This document summarizes David Ricardo's theory of rent from his book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation." Ricardo defined rent as the payment made for the use of land and its natural fertility. He argued that rent arises due to differences in land fertility - more fertile land generates a surplus over less fertile land. This surplus is what constitutes economic rent. Ricardo also explained how rent can arise from intensive cultivation due to diminishing marginal returns from additional labor and capital on a single plot of land.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) was an influential British economist. He made several important contributions including:
1) He developed theories of income distribution, value, and comparative advantage.
2) He argued that wages would equal the subsistence level in the long run, and that rents and profits would be distributed residually after wages.
3) He showed how economic development leads to falling profits and rising rents, as less fertile land must be cultivated over time.
4) He believed that the central question in economics was how total output is distributed among classes in the stationary state, not how economies grow richer.
1) Ricardo's theory of rent states that rent arises due to differences in the fertility of land and that the least fertile land that is cultivated sets the price of farm output.
2) There are three situations where rent arises: extensive cultivation when more land is brought into use, intensive cultivation when more labor and capital is used on the same plots of land, and situation rent due to locational advantages.
3) Criticisms of the theory include that land fertility is not fixed, the concept of marginal land does not always exist, it ignores alternative uses of land, and factors like capital and labor are not homogeneous.
This document summarizes Ronald Coase's theorem on the allocation of resources between parties when transaction costs are zero. It discusses that Coase believed private negotiations between parties could lead to an efficient allocation of resources to address externalities, rather than relying on government intervention. It provides an example of how a factory and fishermen could negotiate an efficient solution to pollution without government regulation if transaction costs were zero. The document also outlines the assumptions of the theorem and provides analysis of an example case related to Coase's work.
The theory of rent: From Classical and Marxist approachAntara Chakrabarty
These slides discuss the Theory of Rent from Classical and Marxist approaches. However, it focuses mostly on the Ricardian derivations on Rent of Land.
The ancient Greeks made major achievements in philosophy, literature, art, architecture, and the development of economics as a field of study. They were pioneers in democratic government and established many cultural institutions still important today. Some key Greek innovations included establishing the first universities, developing astronomy and mathematics, holding the first Olympic games, and advances in architecture like temples with columns. Greek society was dominated by free citizens and slave labor, with education primarily for wealthy males. Their intellectual legacy has profoundly shaped Western thought and culture over 2000 years later.
The document discusses how the farm bill consists of both visible and hidden components. Visibly, it appears as government spending categories like subsidies. However, hidden components lower price floors for commodities, which lowers market prices and results in billions lost by farmers. When only spending is considered, it misses the real story - hidden reductions have a much bigger negative impact on farmers than visible subsidies have a positive one. Making these hidden impacts visible shows that the farm bill overall benefits agribusiness at the expense of farmers.
This document summarizes David Ricardo's theory of rent from his book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation." Ricardo defined rent as the payment made for the use of land and its natural fertility. He argued that rent arises due to differences in land fertility - more fertile land generates a surplus over less fertile land. This surplus is what constitutes economic rent. Ricardo also explained how rent can arise from intensive cultivation due to diminishing marginal returns from additional labor and capital on a single plot of land.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) was an influential British economist. He made several important contributions including:
1) He developed theories of income distribution, value, and comparative advantage.
2) He argued that wages would equal the subsistence level in the long run, and that rents and profits would be distributed residually after wages.
3) He showed how economic development leads to falling profits and rising rents, as less fertile land must be cultivated over time.
4) He believed that the central question in economics was how total output is distributed among classes in the stationary state, not how economies grow richer.
1) Ricardo's theory of rent states that rent arises due to differences in the fertility of land and that the least fertile land that is cultivated sets the price of farm output.
2) There are three situations where rent arises: extensive cultivation when more land is brought into use, intensive cultivation when more labor and capital is used on the same plots of land, and situation rent due to locational advantages.
3) Criticisms of the theory include that land fertility is not fixed, the concept of marginal land does not always exist, it ignores alternative uses of land, and factors like capital and labor are not homogeneous.
This document summarizes Ronald Coase's theorem on the allocation of resources between parties when transaction costs are zero. It discusses that Coase believed private negotiations between parties could lead to an efficient allocation of resources to address externalities, rather than relying on government intervention. It provides an example of how a factory and fishermen could negotiate an efficient solution to pollution without government regulation if transaction costs were zero. The document also outlines the assumptions of the theorem and provides analysis of an example case related to Coase's work.
The theory of rent: From Classical and Marxist approachAntara Chakrabarty
These slides discuss the Theory of Rent from Classical and Marxist approaches. However, it focuses mostly on the Ricardian derivations on Rent of Land.
The ancient Greeks made major achievements in philosophy, literature, art, architecture, and the development of economics as a field of study. They were pioneers in democratic government and established many cultural institutions still important today. Some key Greek innovations included establishing the first universities, developing astronomy and mathematics, holding the first Olympic games, and advances in architecture like temples with columns. Greek society was dominated by free citizens and slave labor, with education primarily for wealthy males. Their intellectual legacy has profoundly shaped Western thought and culture over 2000 years later.
The document discusses how the farm bill consists of both visible and hidden components. Visibly, it appears as government spending categories like subsidies. However, hidden components lower price floors for commodities, which lowers market prices and results in billions lost by farmers. When only spending is considered, it misses the real story - hidden reductions have a much bigger negative impact on farmers than visible subsidies have a positive one. Making these hidden impacts visible shows that the farm bill overall benefits agribusiness at the expense of farmers.
Since pollution is an externality firms will not undertake to control their pollution. The answer is in government regulations. Coase argues that in perfect competition with laissez faire, govt regulation is not needed. Instead bargaining between the polluters and their victims can lead to an optimal situation. But this pre supposes equality in bargaining, and does not take note of ecological consequences of pollution.
Presentación multiplicador de la economía cap 24marcohl
Este documento describe el modelo del multiplicador keynesiano y cómo las políticas fiscales del gobierno, como los impuestos y el gasto público, afectan la producción agregada de una economía. Según el modelo, un aumento en el gasto gubernamental aumentará la producción en una cantidad igual al gasto multiplicado por el multiplicador, mientras que un aumento en los impuestos reducirá la producción. El documento también reconoce algunas limitaciones del modelo simple del multiplicador.
1. Welfare economics analyzes how economic policies affect overall social welfare. Classical welfare economics assumed welfare was additive and could be quantitatively measured and compared between individuals.
2. New welfare economics is normative rather than positive and recognizes welfare cannot be cardinally measured, only ordinally. It compares the relative social welfare of different economic states. Scholars like Hicks, Pigou, Kaldor and Scitovsky contributed to developing new welfare economics.
3. The Hicks-Kaldor compensation principle states that if one group gains from a policy change while another loses, but the gainers could potentially compensate the losers and still be better off, then the change increases social welfare. Scitovsky
Concept and application of cd and ces production function in resource managem...Nar B Chhetri
The document defines production functions and describes the Cobb-Douglas and CES production functions. It provides the mathematical forms and properties of each. The Cobb-Douglas production function relates output to labor and capital inputs. It is widely used in empirical analyses. The CES production function generalizes the Cobb-Douglas by allowing the elasticity of substitution to vary. Both functions exhibit constant returns to scale under certain parameter values. Examples are given of estimating production functions for various industries and crops using regression analysis.
The modern theory of rent has modified and expanded on Ricardo's original theory in several ways:
1. Rent can be earned by all factors of production, not just land, whenever the supply of a factor is inelastic.
2. Rent is defined as the difference between a factor's actual earnings and its transfer earnings (what it could earn in its next best use), rather than being based on differences in land quality.
3. Whether rent enters into price depends on the perspective (economy, industry, or individual firm) whereas Ricardo argued it never enters price. From an economy perspective, rent does not affect price.
The document provides an overview of the study of economics. It discusses that economics is the study of how individuals and societies use scarce resources. It also outlines some fundamental economic concepts like opportunity cost, marginalism, and efficient markets. Additionally, it describes the scope and method of economics, including the differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics.
A pricing objective guides businesses in setting product or service prices for consumers. Pricing objectives reflect business goals and consumer expectations. Examples include maximizing short-term profits, increasing sales volume, matching competitors' prices, or meeting target rates of return. Different pricing strategies are required to achieve different pricing objectives.
1. The document discusses the Neoclassical School of economic thought, which developed in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Key contributors included Léon Walras, Alfred Marshall, and Vilfredo Pareto.
2. It outlines some of the differences between the Neoclassical School and earlier Marginalist economists, including a greater focus on both supply and demand in price determination and an increased interest in the role of money.
3. The document then discusses Alfred Marshall's significant contributions to Neoclassical economics, including his development of concepts like price elasticity, consumer and producer surplus, and the distinction between short-run and long-run periods for markets to adjust.
This document discusses set off and carry forward of losses under the Indian Income Tax Act. It provides details on:
1. Set off of losses from one source of income against income from another source under the same head (intra-head set off) and against income from other heads (inter-head set off), subject to certain exceptions.
2. Carrying forward unadjusted losses to future years for set off against income of those years, with time limits varying from 4 to 8 years depending on the head.
3. Key points around set off and carry forward of losses from different income sources like house property, business, capital gains, and owning race horses.
The document discusses the revealed preference theory of consumer demand. It makes three main points:
1. According to revealed preference theory, if a consumer purchases a specific bundle of goods given their income and prices, that bundle is revealed to be preferred to any other affordable bundle.
2. The theory has three axioms: rationality, consistency, and transitivity. It also assumes tastes remain constant.
3. The theory can be used to derive a demand curve by observing how quantities purchased change as prices change, revealing consumer preferences at different price points.
1. Market failure occurs when the conditions for perfect competition are not met, resulting in inefficient resource allocation. Some causes of market failure include monopoly, externalities, public goods, imperfect information, and non-existent markets.
2. Externalities occur when the actions of one economic unit unintentionally impact another in an uncompensated way, such as pollution from factories. This leads to a divergence between private and social costs/benefits.
3. For goods with public goods characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability, like national defense, there is no market mechanism to efficiently allocate resources, as they cannot be priced. This results in underprovision of public goods.
The document discusses the meaning and definition of agricultural income under the Indian Income Tax Act of 1961.
[1] Agricultural income includes income from agricultural land used for cultivation, processing of produce to render it fit for market, and income from farm houses meeting certain conditions.
[2] It must involve human labor and skill on the land for cultivation, protection, and maintenance to qualify as agricultural income.
[3] Certain incomes like dairy, poultry, livestock are not considered agricultural, while others like tree cultivation, rent from farmland, and crop insurance payouts are.
Este documento presenta los conceptos clave del equilibrio de mercado, incluyendo la demanda, la oferta, y cómo se determina el precio y la cantidad de equilibrio cuando la demanda y la oferta se igualan. Explica cómo los cambios en la demanda y la oferta afectan el equilibrio del mercado, y provee ejemplos gráficos de estos conceptos. El objetivo es ayudar a los estudiantes a entender cómo las fuerzas del mercado interactúan para establecer el precio y la cantidad transada.
This document discusses risk aversion and expected utility theory given uncertainty. It introduces concepts like probability, utility functions, and risk preferences. It explains that individuals do not simply maximize expected wealth but rather expected utility. This is because utility functions capture decreasing marginal utility of wealth as well as risk aversion. Several examples are provided to illustrate concepts like the St. Petersburg paradox and how expected utility differs from certainty equivalent. Five axioms of rational choice under uncertainty are outlined which form the basis of expected utility theory.
policy implication of the classical Equilibrium modelShahidMunir33
The document discusses the effects of reducing income taxes according to the classical equilibrium model. It states that reducing income taxes would:
1) Increase disposable income, leading to higher consumption and aggregate demand. Interest rates may also increase as the government issues bonds to replace lost revenue.
2) Increase the real wages of individuals by reducing the percentage of income paid in taxes. This would shift the aggregate labor supply curve to the right, increasing employment and overall output.
3) Shift the aggregate supply curve to the right as well, which would decrease price levels according to the new general equilibrium of the model.
A brief introduction to game theory prisoners dilemma and nash equilibrumpravesh kumar
Game theory is the study of strategic decision making between players. A game has players, strategies or actions for each player, and payoffs for outcomes. The Prisoner's Dilemma is a classic game where two prisoners must choose to confess or deny a crime without communicating. If both deny, they get a short sentence, but each has an incentive to confess regardless of the other's action for a lesser sentence. Nash equilibrium is where each player's strategy is the best response to the other players' strategies.
The document summarizes several economic theories of consumption:
1) John Maynard Keynes theorized that consumption depends on current income, while later models incorporated expected future income and wealth.
2) Irving Fisher introduced intertemporal choice theory, assuming consumers maximize lifetime utility subject to budget constraints.
3) Franco Modigliani's life-cycle hypothesis proposes consumption varies over a person's life cycle as they save during working years and dissave in retirement.
4) Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis views current income as having permanent and transitory components, with consumption based on permanent income.
Kaldor and Hicks developed the compensation principle to evaluate changes in social welfare resulting from economic changes that help some and harm others. Their principle states that if those who gain can compensate the losers and still be better off, the change increases social welfare. They used utility possibility curves to illustrate this, showing how compensation could move individuals to a higher indifference curve. Their theory was criticized for requiring interpersonal utility comparisons and assuming compensation actually occurs.
This document outlines an 8-step model for conducting research. The model includes 3 phases: 1) Deciding what to research by formulating a research problem, 2) Planning the study by designing the research, developing instruments, selecting samples, and writing a proposal, and 3) Conducting the study by collecting and analyzing data and writing a report. Each step is described in 1-2 paragraphs explaining the key activities and considerations for that phase of the research process.
The document discusses several types of gymnosperms from the fossil record, including Lyginopteris, Williamsonia, Glossopteris, and Pentoxylon. It provides details on their morphological features, reproductive structures, and fossil evidence. Key points include:
- Lyginopteris was a vine-like plant with large fronds that reproduced via Crossotheca male structures and ovules covered by cupules.
- Williamsonia was a tall, palm-like plant that bore spirally arranged ovules on a conical receptacle for female reproduction and bifid microsporophylls bearing synangia for male reproduction.
- Glossopteris had simple, reticulate-veined leaves and reproduced
Since pollution is an externality firms will not undertake to control their pollution. The answer is in government regulations. Coase argues that in perfect competition with laissez faire, govt regulation is not needed. Instead bargaining between the polluters and their victims can lead to an optimal situation. But this pre supposes equality in bargaining, and does not take note of ecological consequences of pollution.
Presentación multiplicador de la economía cap 24marcohl
Este documento describe el modelo del multiplicador keynesiano y cómo las políticas fiscales del gobierno, como los impuestos y el gasto público, afectan la producción agregada de una economía. Según el modelo, un aumento en el gasto gubernamental aumentará la producción en una cantidad igual al gasto multiplicado por el multiplicador, mientras que un aumento en los impuestos reducirá la producción. El documento también reconoce algunas limitaciones del modelo simple del multiplicador.
1. Welfare economics analyzes how economic policies affect overall social welfare. Classical welfare economics assumed welfare was additive and could be quantitatively measured and compared between individuals.
2. New welfare economics is normative rather than positive and recognizes welfare cannot be cardinally measured, only ordinally. It compares the relative social welfare of different economic states. Scholars like Hicks, Pigou, Kaldor and Scitovsky contributed to developing new welfare economics.
3. The Hicks-Kaldor compensation principle states that if one group gains from a policy change while another loses, but the gainers could potentially compensate the losers and still be better off, then the change increases social welfare. Scitovsky
Concept and application of cd and ces production function in resource managem...Nar B Chhetri
The document defines production functions and describes the Cobb-Douglas and CES production functions. It provides the mathematical forms and properties of each. The Cobb-Douglas production function relates output to labor and capital inputs. It is widely used in empirical analyses. The CES production function generalizes the Cobb-Douglas by allowing the elasticity of substitution to vary. Both functions exhibit constant returns to scale under certain parameter values. Examples are given of estimating production functions for various industries and crops using regression analysis.
The modern theory of rent has modified and expanded on Ricardo's original theory in several ways:
1. Rent can be earned by all factors of production, not just land, whenever the supply of a factor is inelastic.
2. Rent is defined as the difference between a factor's actual earnings and its transfer earnings (what it could earn in its next best use), rather than being based on differences in land quality.
3. Whether rent enters into price depends on the perspective (economy, industry, or individual firm) whereas Ricardo argued it never enters price. From an economy perspective, rent does not affect price.
The document provides an overview of the study of economics. It discusses that economics is the study of how individuals and societies use scarce resources. It also outlines some fundamental economic concepts like opportunity cost, marginalism, and efficient markets. Additionally, it describes the scope and method of economics, including the differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics.
A pricing objective guides businesses in setting product or service prices for consumers. Pricing objectives reflect business goals and consumer expectations. Examples include maximizing short-term profits, increasing sales volume, matching competitors' prices, or meeting target rates of return. Different pricing strategies are required to achieve different pricing objectives.
1. The document discusses the Neoclassical School of economic thought, which developed in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Key contributors included Léon Walras, Alfred Marshall, and Vilfredo Pareto.
2. It outlines some of the differences between the Neoclassical School and earlier Marginalist economists, including a greater focus on both supply and demand in price determination and an increased interest in the role of money.
3. The document then discusses Alfred Marshall's significant contributions to Neoclassical economics, including his development of concepts like price elasticity, consumer and producer surplus, and the distinction between short-run and long-run periods for markets to adjust.
This document discusses set off and carry forward of losses under the Indian Income Tax Act. It provides details on:
1. Set off of losses from one source of income against income from another source under the same head (intra-head set off) and against income from other heads (inter-head set off), subject to certain exceptions.
2. Carrying forward unadjusted losses to future years for set off against income of those years, with time limits varying from 4 to 8 years depending on the head.
3. Key points around set off and carry forward of losses from different income sources like house property, business, capital gains, and owning race horses.
The document discusses the revealed preference theory of consumer demand. It makes three main points:
1. According to revealed preference theory, if a consumer purchases a specific bundle of goods given their income and prices, that bundle is revealed to be preferred to any other affordable bundle.
2. The theory has three axioms: rationality, consistency, and transitivity. It also assumes tastes remain constant.
3. The theory can be used to derive a demand curve by observing how quantities purchased change as prices change, revealing consumer preferences at different price points.
1. Market failure occurs when the conditions for perfect competition are not met, resulting in inefficient resource allocation. Some causes of market failure include monopoly, externalities, public goods, imperfect information, and non-existent markets.
2. Externalities occur when the actions of one economic unit unintentionally impact another in an uncompensated way, such as pollution from factories. This leads to a divergence between private and social costs/benefits.
3. For goods with public goods characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability, like national defense, there is no market mechanism to efficiently allocate resources, as they cannot be priced. This results in underprovision of public goods.
The document discusses the meaning and definition of agricultural income under the Indian Income Tax Act of 1961.
[1] Agricultural income includes income from agricultural land used for cultivation, processing of produce to render it fit for market, and income from farm houses meeting certain conditions.
[2] It must involve human labor and skill on the land for cultivation, protection, and maintenance to qualify as agricultural income.
[3] Certain incomes like dairy, poultry, livestock are not considered agricultural, while others like tree cultivation, rent from farmland, and crop insurance payouts are.
Este documento presenta los conceptos clave del equilibrio de mercado, incluyendo la demanda, la oferta, y cómo se determina el precio y la cantidad de equilibrio cuando la demanda y la oferta se igualan. Explica cómo los cambios en la demanda y la oferta afectan el equilibrio del mercado, y provee ejemplos gráficos de estos conceptos. El objetivo es ayudar a los estudiantes a entender cómo las fuerzas del mercado interactúan para establecer el precio y la cantidad transada.
This document discusses risk aversion and expected utility theory given uncertainty. It introduces concepts like probability, utility functions, and risk preferences. It explains that individuals do not simply maximize expected wealth but rather expected utility. This is because utility functions capture decreasing marginal utility of wealth as well as risk aversion. Several examples are provided to illustrate concepts like the St. Petersburg paradox and how expected utility differs from certainty equivalent. Five axioms of rational choice under uncertainty are outlined which form the basis of expected utility theory.
policy implication of the classical Equilibrium modelShahidMunir33
The document discusses the effects of reducing income taxes according to the classical equilibrium model. It states that reducing income taxes would:
1) Increase disposable income, leading to higher consumption and aggregate demand. Interest rates may also increase as the government issues bonds to replace lost revenue.
2) Increase the real wages of individuals by reducing the percentage of income paid in taxes. This would shift the aggregate labor supply curve to the right, increasing employment and overall output.
3) Shift the aggregate supply curve to the right as well, which would decrease price levels according to the new general equilibrium of the model.
A brief introduction to game theory prisoners dilemma and nash equilibrumpravesh kumar
Game theory is the study of strategic decision making between players. A game has players, strategies or actions for each player, and payoffs for outcomes. The Prisoner's Dilemma is a classic game where two prisoners must choose to confess or deny a crime without communicating. If both deny, they get a short sentence, but each has an incentive to confess regardless of the other's action for a lesser sentence. Nash equilibrium is where each player's strategy is the best response to the other players' strategies.
The document summarizes several economic theories of consumption:
1) John Maynard Keynes theorized that consumption depends on current income, while later models incorporated expected future income and wealth.
2) Irving Fisher introduced intertemporal choice theory, assuming consumers maximize lifetime utility subject to budget constraints.
3) Franco Modigliani's life-cycle hypothesis proposes consumption varies over a person's life cycle as they save during working years and dissave in retirement.
4) Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis views current income as having permanent and transitory components, with consumption based on permanent income.
Kaldor and Hicks developed the compensation principle to evaluate changes in social welfare resulting from economic changes that help some and harm others. Their principle states that if those who gain can compensate the losers and still be better off, the change increases social welfare. They used utility possibility curves to illustrate this, showing how compensation could move individuals to a higher indifference curve. Their theory was criticized for requiring interpersonal utility comparisons and assuming compensation actually occurs.
This document outlines an 8-step model for conducting research. The model includes 3 phases: 1) Deciding what to research by formulating a research problem, 2) Planning the study by designing the research, developing instruments, selecting samples, and writing a proposal, and 3) Conducting the study by collecting and analyzing data and writing a report. Each step is described in 1-2 paragraphs explaining the key activities and considerations for that phase of the research process.
The document discusses several types of gymnosperms from the fossil record, including Lyginopteris, Williamsonia, Glossopteris, and Pentoxylon. It provides details on their morphological features, reproductive structures, and fossil evidence. Key points include:
- Lyginopteris was a vine-like plant with large fronds that reproduced via Crossotheca male structures and ovules covered by cupules.
- Williamsonia was a tall, palm-like plant that bore spirally arranged ovules on a conical receptacle for female reproduction and bifid microsporophylls bearing synangia for male reproduction.
- Glossopteris had simple, reticulate-veined leaves and reproduced
This document provides an overview of demography presented by Mr. Gajanan Katre. It defines demography as the study of population and discusses the importance of demographic data for health planning. It outlines key elements of demography like size, composition, and distribution of a population. Major sources of demographic data include censuses, surveys, and registration of vital events. Demographic processes include fertility, mortality, marriage, migration, and social mobility. Demographic stages from high stationary to low stationary are also covered. Methods of primary and secondary data collection are described along with analysis and interpretation of census data from India.
This document discusses the history and definitions of ecological niches. It describes how early researchers like Grinnell, Elton, and Gause studied niches in birds, predator-prey relationships, and species competition. Hutchinson formally defined the niche in 1959 as the activity range along every environmental dimension. The niche includes all resources and conditions needed for a species to survive and reproduce. Hutchinson modeled niches as multidimensional hypervolumes. A species' fundamental niche is the total suitable conditions without competition, while its realized niche is the portion it actually occupies.
This document presents a summary of group theory and symmetry concepts. It discusses how molecular structure can be determined using techniques like X-ray crystallography, which relies on an understanding of symmetry and group theory. Examples of molecular structures determined by X-ray crystallography are shown, including water, benzene, ammonia, and boron trifluoride molecules. Their rotational axes and mirror planes are identified and described. Group theory is also important for understanding NMR, infrared, and UV-visible spectra.
- William Shakespeare was an English playwright, poet and actor born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He attended Stratford Grammar School and married Anne Hathaway in 1582 with whom he had three children. Shakespeare died in 1616 at the age of 52.
- The Tempest is one of Shakespeare's last plays, believed to have been written in 1610-1611. It explores themes of power, magic, and forgiveness through the story of the exiled Duke Prospero, who uses magic to exact revenge on those who wronged him by shipwrecking them on his island domain.
- Key characters include Prospero, his daughter Miranda, the spirit Ariel who aids
The document discusses soil profiles and horizons. It describes the key horizons - O, A, B, C, and R - found in soil profiles. The O horizon is the organic surface layer, the A horizon is the surface soil with the most organic matter, the B horizon is the subsoil where clay and other materials accumulate, the C horizon is the substratum made of non-indurated rock, and the R horizon is the solid bedrock. It also explains how soil texture is determined by measuring the percentage of sand, silt, and clay particles in a soil sample. Soil type is identified based on these measurements plotted on a soil texture triangle.
This document discusses microtomy, which is the process of cutting very thin sections of tissues, organs, or whole animals for histological studies using a microtome machine. It describes the basic parts and functioning of rotatory microtomes, which cut sections through rotation rather than rocking. The document outlines the key steps involved in microtomy, including fixation, dehydration, infiltration, embedding, section cutting, staining, and mounting. Microtomy requires careful attention to detail at each step to avoid spoiling the final histological preparation.
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the Earth's interior. It is composed of three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and exists in two types, oceanic and continental. The mantle is the thick middle layer, while the core is mostly iron and makes up a third of the Earth's mass. The layers are similar to an egg, with the crust as the shell, mantle as the egg white, and core as the yolk. The Earth also has 5 physical layers from the lithosphere to the inner core. Tectonic plates comprise the crust, which breaks into about 19 pieces that move atop the asthenosphere.
Farming impacts soil resources through soil loss and excess fertilizer use. Farmers add fertilizers to improve crop growth, but excess fertilizers can harm soil microorganisms and pollute waterways when carried by rainwater. The document discusses how various human activities like farming, construction, and mining expose soil and can lead to soil loss, impacting its ability to support plant growth and ecosystem functions. Testing of soil samples from different locations found pH levels ranging from 4.82 in a rice field to 7.15 near a mine site.
The document summarizes the key geomorphological features of the Bharveli area in Madhya Pradesh, India. It describes that two-thirds of the study area consists of planar surfaces covered by clayey soil. Undulating ground surfaces formed by denudation processes are also present. Infilled valleys confined along river streams are depositional landforms used for agriculture. Denudational hills composed of granite and gneiss formed from weathering and erosion processes are located near Agarwara. Residual hills, pediments, and pediplains resulting from pediplanation are also observed near Bharveli, Jarera, and Manjhara respectively. Structural hills and linear ridges developed due to tectonic
This document discusses emergency provisions in the Indian Constitution from Articles 352 to 360. It defines national emergency, state emergency, and financial emergency. During a national emergency, the President can assume extra powers, suspend fundamental rights, and extend the term of the Lok Sabha. A state emergency allows the President to take over state administration. During a financial emergency, the President can issue financial directives and reduce salaries. The document provides examples of past emergencies in India and explains the impact of the 44th Constitutional amendment on emergency powers.
The document summarizes key features of the Indian constitution. It notes that the constitution was drafted by the constituent assembly between 1946-1949 and came into effect on January 26, 1950. It describes the constitution as the longest and most detailed in the world, with 395 articles and 12 schedules. Key features highlighted include it being the supreme law of India, guaranteeing fundamental rights and directive principles, and establishing India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic with universal adult suffrage.
This document discusses simple harmonic motion (SHM), which refers to the periodic back-and-forth motion of an object attached to a spring or pendulum. It defines SHM as motion produced by a restoring force proportional to displacement and in the opposite direction. The key conditions for SHM are described, including that the maximum displacement from equilibrium is the amplitude. Equations show that the frequency and period of SHM depend only on the spring constant and mass. Graphs illustrate the variation in displacement, velocity, and acceleration over time for SHM. The document also discusses the conservation of energy for SHM systems, where potential and kinetic energy periodically convert between each other during the oscillation.
1. Algae are simple, autotrophic plants that lack differentiation into tissues. They can be unicellular or multicellular and are found in aquatic, terrestrial, and unusual habitats.
2. Algae thalli are either unicellular or form colonies, filaments, or pseudoparenchymatous structures. Unicellular algae can be flagellated, amoeboid, or non-motile coccoidal forms. Multicellular thalli include colonies, branched and unbranched filaments, and pseudoparenchymatous forms.
3. Algae differ from plants, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms in their habitat, autotrophic
This document provides an introduction to basic computer concepts. It discusses what a computer is and its main components, including the central processing unit, memory, storage, input/output devices, and software. It defines key terms like hardware, operating systems, applications and describes different types of computers. The document is intended as a starting point that will be expanded on in later chapters to provide more technical details about computer systems and technology.
This document discusses crystal structures and Bravais lattices. It defines an ideal crystal as a periodic array of structural units such as atoms or molecules. There are 14 possible Bravais lattices in 3 dimensions that describe the arrangement of points in a crystal lattice. Examples of different crystal structures are given such as body centered cubic (BCC), face centered cubic (FCC), and hexagonal close packed (HCP). Common crystal types like sodium chloride and diamond are also described.
This document discusses luminescence and electroluminescence. It defines luminescence as light produced by materials without heat, such as from chemical reactions (chemiluminescence) or living organisms (bioluminescence). Electroluminescence generates light in response to electric current passing through materials and is the basis for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). OLEDs consist of organic materials sandwiched between electrodes that emit different colors of light for displays. They offer benefits like high brightness, contrast, viewing angle, and response time but challenges include limited lifetimes, especially for blue OLEDs, and vulnerability to water
2. रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त (INTRODUCTION TO
RICARDIAN THEORY):
रिकार्डो के लगान सिद्धान्त को ‘लगान का प्रततष्ठित सिद्धान्त’
भी कहा जाता है । रिकार्डो िे पूर्व प्रकृ ततर्ादी अर्वशाष्रियों
(Physiocrats) ने लगान िम्बन्धी अपने वर्चाि प्ररतुत ककये र्े ।
प्रकृ ततर्ाददयों के अनुिाि कृ वि ही एकमाि क्षेि है जहााँ अततिेक
(Surplus) उत्पन्न होता है । प्रकृ ततर्ाददयों ने कृ वि क्षेि की अततिेक
क्षमता का कािण प्राकृ ततक तत्र्ों का योगदान बताया र्ा ।
उनके अनुिाि मानर् पि प्रकृ तत का दयालु होना लगान का मुख्य
कािण है । र्डेवर्र्ड रिकार्डो पहले अर्वशारिी र्े ष्जनका यह वर्श्र्ाि
र्ा कक प्रकृ तत मानर् पि दयालु नहीीं बष्कक कृ पण होती है । उनके
अनुिाि लगान भी प्रकृ तत की उदािता के कािण नहीीं बष्कक
कृ पणताके कािण उत्पन्न होता है ।
19र्ीीं शताब्दी में रिकार्डो ने अपनी प्रसिद्ध पुरतक ‘Principles of
Political Economy and Taxation’ में लगान सिद्धान्त का
प्रततपादन ककया । रिकार्डो के अनुिाि, ”लगान भूसम की उपज का
र्ह भाग है जो मौसलक तर्ा अवर्नाशी शष्ततयों के उपयोग के
सलए भू-रर्ामी को ददया जाता है ।”
3. 2. रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त की मान्यताएँ
(ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RICARDIAN THEORY):
(1) वर्सभन्न भू-खण्र्डों की उर्विता में अन्ति होता है ।
(2) भूसम की पूततव तनष्श्चत होती है तर्ा भूसम का कोई र्ैकष्कपक प्रयोग
(Alternative Use) नहीीं होता । रिकार्डो की मान्यतानुिाि भूसम का
प्रयोग के र्ल अनाज (Corn) का उत्पादन किने के सलए ही ककया जाता
है । दूििे शब्दों में, भूसम की हरतान्तिण आय (Transfer Earning)
शून्य होती है ।
(3) भूसम पि खेती उिकी उपजाऊ शष्तत (Fertility) के क्रम में की
जाती है अर्ावत िर्वप्रर्म िबिे पहले अधधकतम उर्विता र्ाली भूसम पि
खेती की जाती है तर्ा उिका िम्पूणव प्रयोग होने पि ही उििे कम
उर्विता र्ाली भूसम को खेती के प्रयोग में सलया जाता है ।
(4) भूसम की उर्विता शष्तत मौसलक तर्ा अवर्नाशी है जो कभी नठट
नहीीं होती ।
(5) जनिींख्या र्ृद्धध होने पि अनाज की मााँग बढ़ती है ।
(6) कृ वि में घटते प्रततफल का तनयम (Law of Diminishing Returns)
लागू होता है ।
(7) र्रतु बाजाि में पूणव प्रततयोधगता है ष्जिके कािण िम्पूणव बाजाि में
अनाज की कीमत एकिमान है ।
4. 3. रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त की व्याख्या (EXPLANATION OF THE
RICARDIAN THEORY):
रिकार्डो के लगान सिद्धान्त की व्याख्या तीन शीर्षकों के अन्तगषत
की जा िकती है:
(i) वर्रतृत खेती में लगान (Rent under Extensive Cultivation),
(ii) गहिी खेती में लगान (Rent under Intensive Cultivation),
(iii) ष्रर्तत लगान (Situation Rent) |
5. I. विस्तृत खेती में लगान (RENT UNDER EXTENSIVE CULTIVATION):
रिकार्डो के अनुिाि वर्रतृत खेती में भेदात्मक लगान उत्पन्न होता
है । भेदात्मक लगान की इि धािणा में रिकार्डो इि पूर्व मान्यता
को लेकि चलते हैं कक एक द्र्ीप में अनेक ऐिे भू-खण्र्ड है
ष्जनकी उर्विता (Fertility), गुण (Quality), ष्रर्तत (Location)
आदद में एक िमानता न होकि सभन्नता होती है ।
दूििे शब्दों में, एक द्र्ीप में वर्सभन्न श्रेणणयों र्ाले भू-खण्र्ड हैं ।
िर्ोत्तम श्रेणी की भूसम की उर्विता िर्ावधधक होती है जहााँ श्रम एर्ीं
पूाँजी की एक तनष्श्चत मािा िे अधधकतम उत्पादन ककया जा
िकता है । इि प्रकाि उर्विता के आधाि पि भू-खण्र्डों का िर्ोत्तम
श्रेणी िे लेकि तनम्नतम श्रेणी तक वर्भाजन ककया जाता है ।
रिकार्डो ने तनम्नतम उर्विता र्ाली भूसम को िीमान्त भूसम
(Marginal Land) के रूप में परिभावित ककया । इि तनम्नतम
उर्विता र्ाली भूसम िे श्रेठि भूसमयों को रिकार्डो ने अधध-िीमान्त
भूसम (Intra-Marginal Land) का नाम ददया । िीमान्त भूसम पि
कोई अततिेक (Surplus) उत्पन्न नहीीं होता तयोंकक इि भूसम पि
प्राप्त आगम खेती की लागत के बिाबि होता है ।
6. रिकार्डो के अनुिाि,
भेदात्मक लगान = अधध-िीमान्त भूसम की उत्पादकता – िीमान्त भूसम की
उत्पादकता
वर्रतृत खेती में भेदात्मक लगान की व्याख्या के सलए हम मानकि चलते हैं कक द्र्ीप
में तीन श्रेणी की भूसम – श्रेणी A िर्ोत्तम, श्रेणी B मध्यम तर्ा श्रेणी C तनम्नतम
उत्पादकता र्ाली भूसमयााँ उपलब्ध हैं । जब द्र्ीप पि कु छ लोग आकि बिते हैं तब
मानर् अपनी उपभोग प्रकृ तत के अनुिाि िबिे पहले िर्ोत्तम उत्पादकता र्ाली A श्रेणी
की भूसम पि खेती आिम्भ किता है ।
अब यदद जनिींख्या के आकाि में तनिन्ति र्ृद्धध होने पि अनाज की मााँग में भी र्ृद्धध
होगी । अनाज उत्पादन के सलए B श्रेणी की भूसम का प्रयोग तब तक नहीीं होगा जब
तक A श्रेणी की िमरत भूसम अनाज उत्पादन में प्रयोग न कि ली जाये ।
जब तक B श्रेणी की भूसम प्रयोग नहीीं की जाती तब तक कोई लगान उपष्रर्त नहीीं
होगा ककन्तु B श्रेणी की भूसम के प्रयोग में आने पि A श्रेणी की भूसम अधध-िीमान्त
भूसम बनकि िीमान्त भूसम B की तुलना में कु छ अततिेक उत्पन्न किेगी । रिकार्डो के
अनुिाि िीमान्त भूसम की तुलना में अधध-िीमान्त भूसम का यही अततिेक लगान
(Rent) है ।
7. रिकार्डो के उपययषक्त विचाि को एक काल्पननक उदाहिण
द्िािा िमझा जा िकता है:
तासलका 1 िे रपठट है कक यदद द्र्ीप पि अनाज की मााँग 100 कु न्तल िे
अधधक होती है तब वर्रतृत खेती में B श्रेणी की भूसम प्रयोग की जायेगी ।
इिी प्रकाि 180 कु न्तल िे अधधक अनाज की मााँग होने पि श्रेणी C की
भूसम प्रयोग की जायेगी ।
धचि 1 में A, B श्रेणी की भूसमयााँ अधध-िीमान्त भूसमयााँ बनकि लगान
उत्पन्न कि िही हैं ष्जिे छायादाि क्षेिफल िे ददखाया गया है ।
8. जैिे-जैिे तनम्न उत्पादकता रति र्ाली भूसमयों पि खेती आिम्भ होती है र्ैिे-र्ैिे ऊाँ ची उत्पादकता र्ाली
भूसमयों पि अततिेक (SURPLUS) उत्पन्न होता जाता है ष्जिे रिकार्डो ने लगान कहा । भेदात्मक प्रदसशवत
किने र्ाली तासलका 1 को धचि 1 में प्रदसशवत ककया गया है ।
9. II. गहिी खेती में लगान (RENT UNDER INTENSIVE CULTIVATION):
रिकार्डो के वर्चाि में लगान के र्ल वर्रतृत खेती में ही उत्पन्न नहीीं होता बष्कक गहिी खेती में भी
उत्पन्न होता है । भूसम की पूततव िीसमत होने के कािण जब जनिींख्या बढ़ने पि एक ऐिी ष्रर्तत
उत्पन्न हो जाती है जबकक तनम्न कोदट की भूसम का भी अभार् उपष्रर्त हो जाता है औि अनाज
की बड़ी मााँग को वर्रतृत खेती द्र्ािा पूिा नहीीं ककया जा िकता ।
ऐिी दशा में जब भूसम के तनष्श्चत औि िीसमत क्षेिफल पि श्रम तर्ा पूाँजी की अततरितत इकाइयों
का प्रयोग किके उत्पादन र्ृद्धध का प्रयाि ककया जाता है तब इिे गहन खेती (Intensive
Cultivation) कहते हैं ।
रिकार्डो का वर्चाि र्ा कक जैिे-जैिे भूसम के तनष्श्चत क्षेिफल पि श्रम तर्ा पूाँजी की अततरितत
इकाइयों का प्रयोग बढ़ाया जाता है, ह्रािमान प्रततफल का तनयम (Law of Diminishing Returns)
लागू हो जाता है ।
इि तनयम के लागू होने की दशा में एक भू-रर्ामी अपनी भूसम के तनष्श्चत क्षेिफल पि श्रम एर्ीं
पूाँजी की अततरितत इकाइयााँ तब तक लगाता जायेगा जब तक िीमान्त उत्पादन का मूकय औि
उत्पादन की लागत िमान न हो जाए ।
श्रम औि पूाँजी की इि मािा को िीमान्त मािा (Marginal Dose) कहा जाता है । इिी िीमान्त
मािा के द्र्ािा अधध-िीमान्त मािाओीं (Intra-Marginal Dose) का लगान एर्ीं र्रतु (अर्ावत अनाज)
का मूकय तनधावरित होता है ।
इि प्रकाि गहिी खेती में ‘िीमान्त भूसम’ के रर्ान पि ‘िीमान्त मािा’ का प्रयोग ककया जाता है ।
िीमान्त मािा पि कोई लगान उत्पन्न नहीीं होगा तयोंकक िीमान्त मािा की लागत उिके
उत्पादकता मूकय के बिाबि होती है ककन्तु अधध-िीमान्त मािाओीं (अर्ावत िीमान्त मािा िे पूर्व की
श्रम र् पूाँजी इकाइयााँ) पि लगान उत्पन्न होता है तयोंकक ये अधध-िीमान्त मािाएाँ अपनी लागत िे
अधधक उत्पादकता उत्पन्न किती हैं ।
िीमान्त मािा िे ऊपि अधध-िीमान्त मािाओीं को जो भी अततिेक प्राप्त होता है उिे लगान कहा
जाता है ।
10. उदाहिण ि िेखाधचत्र द्िािा स्पष्टीकिण:
तासलका 2 िे रपठट है कक श्रम तर्ा पूाँजी की तृतीय मािा िीमान्त मािा है
ष्जि पि कोई अततिेक अर्र्ा लगान उत्पन्न नहीीं होता ।
तासलका 2 को धचि 2 के रूप में व्यतत किके भी िमझा जा िकता है । श्रम
औि पूाँजी की पहली औि दूििी मािाएाँ अधध-िीमान्त मािाएाँ बनकि िीमान्त
मािा (अर्ावत तृतीय मािा) की तुलना में अततिेक उत्पन्न कि िही हैं जो लगान
को िूधचत किता है ।
11. तासलका 2 िे रपठट है कक श्रम तर्ा पूाँजी की
तृतीय मािा िीमान्त मािा है ष्जि पि कोई
अततिेक अर्र्ा लगान उत्पन्न नहीीं होता ।
तासलका 2 को धचि 2 के रूप में व्यतत किके भी
िमझा जा िकता है । श्रम औि पूाँजी की पहली
औि दूििी मािाएाँ अधध-िीमान्त मािाएाँ बनकि
िीमान्त मािा (अर्ावत तृतीय मािा) की तुलना में
अततिेक उत्पन्न कि िही हैं जो लगान को िूधचत
किता है ।
12. उपयुवतत वर्श्लेिण िे रपठट है कक गहिी खेती का लगान िीसमतता के
लगान (Scarcity Rent) का द्योतक है तयोंकक लगान भूसम की
िीसमतता के कािण उत्पन्न हो िहा है ।
13. iii. स्स्िनत लगान (Situation Rent):
रिकार्डो के वर्चाि में यदद भूसम के वर्सभन्न टुकड़ों की उर्विता एकिमान भी है तब भी
उनकी ष्रर्तत में अन्ति होने के कािण लगान उत्पन्न हो िकता है । यदद कोई भूसम
का टुकड़ा अच्छे रर्ान पि बाजाि के तनकट तर्ा यातायात िुवर्धाओीं िे िम्पन्न है तब
ऐिी दशा में भी लगान उपष्रर्त होगा ।
उदाहिण के सलए, तीन भू-खण्र्ड A, B तर्ा C में िे A िर्वश्रेठि ष्रर्तत में, B मध्यम
ष्रर्तत में तर्ा C तनम्नतम ष्रर्तत में है । यातायात लागत इन भू-खण्र्डों पि क्रमशः
Rs. 10, Rs. 30 तर्ा Rs. 50 है ।
ऐिी दशा में जब तीनों भू-खण्र्डों का उत्पाददत अनाज बाजाि आकि एक ही कीमत पि
बबकता है तब भू-खण्र्ड C की तुलना में भू-खण्र्ड A तर्ा B को क्रमशः Rs. 40 तर्ा Rs.
20 अततिेक अर्र्ा बचत प्राप्त होती है जबकक भू-खण्र्ड C पि कोई बचत प्राप्त नहीीं
होती ।
भूसम C अपनी तनम्नतम ष्रर्तत के कािण िीमान्त भूसम बन जाती है तर्ा भूसम A तर्ा
भूसम B अपनी बेहति ष्रर्तत के कािण अधध-िीमान्त भूसम बनकि लगान उत्पन्न किती
हैं
14. 4. रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त की आलोचना (CRITICISMS OF RICARDIAN
THEORY):
अनेक अिषशास्स्त्रयों ने ननम्नसलखखत बिन्दयओं पि रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त की आलोचना की है:
1. मौसलक तिा अविनाशी शस्क्तयों का न होना (No Original and Indestructible
Powers of Soil):
रटोतनयि एर्ीं हेग अर्वशाष्रियों ने रिकार्डो की इि मान्यता को गलत बताया है कक भूसम की
उर्विा शष्तत मौसलक औि अवर्नाशी होती है । आधुतनक र्ैज्ञातनक युग में इि प्रकाि की
मान्यता का कोई अर्व नहीीं है तयोंकक कृ वि में वर्ज्ञान एर्ीं तकनीकी का प्रयोग किके उर्विता
को बढ़ाया जा िकता है । िार् ही आधुतनक युग में कोई र्रतु अवर्नाशी नहीीं है; भू-रखलन
(Landscape) इिका उदाहिण है ।
2. भूसम जोतने का गलत क्रम (Wrong Order Cultivation of Land):
रिकार्डो की मान्यतानुिाि िबिे अधधक उर्विता र्ाली भूसम िे आिम्भ किके क्रमशः अन्त में
िबिे तनम्न कोदट की भूसम को जोता जाता है । आधर्वक इततहाि में इि िन्दभव का कोई
प्रमाण नहीीं समलता । वर्सभन्न भू-खण्र्डों पि खेती किने के बाद ही यह पता लगता है कक
उनमें उर्विता की दृष्ठट िे िर्वश्रेठि कौन है ? खेती के पहले यह कहना गलत है कक अमुक
भू-खण्र्ड िर्ोत्तम उर्विता र्ाला भू-खण्र्ड है ।
3. लगान का िम्िन्ध के िल भूसम िे नहीं (Rent has no Relation only with the Land):
रिकार्डो के वर्चाि में लगान का िम्बन्ध के र्ल भूसम िे है अन्य िाधनों िे नहीीं । आधुतनक
अर्वशाष्रियों के अनुिाि लगान उत्पन्न होने का कािण िाधन की दुलवभता है तर्ा यह
िीसमतता का तत्र् उत्पादन के प्रत्येक िाधन के िार् हो िकता है । अतः िभी िाधनों पि
लगान उत्पन्न हो िकता है ।
15. 4. िीमान्त अििा लगान-िहहत भूसम (Marginal Land or No-Rent Land):
रिकार्डो की यह मान्यता है कक प्रत्येक देश में एक भू-खण्र्ड ऐिा अर्श्य पाया जाता है ष्जि पि
कोई लगान प्राप्त नहीीं होता । ऐिी भूसम को रिकार्डो ने िीमान्त भूसम का नाम ददया ।
र्ारतवर्कता में िीमान्त भूसम अर्र्ा लगान िदहत भूसम नहीीं पायी जाती ।
5. कीमत एिं लगान (Price and Rent):
रिकार्डो के अनुिाि कीमत लगान को तनधावरित किती है न कक लगान कीमत को । आधुतनक
अर्वशाष्रियों के अनुिाि लगान कािण है तर्ा कीमत परिणाम (Rent is the Cause and Price
is the Result) । लगान उत्पवत्त िाधनों में भूसम की िेर्ाओीं के बदले पुिरकाि है औि यह
उत्पादन लागत को तनधावरित किता है । दूििे शब्दों में, आधुतनक अर्वशाष्रियों के वर्चाि में
लगान कीमत में िष्म्मसलत होता है ।
6. अिास्तविक मान्यताएँ (Unrealistic Assumptions):
रिकार्डो का सिद्धान्त अनेक अर्ारतवर्क मान्यताओीं पि आधारित है । पूणव प्रततयोधगता, कृ वि
में घटते प्रततफल तनयम का कक्रयान्र्यन, माकर्ि के जनिींख्या िम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त आदद
मान्यताएाँ र्ारतवर्क जीर्न में नहीीं पायी जातीीं । रिकार्डो का सिद्धान्त दीघवकालीन है जबकक
दीघवकाल व्यर्हाि में कभी नहीीं आता ।
इिमें कोई िन्देह नहीीं कक रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त की अनेक िीमाएाँ हैं ष्जन्हें वर्सभन्न
अर्वशाष्रियों द्र्ािा प्रकाश में लाया जाता है । पिन्तु इनके िहते हुए भी रिकार्डो ने कई
महत्र्पूणव तथ्यों को िामने िखा है जैिे लगान एक अनाष्जवत आय (Unearned Income) है ।
आधुतनक अर्वशाष्रियों ने भी लगान सिद्धान्त रिकार्डो के लगान सिद्धान्त को ही आधाि
मानकि ददया है । वर्भेदात्मक लगान के रर्ान पि आधुतनक अर्वशाष्रियों ने हरतान्तिण आय
का वर्चाि देकि रिकार्डो के सिद्धान्त का वर्रताि एर्ीं िुधाि ककया है ।
प्रो. िॉबटविन का यह कर्न िीक ही है, ”रिकार्डो के लगान सिद्धान्त ने अपनी मान्यता एर्ीं
ित्यता ककिी भी मापदण्र्ड पि नहीीं खोयी है ।”