investigate the agreement between the simulated with-probe stress and the experimental measurements and to compare the resulting ratio of with/without probe stress with previous studies. The soil was modeled as an elastic-perfectly plastic material whose properties were calibrated with the simulation of cone penetration and wheel sinkage into the soil. The results showed an average 28% overestimation of FEM-simulated probe stress as compared to the experimental stress measured under the wheel loadings of 600 and 1,200 N. The average simulated ratio of with/without probe stress was found to be 1.22 for the two tests which is significantly smaller than that of plate sinkage loading (1.9). The simulation of wheel speed on soil stress showed a minor increase in stress. The stress over-estimation ratio (i.e. the ratio of with/without probe stress) noticeably increased with depth but increased slightly with speed for depths below 0.2 m.
Optimization of the Mixing in a Gas-lift Anaerobic Digester of Municipal Wast...J. Agricultural Machinery
This research aims to optimize the mixing process in gas-lift anaerobic digesters of municipal sewage sludge since mixing and maintaining uniform contact between methanogenic bacteria and nutrients is essential. Wastewater municipal sludge sampling was performed at the Ahvaz West treatment plant (Chonibeh, Iran) during the summer of 2022. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model was implemented to simulate, optimize, and confirm the simulation process using ANSYS Fluent software 19.0. The velocity of the inlet-gas into the digester was determined and a draft tube and a conical hanging baffle were added to the digester design. Different inlet-gas velocities were investigated to optimize the mixing in the digester. Furthermore, turbulence kinetic energy and other evaluation indexes related to the sludge particles such as their velocity, velocity gradient, and eddy viscosity were studied. The optimal inlet-gas velocity was determined to be 0.3 ms-1. The simulation results were validated using the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) method and the correlation between CFD and PIV contours was statistically sufficient (98.8% at the bottom corner of the digester’s wall). The results showed that the model used for simulating, optimizing, and verifying the simulation process is valid. It can be recommended for gas-lift anaerobic digesters with the following specifications: cylindrical tank with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.5, draft tube-to-digester diameter ratio of 0.2, draft tube-to-fluid height ratio of 0.75, the conical hanging baffle distance from the fluid level equal to 0.125 of the fluid height, and its outer diameter-to-digester diameter of 2/3.
Investigating the Efficiency of Drinking Water Treatment Sludge and Iron-Base...J. Agricultural Machinery
In the quest for enhanced anaerobic digestion (AD) performance and stability, iron-based additives as micro-nutrients and drinking water treatment sludge (DWTS) emerge as key players. This study investigates the kinetics of methane production during AD of dairy manure, incorporating varying concentrations of Fe and Fe3O4 (10, 20, and 30 mg L-1) and DWTS (6, 12, and 18 mg L-1). Leveraging an extensive library of non-linear regression (NLR) models, 26 candidates were scrutinized and eight emerged as robust predictors for the entire methane production process. The Michaelis-Menten model stood out as the superior choice, unraveling the kinetics of dairy manure AD with the specified additives. Fascinatingly, the findings revealed that different levels of DWTS showcased the highest methane production, while Fe3O420 and Fe3O430 recorded the lowest levels. Notably, DWTS6 demonstrated approximately 34% and 42% higher methane production compared to Fe20 and Fe3O430, respectively, establishing it as the most effective treatment. Additionally, DWTS12 exhibited the highest rate of methane production, reaching an impressive 147.6 cc on the 6th day. Emphasizing the practical implications, this research underscores the applicability of the proposed model for analyzing other parameters and optimizing AD performance. By delving into the potential of iron-based additives and DWTS, this study opens doors to revolutionizing methane production from dairy manure and advancing sustainable waste management practices.
Dynamic Model of Hip and Ankle Joints Loading during Working with a Motorized...J. Agricultural Machinery
The main objective of this paper is to develop a seven-link dynamic model of the operator’s body while working with a motorized backpack sprayer. This model includes the coordinates of the sprayer relative to the body, the rotational inertia of the sprayer, the muscle moments acting on the joints, and a kinematic coupling that keeps the body balanced between the two legs. The constraint functions were determined and the non-linear differential equations of motion were derived using Lagrangian equations. The results show that undesirable fluctuations in the ankle force are noticeable at the beginning and end of a swing phase. Therefore, injuries to the ankle joint are more likely due to vibrations. The effects of engine speed and sprayer mass on the hip and ankle joint forces were then investigated. It is found that the engine speed and sprayer mass have significant effects on the hip and ankle forces and can be used as effective control parameters. The results of the analysis also show that increasing the engine speed increases the frequency of the hip joint force. However, no significant effects on the frequency of the ankle joint force are observed. The results of this study may provide researchers with insight into estimating the allowable working hours with the motorized backpack sprayers, prosthesis design, and load calculations of hip implants in the future.
Experimental Study and Mathematical Modeling of Hydrogen Sulfide Removal from...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction
Anaerobic bacteria break down organic materials like animal manure, household trash, plant wastes, and sewage sludge during the anaerobic digestion process of biological materials and produce biogas. One of the main issues in using biogas is hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which can corrode pipelines and engines in concentrations between 50 and 10,000 ppm. One method for removing H2S from biogas with minimal investment and operation costs is biofiltration. Whether organic or inorganic, the biofilter's bed filling materials must adhere to certain standards including high contact surface area, high permeability, and high absorption. In this study, biochar and compost were used as bed particles in the biofilter to study the removal of H2S from the biogas flow in the lab. Afterward, kinetic modeling was used to describe the removal process numerically.
Material and Methods
To remove H2S from the biogas, a lab-sized biofilter was constructed. Biochar and compost were employed separately as the material for the biofilter bed. Because of its high absorption capacity and porosity, biochar is a good choice for substrate and packed beds in biofilters. The biochar pieces used were broken into 10 mm long cylindrical pieces with a diameter of 5 mm. Compost was used as substrate particles because it contains nutrients for microorganisms. Compost granules with an average length of 7.5 mm and 3 mm in diameter were used in this study. For the biofilter reactor, each of these substrates was put inside a cylinder with a diameter of 6 cm and a height of 60 cm. The biofilter's bottom is where the biogas enters, and its top is where it exits. During the experiment, biogas flowed at a rate of 72 liters per hour. Mathematical modeling was used to conduct kinetic studies of the process to better comprehend and generalize the results. This method involves feeding the biofilter column with biogas that contains H2S while the biofilm is present on the surface of the biofilter bed particles. The bacteria in the biofilm change the gaseous H2S into the harmless substance sulfur and store it in their cells. The assumptions that form the foundation of the mathematical models are: the H2S concentration is uniform throughout the gas flow, the gas flow is constant, and the column's temperature is constant at a specific height.
Results and Discussion
In the beginning, biochar was used as a substrate in the biofilter to test its effectiveness, and the results obtained for removing H2S from the biogas were acceptable. H2S concentration in biogas was significantly reduced using biochar beds. It dropped from 300 ppm and 200 ppm to 50 ppm where the greatest H2S concentration reduction was achieved. The level of Methane in the biogas was not significantly impacted by the biofilter. This is regarded as a significant outcome when taking into account the goal which is producing biogas with a high concentration of methane. The H2S elimination effectiveness was 94% with the biochar bed and
Feasibility of Soil Texture Determination Using Acoustic Signal Processing of...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction
Precision agriculture is a modern approach to farming that ensures the crops and soil receive exactly what they need for optimum health and productivity. Precision agriculture offers the potential to automate and simplify the collection and analysis of information. It allows management decisions to be quickly made and implemented in small areas of larger fields. Measuring acoustic signals with a cone penetrometer is an advanced and inexpensive method that provides a lot of information about the soil within the shortest amount of time and with the lowest cost. The texture of the soil determines the percentage of the constituents of the mineral part of the soil such as sand, silt, and clay.
In this study, an acoustic penetrometer is developed to provide an accurate method for determining the soil texture. This system uses a microphone to record the sound produced by the cone-soil contact and correlates this data with the soil texture.
Materials and Methods
An acoustic cone penetrometer (ACPT) was designed to determine if there is a relationship between the sound produced at the cone-soil contact and soil particle size. Three types of cones with angles of 30, 45, and 60 degrees, diameter of 20.27 mm, and rod length of 300 mm according to ASAE standard S313.3 FEB1999ED (R2013) were used to determine the relationship between sound and soil texture and to choose the best angle. A microphone (20-20,000 Hz) suitable for fast dynamic responses was used to record the audio signals produced from the soil. Audio signals were stored online through the oscilloscope section of Matlab software. To create the controlled vertical movement of the cones, a mechanical mechanism with electronic controllers was designed. This mechanism can be connected to the rails of the soilbin available in Urmia University, Iran, and is made of a 5 hp electric motor with a gearbox, an inverter for controlling the rotational speed of the electric motor, and a digital ruler for recording vertical movement. Soil samples were tested in 19-liter bins.
Acoustic signals received from the microphone were processed in the time-frequency domain using wavelet transform. In this research, Daubechi function type 3 is used to analyze acoustic signals. It is not possible to use the processed acoustic signals directly for statistical analysis. Therefore, the relevant features should be extracted from them. From the 30 features of time domain signals, the most effective and main features include: SUM, Max, RMS, average, Var, kurtosis, and Moment4. They were ranked using the feature selection section of WEKA 3.9.2 software to avoid increasing the volume of calculations, increase processing speed, and reduce errors. The characteristic vector of the sub-signals of several different soil samples was analyzed to distinguish the soil type and constituents namely sand, silt, and clay.
Results and Discussion
The best type of cone was selected using WEKA software. The number of features in the
Fusion of Multispectral and Radar Images to Enhance Classification Accuracy a...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction
Remote sensing is defined as data acquisition about an object or a phenomenon related to a geographic location without physical. The use of remote sensing data is expanding rapidly. Researchers have always been interested in accurately classifying land coverage phenomena using multispectral images. One of the factors that reduces the accuracy of the classification map is the existence of uneven surfaces and high-altitude areas. The presence of high-altitude points makes it difficult for the sensors to obtain accurate reflection information from the surface of the phenomena. Radar imagery used with the digital elevation model (DEM) is effective for identifying and determining altitude phenomena. Image fusion is a technique that uses two sensors with completely different specifications and takes advantage of both of the sensors' capabilities. In this study, the feasibility of employing the fusion technique to improve the overall accuracy of classifying land coverage phenomena using time series NDVI images of Sentinel 2 satellite imagery and PALSAR radar imagery of ALOS satellite was investigated. Additionally, the results of predicted and measured areas of fields under cultivation of wheat, barley, and canola were studied.
Materials and Methods
Thirteen Sentinel-2 multispectral satellite images with 10-meter spatial resolution from the Bajgah region in Fars province, Iran from Nov 2018 to June 2019 were downloaded at the Level-1C processing level to classify the cultivated lands and other phenomena. Ground truth data were collected through several field visits using handheld GPS to pinpoint different phenomena in the region of study. The seven classes of distinguished land coverage and phenomena include (1) Wheat, (2) Barley, (3) Canola, (4) Tree, (5) Residential regions, (6) Soil, and (7) others. After the preprocessing operations such as radiometric and atmospheric corrections using predefined built-in algorithms recommended by other researchers in ENVI 5.3, and cropping the region of interest (ROI) from the original image, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated for each image. The DEM was obtained from the PALSAR sensor radar image with the 12.5-meter spatial resolution of the ALOS satellite. After preprocessing and cropping the ROI, a binary mask of radar images was created using threshold values of altitudes between 1764 and 1799 meters above the sea level in ENVI 5.3. The NDVI time series was then composed of all 13 images and integrated with radar images using the pixel-level integration method. The purpose of this process was to remove the high-altitude points in the study area that would reduce the accuracy of the classification map. The image fusion process was also performed using ENVI 5.3. The support Vector Machine (SVM) classification method was employed to train the classifier for both fused and unfused images as suggested by other researchers.
To evaluate the effectiveness of image fusion, Comm
A Multi-Objective Optimization to Determine The Optimal Patterns of Sustainab...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction
The development of mechanization and machine technology can have positive and negative effects on the economic, social, and environmental conditions of a region. Conflicts in these areas complicate the selection and optimization of sustainable mechanization systems. One of the basic questions in the selection of a sustainable agricultural mechanization system is how and with what methodology would it be possible to propose the closest mechanization model that will overcome the simultaneous contradictions between the three pillars of sustainability; taking into account the natural and technical limitations in agricultural production. What is the appropriate approach considering the economic, environmental, and social aspects? The current research aims to provide a framework for an optimal mechanization model to achieve the goals of agricultural sustainability so that it can be implemented and applied practically. It is possible to provide a model that addresses the conflicting economic, social, and environmental aspects by quantitatively optimizing the level of mechanization.
Materials and Methods
In this study, a framework is applied whereby contradictory goals of agricultural sustainability can be achieved simultaneously. After selecting the indices and data collection, by combining Shannon entropy and TOPSIS, the similarity index was obtained for each objective. The similarity indices and values of the Benefit-Cost Ratio calculated for each system were considered as coefficients of three objective (economic, social, and environmental) functions in multi-objective optimization. The multi-objective optimization model was applied to achieve sustainable mechanization patterns and was solved using the NSGA-II algorithm. For framework validation, paddy production mechanization systems in the Ramhormoz region located in southwestern Iran were analyzed with constraints: land, water, and machinery. The five mechanization systems of paddy production included puddled transplanted, un-puddled transplanted, water seeded, dry seeded, and, no-till.
Results and Discussion
Pareto-optimal solutions of different scenarios with water and machine constraints showed that this framework cannot only meet the sustainable goals, but also the optimal allocation of mechanization systems is identified and the effect of different scenarios under different constraints can be examined. The sustainability goals between the no-tillage and planting with puddling systems are highly contradictory. The no-tillage system has the highest score in the environmental aspect and the lowest score in the social and economic aspects. This modern system was developed in Ramhormoz three years ago and has faced technical, economic, and social challenges ever since. The cultivated area using this system was 43 hectares in 2019. Despite the speed and ease of planting with this system, and its direct environmental benefits, the possibility of fungal outbreaks is raised due to the pre
Automatic Detection of Plant Cultivation Rows Robot using Machine Vision (Cas...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction
Nowadays, machine vision systems are extensively used in agriculture. The application of this technology in the field can help preserve agricultural resources while reducing manual labor and production costs. In the field of agricultural automation, accurately detecting crop rows is recognized as a crucial and challenging issue for weed identification and the automatic guidance of machines. Therefore, it is necessary to explore practical solutions to optimize this process. Hence, the purpose of this study is the precise identification of basil cultivation rows to enable the automatic navigation of robots in the cultivation field.
Materials and Methods
In the first stage of this research, six images from each growth period of basil plants (third, fourth, and fifth week) were taken and weeds were removed from the area between the crop rows using three different methods of area opening, dimensional removal, and masking. In the next stage, six images of crop rows without weeds were examined by performing image processing operations and implementing several routing algorithms, namely, Hough transform, wavelet transform, Gabor filter, linear regression, and an additional algorithm proposed in this study. The output of each of these algorithms was compared with the ideal path identified by the user. For this purpose, after capturing an image, green areas were extracted from it by performing the segmentation process. By applying each of the routing algorithms to the image, plant cultivation lines were identified and their equations were determined. Finally, the performance of the designed robot was evaluated using the most appropriate routing algorithm.
Results and Discussion
Examining the performance of three different methods of weed removal in three periods of plant growth (third, fourth, and fifth week) showed that during this interval, the masking method had the lowest error rate compared to the ideal path and the shortest average operation time of 1.64 seconds, followed by the dimensional removal and the area opening methods. Comparing the routes detected by different routing algorithms with the ideal routes and according to the results of the t-test at 5% probability level, the order of the studied routing methods from the most superior is as follows: the proposed algorithm, Gabor filter, linear regression, Hough transform and wavelet transform algorithm. Overall, the proposed algorithm had the highest rate of adaptation to the ideal path (with an average error of 3.65 pixels) and the shortest operation time (4.79 seconds) and was selected as the most appropriate routing algorithm and the performance of the designed robot was evaluated using it.
Conclusion
A reliable crop row detection algorithm can reduce production costs and preserve the environment. In this study, the masking method was used for removing weeds from the images. The new proposed routing algorithm has superior performance when compared with common routing algorithms s
Identifying and Prioritizing the Key Factors Affecting the Efficient Maintena...J. Agricultural Machinery
Introduction: With the emergence of new automation and mechanized technologies in the production and processing of agricultural products in Iran, which aim to accelerate the food supply process, adopting appropriate management models in the field of maintenance becomes inevitable. This is crucial to maintain and enhance the operational reliability of agricultural machinery, tools, and equipment. Furthermore, proper management of various physical assets in the agricultural industry, including operation and maintenance, is one of the most important requirements. This is due to their crucial role in ensuring readiness and high availability during the seasons of planting, cultivating, and harvesting agricultural products. These needs differ from that of other continuous production processes.
Materials and Methods: To achieve an efficient model in the field of maintenance, the following steps have been investigated:
a) Reviewing and identifying the most important criteria and sub-criteria driving the maintenance management. This is based on the previous literature and the experts’ opinion.
b) Evaluating and prioritizing the main criteria and the interactions between their sub-criteria using the Best-Worst Method (BWM).
c) Providing improved solutions for maintenance management of Iranian agro-industries.
We decided to employ BWM because, compared to similar methods, it (i) provides more reliable pairwise comparisons, (ii) reduces the possible anchoring bias that may occur during the weighting process by respondents, (iii) is the most data-efficient method, and (iv) provides multiple optimal solutions which increase flexibility when accessing the best weight point. The process of weighting by BWM is summarized in five steps:
1) Determine a set of evaluation criteria identified by the experts or decision-makers.
2) Identify the most important (Best) and the least important (Worst) criteria according to the experts or decision-makers, each of which may have their own Best and Worst.
3) Determine the preference of the Best criterion over all the other criteria using a number from 1 to 9 (where 1 represents equal importance and 9 represents extremely more important).
4) Determine the preference of all the decision criteria over the Worst criterion.
5) Compute optimal weights.
Results and Discussion: According to the preliminary surveys, the most important criteria in the excellence maintenance model were identified as “organizational management”, “human-related factors”, and “organizational aspects”, respectively. The results of the BWM revealed that sub-criteria such as "top management support," "fund allocation and inventory resource management," and "appropriate maintenance strategies" had the greatest impact on maintenance management in agro-industries, with global weights of 0.108, 0.075, and 0.067, respectively. Additionally, these findings were compared to previous research conducted in the field of agricultural and production system maintenance
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
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Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear in Agricultural Tractors
1. Khodabakhshian Kargar & Baghbani, Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear... 15
Research Article
Vol. 13, No. 1, 2023, p. 15-25
Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear in Agricultural Tractors
R. Khodabakhshian Kargar 1*
, R. Baghbani 2
1- Assistant Professor, Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran
2- Faculty member, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Technical and Vocational University (TVU), Tehran, Iran
(*- Corresponding Author Email: Khodabakhshian@um.ac.ir)
https://doi.org/10.22067/jam.2022.72790.1066
How to cite this article:
Khodabakhshian Kargar, R., & Baghbani, R. (2023). Investigation of the Cylinder Liner
Wear in Agricultural Tractors. Journal of Agricultural Machinery, 13(1), 15-25.
https://doi.org/10.22067/jam.2022.72790.1066
Received: 02 October 2021
Revised: 27 December 2021
Accepted: 05 January 2022
Available Online: 08 January 2022
Abstract
The present study aimed to examine the application of accurate and principle-based evaluation of a
measuring instrument called the Form Tester in determining and detecting the wear phenomenon in the cylinder
liner of agricultural tractors. For this purpose, a cylinder liner of the Perkins 4-248 engine (related to the Massey
Ferguson 285 tractor) was manufactured by Keyhan Sanat Ghaem Company was used. The geometric
parameters that were measured in this research included roundness, straightness, and concentricity of the
cylinder liner. The evaluations on roundness and concentricity of cylinder liner were conducted in 12 circular
positions with the same longitudinal distances. The straightness was measured in five lines with the same
longitudinal distances in 90° around the cylinder liner environment. The results of the measurements were
discussed and analyzed to evaluate the engine status along the functional path of the piston within the cylinder
liner. The degree of deviation rate of the parameters indicated significant wear within the cylindrical liner. The
wear rate in cross-sections at high and low dead points was significantly greater than that of the same cross-
section in the vicinity of the midpoint of the piston movement path inside the cylinder, as well as the cross-
sections near the high dead point. The results of this research provide feedbacks for engine designers to apply
various changes to the engine and for maintenance and repair engineers to ensure the correct implementation as
well as preventive and predictive repair and maintenance strategies.
Keywords: Cylinder liner, Geometric tolerances, Honing process, Tractor, Wear
Introduction
Nowadays, the process of mechanization
development highlights that an increase in the
operating of agricultural tractors and
mechanical power-sharing improves
agricultural production. On the other hand, the
development of agricultural mechanization
heavily relies on how to use this source of
power production and how to use the
agricultural tractor as the main source of
power production. (Karimi, Mesri
Gandshamin, & Khadem Alhoseini, 2012;
Afsharnia, Asoodar, & Abdeshahi, 2014;
Khodabakhshian & Sajadi, 2022). The optimal
use of the tractor depends on the quality and
durability of its fast-moving parts. If the
quality of the parts is not at the desired level,
their breakage and wear will cause unwanted
stops in the field, and this will affect the
technical performance and the economic
efficiency of the machine. Therefore, the
probability of failure, repair time, and its
causes should be considered in the processes
(Rohani, Abbaspour-Fard, & Abdolahpour,
2011). In this regard, the rapid development of
tractor manufacturing has led to growing
expectations for improving the performance of
the tractor's engine. Hence, increasing the
precision of machining the engine parts of the
tractor including the cylinder liner plays a vital
role in enhancing the production power of the
engine and reducing the fuel consumption, in
addition to the direct impact on the amount of
Journal of Agricultural Machinery
Homepage: https://jame.um.ac.ir
2. 16 Journal of Agricultural Machinery Vol. 13, No. 1, Spring 2023
burning oil in the engine and satisfying
emission standards (Khodabakhshian &
Shakeri, 2011; Söderfjäll, Almqvist, &
Larsson, 2016; Kılıç & Temizer, 2016).
Surface roughness after honing operation is
regarded as one of the most important
parameters in determining the accuracy of
machining the cylinder liner. Regarding the
Honing process, which is very similar to the
grinding process, lines with angles of 45 to 55
degrees are created in the cylinder inner
surface by abrasive stones using a specially
designed machine to maintain engine oil in
these grooves, keep the cylinder wall
lubricated, prevent the piston from blocking,
minimize the wear of the cylinder liner, and
reduce the frictional losses of the engine. For
each engine, the designer determines patterns
and angles of furrows and grooves of honing
to a certain extent. However, if these grooves
are created at a much higher angle than the
specified value, oil cannot remain in these
grooves and returns to the cartel, due to
gravity. This trend causes engine rattling,
reduces the useful life of the parts, and results
in failure. However, if the angles of these
grooves are less than the limit, they cause the
remaining oil volume in the cylinder wall to be
more than the limit, resulting in burning oil in
the engine and oil shortage, which can damage
other parts (e.g. Bearings and crankshaft) due
to the reduced oil pressure (Sudarshan &
Bhaduri, 1983; Cabanettes, Dimkovski, &
Rosén, 2015; Buj-Corral, Vivancos-Calvet,
Rodero-de-Lamo, & Marco-Almagro, 2015).
The Honing process improves the
geometric shape of the cylinder liner in terms
of its geometric properties, including ovality
and conicalness. The ovality of the cylinder
because of creating an asymmetric contact
surface between the rings and pistons with the
cylinder liner wall, increases the friction in the
engine and the wear between the ring and the
cylinder liner wall. This phenomenon results
in the increase of the fuel consumption and the
reduction of the output power of the engine
and consequently, the useful life reduction of
the engine parts over time, with excessive
wear between the ring and piston with the
cylinder wall (Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2018). In
some cases, it has been observed that the liner
surface roughness from its allowed range can
cause the escape of combustion flame from the
contact surface between the ring and the
cylinder liner wall and lead to engine power
loss and excessive temperature rise, and
ultimately, the occurrence of piston seizure
(Yusefi et al., 2015). Thus, Tractor
Manufacturing Companies now apply stricter
standards with tight tolerances in the allowed
level of cylinder liner roughness, although
these standards are different depending on the
engine type and the diameter of the cylinder
and piston. The precise prediction of Honing
parameters reduces the cost of repairs,
decreases the time lags for using tractors,
provides efficient planning, increases safety,
allows financial savings, and enhances
economic returns. The optimization of the
Honing machine parameters is considered as
one of these management systems in the
production of cylinder liners (Cabanettes et al.,
2015; Kim et al., 2018).
In Iran, few studies have been conducted to
determine the effect of honing parameters on
the geometric properties and the wear rate of
the cylinder liner in agricultural tractors, as
well as the impact of the Honing parameters
on the engine functional parameters. Most
studies carried out in this area have predicted
the maintenance and repair costs of
agricultural tractors and determined the
economic life of tractors (Almasi & Yeganh,
2002; Khodabakhshian & Shakeri, 2011;
Rohani et al., 2011). Some researchers have
studied the use of the preventive maintenance
for agricultural machines (Khodabakhshian et
al., 2008a, b). Buj-Corral et al. (2015)
conducted a study in an industrial company
and developed models for optimizing the
Honing equipment of the driving liner, by
comparing the data obtained from the surface
roughness test device in the laboratory and the
existing Honing machine. In another study,
Cabanettes et al. (2015) collected information
about the surface roughness of the cylinder
liner and its associated wear. Yousfi,
Mezghani, Demirci, & Mansoria (2015)
3. Khodabakhshian Kargar & Baghbani, Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear... 17
examined the impact of plateau honing
parameters on the surface roughness of the
driving cylinder liner. Kim et al, (2018)
discussed the effects of Plateau Honing
parameters on the friction and wear of the
driving cylinder liner.
Furthermore, several studies have been
conducted on the correlation between the
surface roughness of driving cylinder liner and
the Honing parameters by other researchers
(Andersson & Tamminen, 2002; Jayadas, Nair,
& Ajithkumar, 2007; Ramadan Ali, Mohamed,
& Bedewy, 2009; Klein, Fang, & Fang, 2017).
However, no information was found regarding
the effect of Honing parameters on the wear
rate of the cylinder liner of agricultural
tractors.
This study presents a precise dimensional
and geometrical evaluation on the internal
surface of the cylinder liner in agricultural
tractors to control the degree of wear variation,
which is related to the geometric deviations
and changes in the directions of transverse (the
cylinder liner is not roundness) and
longitudinal (the cylinder liner is not
cylindrical) paths. For this purpose, a cylinder
liner of the Perkins 4-248 engine (related to
the Massey Ferguson 285 tractor)
manufactured by Keyhan Sanat Ghaem
Company was used to conduct the test. The
measured geometric parameters included the
roundness, straightness, and concentricity of
the cylinder liner.
Materials and Methods
The spatial and temporal domain of research
Keyhan Sanat Ghaem Company, as one of
the largest manufacturers of cylinder liners in
Iran and the Middle East, was selected as the
case study. The current research was
conducted in 2021 in this company. Given the
purpose of the study, 25 cylinder liners of the
Perkins 4-248 engine, which was related to the
Massey Ferguson 285 tractor were selected
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. A sample of the cylinder liner
The tested cylinder liner material is made
of high-quality cast iron (GG 25) with a
diameter of about 101 mm. Table 1 presents
the chemical analysis and mechanical
properties of cylinder materials, in which HB
represents the hardness range in terms of
Brinell.
4. 18 Journal of Agricultural Machinery Vol. 13, No. 1, Spring 2023
Table 1- Cylinder liner material specifications
Mechanical Properties Chemical Properties (wt. %)
Tensile Strength (MPa) Hardness (HB) Cr% S% P% %Mn %Si %C
Min.225 235 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.9 2.4 3.35
Measuring parameters
The dimensional and geometric
specifications of the studied cylinder liner
were measured and evaluated using the
Formtester MMQ 44, Mahr Company,
Germany equipped with the LSQ
computational algorithm in the metrology
laboratory of the Keyhan Sanat Ghaem
Company (Fig. 2). The Formtester device
applied in this work was, in fact, a special
cylinder liner, which was able to produce
correct and principle results with consistent
repeatability in the geometric deviations of the
liner's inner surface. The approximate transfer
speed of the Formtester was 20 mm s-1
and the
approximate scanning speed of the test device
rod during the evaluation period was 20 mm s-
1
. The evaluations on the roundness and
concentricity of the cylinder liner were
conducted in 12 circular positions with the
same lengthwise distances (Fig. 3).
Additionally, the straightness was measured in
5 lines with the same lengthwise distances in
90°
around the cylinder liner environment.
Fig. 2. The Formtester used for measuring dimensional and geometric specifications of cylinder
liner
All dimensional and geometric
specifications of the surface were evaluated
with average values of five evaluation tests.
The data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics such as mean (M), standard deviation
( ), and combined standard uncertainty ( ),
which is calculated according to the Eq. (1).
√
(1)
Where n represents the number of
repetitions of measurements.
5. Khodabakhshian Kargar & Baghbani, Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear... 19
Fig. 3. The position of sections for roundness and straightness measurements
Results and Discussion
Evaluating the uncertainty of measured values:
roundness
Table 2 shows the values of the mean,
standard deviation ( ), and combined
standard uncertainty ( ) of roundness
measurements for the cylinder liner of
Messier Ferguson 285 tractor in the five
studied sections (Fig. 3). Due to the relative
importance of roundness values and
straightness outside of the interval,
uncertainty by method B (the method
obtained from data and information as a result
of previous measurements, experience with
general knowledge of physical behavior,
properties, tools and specifications provided
by the manufacturer were not taken into
account for combined standard uncertainty
values. As a result, the combined standard
uncertainty was only evaluated using method
A (based on measurements performed in
repeatable conditions). The accuracy and
uncertainty of all evaluations were carried out
within the standard limits authorized by the
manufacturer (customer).
Table 2- Mean, standard deviation, and combined standard uncertainty of roundness measurement
UC
SD
Mean
Repeat 5
Repeat 4
Repeat 3
Repeat 2
Repeat 1
Measuring Position
Roundness values (μm)((Based on the minimum error of the crossing circle with the diameter of the cylinder liner from
the relevant section)
0.1913
0.4278
18.44
18
18.9
18.8
18
18.5
Circle 1
0.0860
0.1924
24.78
24.8
24.7
24.9
24.5
25
Circle 3
0.0735
0.1643
28.52
28.4
28.6
28.7
28.6
28.3
Circle 6
0.0927
0.2074
37.06
37.1
36.8
36.9
37.3
37.2
Circle 9
0.1020
0.2280
82.78
83
83
82.8
82.6
82.5
Circle 12
6. 20 Journal of Agricultural Machinery Vol. 13, No. 1, Spring 2023
The results of the roundness measurement
values outside the interval
The results of the average values of
roundness outside the customer's expected
range (Ra values) examined for five samples
of the studied sections were presented in
Figure 3 for the inner surface of the tested
cylinder liner with the nominal internal
diameter which was measured in Figure 4.
This amount of roundness was measured based
on the passage of two peripheral and
intersecting circles from the cross-sectional
profile of the part in the studied section, which
was done using the LSQ computational
algorithm programmed on the Formtester. The
following cases can be concluded according to
the analysis performed on the roundness
patterns of the internal surface of the cylinder
liner illustrated in Fig. 4.
As expected, in the section related to Circle
12 (which is close to the high point of death)
due to oil shortage, the highest deviation from
the nominal dimension was 102.1152 mm and
also the highest value of the mean roundness
outside the interval was 82.9 μm which was
obtained in this section. As shown in Fig. 4,
the smallest deviation from the nominal
dimension is 102.0125 mm in the vicinity of
the piston stroke midpoint(piston return path)
(section 6) while the roundness outside the
interval in the circle related to this section is
about 28.8 μm. However, the lowest amount of
roundness near the dead point (circle 1 related)
was obtained at 18.7 μm.
As mentioned, the lowest amount of
deviation from the nominal dimension as well
as the relatively small amount of roundness
was related to the circular cross section No. 6,
which had the least inner surface wear changes
of the cylinder liner. The reason for low
fluctuation at this position may be due to good
lubrication and low lateral forces imposed on
the piston.
Although the circular section adjacent to the
low dead point (section 1) represented the
lowest roundness outside the interval, the
variation rate of this parameter was higher at
this section, which can be perceived from the
amount of deviation resulting from the
measurement results in this section (Table 2).
This issue may be related to the position of the
retaining forces of connecting rod while
passing this section. In general, in sections
near the low and high dead points, the
variation rate of roundness outside the interval
was more perceptible, due to the same
retaining forces of the connecting rod during
the piston passage (Table 2).
According to the above results and Figure
6, it was concluded that the device software
generates a geometric index reference from the
ideal and accurate shape of a number of one or
more irregularly scanned sections that provide
information and reference data related to the
sections which can be utilized in evaluating
the final values of the geometric indices of the
investigated section.
Fig. 4. Roundness measurements and diameter records of the internal surface of the cylinder liner in
the studied cross-area position
7. Khodabakhshian Kargar & Baghbani, Investigation of the Cylinder Liner Wear... 21
The results of concentricity measurement values
Given the values of the roundness
measurements on the internal surface of the
cylinder liner in different transverse positions,
the concentricity values of 60.6, 52.5, 45.4,
and 28.5 μm were obtained between circles 12
and 1, 12 and 3, 12 and 6, and 12 and 9 around
the vertical axis demonstrated in Fig. 3,
respectively. These results justify the values of
the deviation from the nominal dimension
resulting from the severe wear mechanisms in
the cylinder liner, which are observed during
service and maintenance.
The results of straightness measurement values
outside the interval
Fig. 5 shows a report of five lengthwise
profiles in the positions of 12 sections studied
along the internal surface of the cylinder liner.
The maximum straightness value ( ) obtained
from measurements along each longitudinal
profile indicates the deviation extent of the
domain around the guideline of the cylinder
liner (vertical axis in Fig. 3) derived from the
appropriate LSQ technique.
The results of the straightness values
related to five profiles addressed in Fig. 5
elaborate on the following points:
Uneven wear is perceived along with all
longitudinal profiles. Each point on the inner
surface of the cylinder liner is exposed to
different environmental and dynamic
conditions of pressure, friction, lubrication
pattern, slip speed, the temperature at the point
of contact, and contact force. Therefore, it is
necessary to evaluate the fluctuations of the
geometric condition of the inner surface of the
cylinder liner to predict the signs of surface
failure. Each point on the inner surface of the
cylinder liner is exposed to different
environmental and dynamic conditions of
pressure, friction, lubrication pattern, sliding
speed, point of contact temperature, and
contact force.
The maximum wear rate was always
obtained at the contact surface of the first
piston rings at the high dead point with mean
values of 80.2, 60.6, 32.5, 18.2, and 44.4 μm
for the longitudinal profiles related to the lines
1, 4, 5, 3, and 2, respectively (Fig. 3). These
cases can be justified by adverse and
undesirable tribological conditions at the TDC
position. As stated, the maximum straightness
deviation (80.2 μm) in the longitudinal profile
1 during the impact period is formed as a
quick direct reaction force to the lateral force
response at high combustion temperatures.
These results and findings are in coinciding
with the studies conducted by El-Sherbiny,
(1982); Schneider et al., (1993); Kilic,
Aguirre-Cruz, & Raman (2007); Nabnu, Ren,
Yasuda, Zhu, & Wang (2008); Kumar, Prasad
Rao, & Hari Narayana Rao, (2015).
The amplitude of the grooves associated
with the true tolerance of the inner surface of
the cylinder liner showed the highest value for
the longitudinal profiles 1 and 4 near the low
point of death due to the lateral inertia reaction
of the piston, while the longitudinal profiles 5
and 3 showed the lowest amplitude,
respectively.
Conclusion
In the present study, geometric
measurements of the inner surface of the
cylindrical liner were carried out using a
Formtester device. Compared to the design
tolerance interval (provided by the customer),
the measurements indicated that the
Formtester device is a new acceptable
diagnostic tool for controlling wear and error
rate. The dimensional evaluation of the inner
diameter of the cylindrical liner in various
transverse positions (12 studied sections)
along the piston movement path within the
cylinder confirmed the previous results and
findings, which were obtained using other
more sophisticated evaluation techniques.
8. 22 Journal of Agricultural Machinery Vol. 13, No. 1, Spring 2023
Fig. 5. Straightness measurements of the internal surface of a cylinder liner in the studied cross-area
situation
Wear at transverse sections at high and low
dead points was significantly greater than that
of the same transverse section in the vicinity of
the piston movement midpoint inside the
cylinder, as well as the transverse sections
adjacent to the high dead point. This
phenomenon is due to the presence of the
engine oil layer maintained in that position.
Investigating the straightness of the
cylinder liner at the position of the studied
sections indicates non-uniform wear along
with all the longitudinal profiles. The
maximum wear rate was always at the contact
surface of the first piston rings at a high dead
point with mean values of 80.2, 60.6, 32.5,
18.2, and 44.4 μm for the longitudinal profiles
related to the lines 1, 5, 4, 3, and 2,
respectively. The results of this research can
provide feedbacks for engine designers when
applying various changes to the engine, as well
as maintenance and repair engineers to ensure
the correct implementation and suggest
predictive and preventive maintenance
strategies.
Acknowledgment
The present study was conducted in the
form of a research project, No. 47948, with the
support and cooperation of the Faculty of
Agriculture of Ferdowsi University of
Mashhad.
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