More Related Content Similar to Introduction to Ecosystem and Ecology and the Biospehere Similar to Introduction to Ecosystem and Ecology and the Biospehere (20) 1. LECTURE PRESENTATIONS
For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
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Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
An Introduction to Ecology and
the Biosphere
Chapter 52
2. Overview: Discovering Ecology
• Ecology is the scientific study of the
interactions between organisms and the
environment
determine distribution of organisms and
their abundance
includes observation and experimentation
How is this different from the environment?
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5. Global Ecology
• The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the sum
of all the planet’s ecosystems
• Global ecology examines the influence of
energy and materials on organisms across the
biosphere
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6. • Landscape ecology - exchanges
of energy, materials, and
organisms across multiple
ecosystems
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10. • Community ecology deals
with the whole array of
interacting species in a
community
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14. • Organismal ecology includes
physiological, evolutionary, and
behavioral ecology
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16. Concept 52.1:
• Climate - the long-term prevailing weather
conditions in an area: temperature, precipitation,
sunlight, wind
• Macroclimate - global, regional, and landscape
level
• Microclimate –small, area (community of
organisms underneath a fallen log)
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17. Global Climate Patterns
• determined by solar energy and the
planet’s movement in space
• causes temperature variations, which
drive evaporation and the circulation
of air and water
• This causes latitudinal variations in
climate
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19. Figure 52.3a
Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity
90°N (North Pole)
60°N
30°N
23.5°N (Tropic of
Cancer
60°S
90°S (South Pole)
0° (Equator)
23.5°S (Tropic of
Capricorn)
30°S
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Atmosphere
Sun overhead at equinoxes
Low angle of incoming sunlight
20. • Rising air masses release water and cause high
precipitation, especially in the tropics
• Dry, descending air masses create arid climates,
especially near 30°
• Air flowing close to Earth’s surface creates
predictable global wind patterns
• Cooling trade winds blow from east to west in the
tropics; prevailing westerlies blow from west to
east in the temperate zones
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21. Figure 52.3b
Global air circulation and precipitation patterns
Westerlies
Northeast trades
Southeast trades
Westerlies
30°N
0°
66.5°N (Arctic Circle)
30°N
0°
30°S
60°N
60°S
66.5°S (Antarctic Circle)
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture.
Ascending
moist air
releases
moisture.
22. Regional and Local Effects on Climate
• Climate is affected by
seasonality, large bodies of
water, and mountains
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23. Seasonality
• Seasonal variations of light and
temperature increase steadily toward
the poles (WHY?)
• Belts of wet and dry air straddling the
equator shift throughout the year with
the changing angle of the sun
• Changing wind patterns affect ocean
currents
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25. The trip around
• What do we mean by the equinox?
When do they occur?
• What do we mean by the solstices?
When do they occur?
26. Bodies of Water
• Oceans, their currents, and large
lakes moderate the climate of nearby
terrestrial environments
• The Gulf Stream carries warm water
from the equator to the North Atlantic
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28. • Why is there a breeze at the ocean
shoreline?
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30. Mountains
• Rising air releases moisture on the windward
side of a peak and creates a “rain shadow” as it
absorbs moisture on the leeward side
• Mountains affect the amount of sunlight reaching
an area
• In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing slopes
receive more sunlight than north-facing slopes
• Every 1,000 m increase in elevation produces a
temperature drop of approximately 6C
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33. Microclimate
• fine-scale differences in the environment that
affect light and wind patterns
• characterized by differences in
– Abiotic factors, including nonliving attributes
such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients
– Biotic factors, including other organisms that
are part of an individual’s environment
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37. Global Climate Change
• Predictions for change can be
based on previous changes
• Glacier retreat 16,000 years ago
caused tree distribution patterns
to change
• Specie dispersal could determine
the range and climate changes
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40. Concept 52.2:
• Biomes are major life zones characterized by
vegetation type (terrestrial biomes) or physical
environment (aquatic biomes)
• Climate is very important in determining why
terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
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41. Tropic of
Cancer
30°N
30°S
Tropic of Capricorn
Equator
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Northern coniferous forest
Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
Figure 52.9
42. • A climograph plots the temperature and
precipitation in a region
• Biomes are affected not just by average
temperature and precipitation, but also by the
pattern of temperature and precipitation through
the year
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44. General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes are often named for major
physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
• Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other,
without sharp boundaries
• The area of intergradation, called an ecotone,
may be wide or narrow
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45. • Vertical layering is an important feature of
terrestrial biomes, and in a forest it might consist
of an upper canopy, low-tree layer, shrub
understory, ground layer of herbaceous plants,
forest floor, and root layer
• Layering of vegetation in all biomes provides
diverse habitats for animals
• Biomes are dynamic and usually exhibit
extensive patchiness
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46. • Similar characteristic can arise in
distant biomes through
convergent evolution
–For example, cacti in North
America and euphorbs in
African deserts appear similar
but are from different
evolutionary lineages
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48. • Disturbance is an event that changes a
community
– frequent fires can kill woody plants and maintain
the characteristic vegetation of a savanna
– fires and outbreaks of pests create gaps in
forest that allow different species to grow
• Fire suppression has changed the vegetation of
the Great Plains
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Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes
49. Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by
distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants,
and animals
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50. Tropical Forest
• equatorial and subequatorial regions
• tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively
constant,
• tropical dry forests precipitation is highly
seasonal
• (25–29C)
• Vertical layering
• Most diverse biome
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52. Desert
• Deserts 30C N/S and in the interior of
continents
• < 30 cm per year
• Deserts may be hot or cold
• Plants adapted to climate (C4 and CAM)
• Many nocturnal animals
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53. A desert in the southwestern
United States
Figure 52.12b
54. Savanna
• Equatorial and subequatorial regions
• precipitation is seasonal
• warm year-round (24–29C) but more
seasonally variable than the tropics
• Fire adapted plants
• Grasses and forbs
• Zebras, lions, hyena
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56. Chaparral
• midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
• rainy winters and dry summers
• Summer hot (30C+) while fall, winter, and spring
are cool (10–12C)
• Shrubs, grasses, herbs (fire-resistant)
• Insects and small mammals
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57. An area of chaparral
in California
Figure 52.12d
58. Temperate Grassland
• found on many continents
• Precipitation is highly seasonal
• Winters cold (often below –10C) and dry
summers hot (often near 30C) and wet
• Grasses and forbs adapted to fire and drought
• Bison and wild horses
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60. Northern Coniferous Forest
• taiga, spans northern North America and
Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on
Earth
• Precipitation varies
• Winters are cold and long while summers may
be hot (e.g., Siberia ranges from –50C to 20C)
• Pine, spruce, fir
• Cone shape protects breakage from snow
• Moose, bear, migratory birds, Siberian tigers
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62. Temperate Broadleaf Forest
• midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with
smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia,
and New Zealand
• Large amount of precip in all seasons
• Winters average 0C, while summers are hot
and humid (near 35C)
• Vertical layering
• Deciduous trees
• Mammals, birds, insects
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64. Tundra
• Arctic;
• Alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all
latitudes
• Precipitation is low in arctic tundra, and higher
in alpine tundra
• Winters are long and cold (below –30C) while
summers are relatively cool (less than 10C)
• Permafrost
• Reindeer, musk, oxen
• Mosses, grasses
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66. Concept 52.3:
• largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
• They show less latitudinal variation than
terrestrial biomes
• Marine biomes have salt concentrations of
about 3%
• The largest marine biome (oceans) cover about
75% of Earth’s surface and have an enormous
impact on the biosphere
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67. • Freshwater biomes
have salt concentrations of less
than 0.1%
closely linked to soils and the
biotic components of the
surrounding terrestrial biome
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68. Figure 52.13
(a) Zonation in a lake
(b) Marine zonation
Littoral
zone Limnetic
zone
Photic
zone
Benthic
zone
Aphotic
zone
Pelagic
zone
0
200 m
Continental
shelf
2,000
6,000 m
Abyssal
zone
Benthic
zone
Photic
zone
Intertidal zone
Neritic
zone Oceanic zone
Aphotic
zone
Pelagic
zone
69. • Thermocline - temperature boundary called the
separating the warm upper layer from the cold
deeper water
• turnover – mixing of oxygenated water from
surface with nutrient rich water on the bottom of
a lake
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71. • Communities vary with depth, light
penetration, distance from shore, and
position in the pelagic or benthic zone
• Most occur in the relatively shallow photic
zone
• The aphotic zone in oceans is extensive,
but harbors little life
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74. Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-
poor and generally oxygen-rich
• Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich
and often depleted of oxygen if
ice covered in winter
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75. • littoral zone close to shore
(shallow and well lit)
• limnetic zone – further from
shore small drifting animals called
zooplankton graze on the
phytoplankton
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76. An oligotrophic lake in Grand
Teton National Park, Wyoming
A eutrophic lake in the Okavango
Delta, Botswana
Figure 52.16a
77. Wetlands
• a habitat that is inundated by water at
least some of the time and that supports
plants adapted to water-saturated soil
• have high organic production and
decomposition and have
• low dissolved oxygen
• Wetlands can develop in shallow basins,
along flooded river banks, or on the
coasts of large lakes and seas
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78. • most productive biomes on Earth
• lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black
spruce
• invertebrates and birds, as well as otters, frogs,
and alligators
• Humans have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands;
wetlands purify water and reduce flooding
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80. Streams and Rivers
• prominent physical characteristic of is current
• Headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent,
swift, and oxygen rich; they are often narrow and
rocky
• Downstream waters form rivers and are
generally warmer, more turbid, and more
oxygenated; they are often wide, meandering,
and have silty bottoms
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82. Estuaries
• transition area between river and sea
• Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides
• nutrient rich and highly productive
• include a complex network of tidal channels,
islands, natural levees, and mudflats
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83. • Saltmarsh grasses and algae are the major
producers
• An abundant supply of food attracts marine
invertebrates, fish, waterfowl, and marine
mammals
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85. Intertidal Zones
• periodically submerged and exposed by the
tides
• organisms are challenged by variations in
temperature and salinity and by the mechanical
forces of wave action
• Oxygen and nutrient levels are high
• Substrate varies from rocky to sandy
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87. Oceanic Pelagic Zone
• constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic
currents
• Oxygen levels are high
• Turnover renews nutrients in the photic zones;
year-round stratification in tropical oceans leads
to lower nutrient concentrations
• 70% of Earth’s surface
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88. • Phytoplankton (diatoms) and
zooplankton are the dominant
organism; also found are free-
swimming animals
• Zooplankton (protists, worms,
copepods, krill, jellies, and
invertebrate larvae
• squids, fishes, sea turtles, and
marine mammals
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93. Marine Benthic Zone
• The marine benthic zone consists of the
seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal,
or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone
• Organisms in the very deep benthic (abyssal)
zone are adapted to continuous cold and
extremely high water pressure
• Substrate is mainly soft sediments; some areas
are rocky
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94. • Shallow areas contain seaweeds and filamentous
algae
• Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on
mid-oceanic ridges are surrounded by unique
chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, as well as
echinoderms and arthropods
• Neritic benthic communities include invertebrates
and fishes
• Overfishing and dumping of waste have depleted
fish populations
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96. Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms do not occupy all of their
potential range
• Species distribution may be limited by habitat
selection behavior
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97. Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Predation
– Herbivory
• For example, sea urchins can limit the
distribution of seaweeds
– Competition
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98. Both limpets and urchins
removed
Only urchins
removed
RESULTS
Seaweed
cover
(%)
Only limpets removed
Control (both urchins
and limpets present)
Sea urchin
Limpet
100
80
60
40
20
0
February
1983
August
1983
August
1982
February
1984
Figure 52.20
99. Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms
include
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil
• Most abiotic factors vary in space and time
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100. Temperature
• Environmental temperature is an important factor
in distribution of organisms because of its effects
on biological processes
• Cells may freeze and rupture below 0°C, while
most proteins denature above 45°C
• Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate
their internal temperature
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101. Water and Oxygen
• Water availability in habitats is another important
factor in species distribution
• Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water
conservation
• Water affects oxygen availability as oxygen
diffuses slowly in water
• Oxygen concentrations can be low in deep
oceans and deep lakes
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102. Salinity
• Salt concentration affects water balance of
organisms through osmosis
• Most aquatic organisms are restricted to
either freshwater or saltwater habitats
• Few terrestrial organisms are adapted to high-
salinity habitats
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103. Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affect
photosynthesis
• Water absorbs light, thus in aquatic
environments most photosynthesis occurs near
the surface
• In deserts, high light levels increase temperature
and can stress plants and animals
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105. Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of
plants and thus the animals that feed on them
– Physical structure
– pH
– Mineral composition
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106. Why is species X absent from an area?
Does dispersal limit its distribution?
Does behavior limit its distribution?
Do biotic factors (other species)
limit its distribution?
Do abiotic factors limit
its distribution?
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Physical
factors
Chemical
factors
Area inaccessible or
insufficient time
Habitat selection
Predation, parasitism,
competition, disease
Temperature, light, soil
structure, fire, moisture,
etc.
Water, oxygen, salinity,
pH, soil nutrients, etc.
Figure 52.UN01
