INDUSTRIAL ARTS graphics design

Map Design: Graphic Design Basics 1

5.9

Map Design:
Graphic Design Basics

Start

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Kommission Aus- und Weiterbildung,
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie
e.V., Germany 2000

c/o Reinhard Urbanke
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D-71394 Kernen im Remstal

EMail: alf.kartographie@gmx.de


Contents 5.9

Map design: Graphic design basics ................................................ 6

Contents 1 Perception ............................................................................................... 6
Exercises Outer and Inner Worlds ............................................................................................ 6
Perception overload ................................................................................................. 6
Index Selection ................................................................................................................ 7
Processing .............................................................................................................. 7

Search 2 Communication ........................................................................................ 7
Next results Communication ....................................................................................................... 8
Previous results Code ...................................................................................................................... 9
Languages ............................................................................................................ 10
Print
Communication goals ............................................................................................. 11
Exit
3 Design ................................................................................................... 12
The form .............................................................................................................. 12
Basic forms ........................................................................................................... 13
Graphic elements ................................................................................................... 14
Variations ............................................................................................................. 15
Design principles ................................................................................................... 15

4 Optical Illusions ..................................................................................... 17
Lines .................................................................................................................... 17
Areas ................................................................................................................... 18
Tonal value ........................................................................................................... 20
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Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie 5 The area ................................................................................................ 21
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Empty space / white space ..................................................................................... 21
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Locations of effect ................................................................................................. 22 5.9
Effect ................................................................................................................... 22
Associative meanings ............................................................................................. 24

6 Area aesthetics ...................................................................................... 25
Contents Size ..................................................................................................................... 25
Area subdivision .................................................................................................... 26
Exercises
Composition .......................................................................................................... 27
Index
7 Colour .................................................................................................... 29
Colour psychology ................................................................................................. 29
Search Colour dimension (CIELAB-colour system) ................................................................ 30
Next results Colour contrast ...................................................................................................... 31
Previous results
8 Type aesthetics ...................................................................................... 33
Print Evolution of type ................................................................................................... 33
Geometry ............................................................................................................. 35
Exit
Letter spacing ....................................................................................................... 35

9 Type composition ................................................................................... 37
Grey value ............................................................................................................ 37
Reading process .................................................................................................... 37
Type face selection ................................................................................................ 38
Type face mixture .................................................................................................. 39
Compositions ........................................................................................................ 39
Typographic errors ................................................................................................. 40

10 Signs ...................................................................................................... 41
© copyright: Communication ..................................................................................................... 41
Kommission Aus- und Weiterbildung, Function ............................................................................................................... 43
e.V., Germany 2000 Trademarks ........................................................................................................... 43
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5.9
Design ................................................................................................................. 43
To find a shape ...................................................................................................... 44

11 Publications ........................................................................................... 45
Notepaper and visiting cards ................................................................................... 45
Contents Books ................................................................................................................... 46
Dustjacket ............................................................................................................ 47
Exercises
Magazine .............................................................................................................. 47
Index Poster .................................................................................................................. 48
Packaging ............................................................................................................. 48

Search 12 Map symbols .......................................................................................... 49
Next results Symbol system ...................................................................................................... 49
Previous results Symbol types ........................................................................................................ 49
Variations ............................................................................................................. 50
Print Design ................................................................................................................. 51
Map symbols ......................................................................................................... 52
Exit
Type .................................................................................................................... 53

13 Map design: Graphic structure ............................................................... 54
Image of nature .................................................................................................... 54
Purpose of the map ................................................................................................ 55
........................................................................................................................... 55
Legibility .............................................................................................................. 56
Assessment principles ............................................................................................ 57

14 External map design .............................................................................. 58
Principles .............................................................................................................. 58
© copyright: Map title ............................................................................................................... 59
Scale and linear scale ............................................................................................. 60
e.V., Germany 2000 Legend ................................................................................................................. 61
Title page ............................................................................................................. 62
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15 Exercises ............................................................................................... 5.9
62
Perception ............................................................................................................ 62
Communication ..................................................................................................... 63
Area effect ............................................................................................................ 63
Area composition ................................................................................................... 64
Contents Type balance ......................................................................................................... 65
Exercises Typography ........................................................................................................... 65
Logo .................................................................................................................... 66
Index Notepaper ............................................................................................................ 67
Poster .................................................................................................................. 68
Symbols ............................................................................................................... 68
Search Map ..................................................................................................................... 69
Next results Travel guide .......................................................................................................... 70
Previous results
Index ............................................................................................................... 72
Print

Exit

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Map design: Graphic design basics 5.9
Take supper for example: Is the tasting sense
dominating, because the meal is tasting deli-
ciously, or the eye, because the table is nicely
1 Perception laid out, or the ear, because the conversation
Contents and the music are pleasing? Humans also per-
Cartographers and design both use visual inter- manently experience themselves, their inner
Exercises
human communication. In order to discuss world. The limbs and organs call our attention if
Index graphic design, we have to deal with the topic of they are exhausted or diseased. The soul, the
the communicating human. But to understand psyche plays an important role deciding on the

Search the communication process, first of all we have state of well-being. Humans feel, they perceive
Next results
to speak about human perception. moods and instincts and know whether they are
Previous results walking or sitting or doing something.

Print

Exit Outer and Inner Worlds
Perception overload
What and how do people perceive?
People’s inner and outer worlds impact upon
Well, primarily people perceive their environ- them simultaneously and are perceived in con-
ment - the outer world. They see, hear, touch, junction. the perception process is a permanent
smell and taste it. For that purpose they have state during every situation of life, impossible to
perceptual organs. During the perception proc- switch off. It is impossible also for people to fil-
ess all senses work simultaneously and therefore ter out a specific perception, as in addition to
it is not easy to decide which sense is decisive that they have to survey its environment; like-
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for the occurrence of a reaction in a certain situ- wise they cannot switch off one particular sense.
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie ation. They can only try to concentrate on some specif-
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ic aspect.
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Selection 5.9
What are the components of human perception
that he has to deal with?
The biggest part of all incoming stimuli is per-
ceived subconsciously and this part decisively s The feeling is a spontaneous all-embracing per-
Contents shapes us. To shield from a stimuli overflow peo- sonal reaction to a perception, responsible for
ple can try to perceive part of all information actions.
Exercises
consciously, just big enough to be digested sep- s Needs are caused by a shortage and have to be
Index arately (selection). The perception process pro- satisfied immediately.
ceeds as follows: s Interest is controlled by the mind and aims on a

Search field that is not covered by needs.
Next results
s First of all people are confronted with a disor- s Motivation is the conscious and subconscious
Previous results dered general impression. combination of these components.
s Consecutively they select specific information s Expectation is the more or less clear temporary
Print
(selection). objective we have in mind.
Exit s They try to order them by looking at them con- s Memory is a conscious or subconscious feedback
sciously (synthesis). factor.
s But simultaneously they discover new stimuli and
try to integrate them in their system as well.
s Finally they receive an ordered whole, an over- 2 Communication
view. While analysing it a feedback process is
initiated influenced by many components. The designer has to deal with the exchange of
information, the communication. He must under-
stand their functioning, the codes and languag-
Processing es. Only then will he be able to define the design
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goals.
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie The designer intends to effectuate a certain re-
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action in the viewer (or customer).
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Communication 5.9

A simplified scheme of (visual) communication
looks a follows:
Contents
The transmitter (the designer) communicates
Exercises
with the receiver (the viewer) by sending mes-
Index sages with the help of a language (here: pictori- 2a A traffic sign whose meaning is known in Germa-
ny immediately is used in the USA with two explan-
al language and written language). For that end
atory texts.
Search he uses codes to transmit his message effective-
Next results
ly. A picture, for instance, showing the sea, the
Previous results sun and palm trees, is not only an image of the
coast, but leads the viewer to further associa-
Print
tions and can stand for recovery, relaxation,
Exit warmth, holidays etc.

The cartographer uses codes with his symbols as
well.

The symbol ✉ not only stands for a letter, but
also for a post office.

The symbol does not only mean several
trees and rain forest, but also tropics, humid-
© copyright:
torrid climate, a certain flora and fauna etc. 2b The ships do not understand each other because
they use different languages. Although the viewer
e.V., Germany 2000 cannot understand the dialogue he would be able to
understand the course of events.
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Code 5.9

The code encodes messages. The receiver is able
to understand the content only with knowledge
Contents about the code (Example: map legend).

Exercises
Every symbol has a certain meaning the receiver
Index has to know.

The spoken language is a code as well: Someone 2c Different stars; each of them has its own mean-
Search ing that exceeds its pure geometric form.
Next results
may for instance understand German fairly well,
Previous results French less well and Finnish not at all.

Print
It may happen of course that two or more mean-
Exit ings exist for one symbol .

In maps, for example, the symbol + can stand
for a church, a chapel, a graveyard or a rock.

Shaking our head is also codified: it means No to
us, in Greece it means Yes.

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knows its function and its signs.
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Languages 5.9
2e: Pictorial lan-
guage: This picture
comprises more than
At the beginning of human history people under- two windows, one
stood each other through facial expressions and door, two walls, the
gestures or sounds. floor and a roof slope.
Contents
It transmits a certain
Exercises mood.
Information as discoveries, moods, desires or
Index orders could be thus communicated.

Search Since the stone age linguistic signs are recorded
Next results
permanently by engraving them in wood or 2f: Encoded: sign
Previous results painting them on stone walls. The signs were language, musical
taken from nature. notation, braille,
Print machine language,
bar code .
Exit In the 5th century BC schematic pictorial signs
have been stringed together for the first time,
enabling us to visualize trains of thought and
courses of events.

Now languages could be developed according to
cultural expression and social requirements. 2g: A possible com-
munication goal: At-
Sign-like pictures were combined to form sign tract attention.
language (e.g. the symbols on maps). Look here!
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Letters, that are symbols as well, were combined 5.9
to form words and finally sentences: the written
language.

Contents Pictures such as photographs, illustrations and
paintings have a pictorial language.
Exercises

Index Beyond that further languages exist as sign lan-
guage, braille, musical notation, etc..

Search
Next results
Previous results

Print

Exit Communication goals

The designer has to know exactly whom he A designer must be endowed with the following
wants to address and what he wants to impart. personal conditions:
He has to respond to the receiver, his perception
and his surrounding. He has to comb his design s Sensibility and receptiveness,
possibilities for suitable tools. He must use ade- s agility and creativity,
quate methods, languages and codes. s ability for abstraction and analysis,
s ability for synthesis and
s ability to aesthetical organization.
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3 Design 5.9

After this quite abstract introduction the terms
'form' and 'design' will be used to conduct us to
Contents more practical topics.

Exercises

Index
The form
Rep blica Cruz del
Search Argentina Rayo

Next results
The form is the composition, the result of the Avenida de
Am rica

Previous results design process.

Print
In this connection form (the whole thing) means
Exit more than the sum of the parts (Fig. 3a; c. Fig. er slowenische
Philosoph Slavoj
Zizek ist mit sei- Ibiza
2e and the rain forest symbol from the previous nen philosophischen Mix-
turen aus Hegels Logik,

Re
ti
Hitchcocks Leichen und

ro
chapter). Lacans Leerstellen ein
bekanntes enfant terrible
Tirso de Molina
Ant n Mart n
in akademischen Philoso- Atocha
phenzirkeln. Seine Auf-
tritte sind überwältigende Atocha Renfe
Rede-Performances mit Conde
The form is even maintained if single elements 3a ungewissem Ausgang. Men ndez
Pelayo
del Casal

are changed.

A form cannot exist without its surroundings.

A form has something like a soul that has to be
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Basic forms 5.9
1 2 3 4

For the design one tends to fall back gladly on
the elementary basic forms (Fig. 3b, upper row):
Contents
Point(1): In the true sense it is a zero-dimen-
Exercises 5 10
sional object and therefore cannot be represent-
Index ed. In graphic arts a point is that what is not yet
a circle.
6
Search
Next results
Line(2): A one-dimensional object, a stroke.
11
Previous results 7
Area(3): A two-dimensional object, e.g. a rec-
Print
tangle, a circle, a polygon. The area has a form.
The Slovenian slowenische
er philosopher Sla-
Exit voi Zizek Philosoph Sla-
with his philosophic
voj Zizek of Hegel’s logic,
mixtures ist mit seinen
Hitchcock’s dead bodies and
philosophischen Mixtu-
Lacan’s empty spaces is a
Volume/Body(4): A three-dimensional object 8 ren aus Hegels Logik,
known enfant terrible in aca-
demic philosopher circles. His
Lacans Leerstellen ein 12
that will not be dealt with at this point. bekanntes are overwhelming
entrances enfant terrible
speech-performances with an
in akademischen Philoso-
unknown end.
phenzirkeln. Seine Auftrit-
te sind überwältigende
Rede-Performances mit
ungewissem Ausgang.

9 13

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Graphic elements 5.9
1 2 3 4

The elements can be simple, composite or com-
plex (Fig. 3b, lower part):
Contents
Sign(7, 10): A letter, a logo etc.
Exercises 5 10
Index Writing(6, 8): Text in books, newspapers, on
posters, in advertisements etc.
6
Search
Next results
Graphic (11, 12): A diagram, a map, an illustra-
11
Previous results tion etc. 7

Print
Picture (13): A photograph or a detail.
er slowenische
The Slovenian philosopher Sla-
Exit Philosoph Sla-
voi Zizek with his philosophic
voj ZizekofistHegel’sseinen
mixtures mit logic,
philosophischen Mixtu-
Hitchcock’s dead bodies and
Background (9): The background, the surround- 8 ren aus Hegels Logik,
Lacan’s empty spaces is a
known enfant terrible in aca-
Lacans Leerstellen ein
demic philosopher circles. His 12
ing, has to be included in the design even if it is bekanntes enfant terrible
entrances are overwhelming
in akademischen Philoso-
speech-performances with an
phenzirkeln. Seine Auftrit-
unknown end.
merely white. te sind überwältigende
Rede-Performances mit
ungewissem Ausgang.

9 13

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Variations 5.9

The forms and elements can be varied by (Fig.
3c):
Contents
Structure: The inner arrangement of areal ob-
Exercises
jects, as screens, hatches, patterns.
Index
Tonal value: The brightness of objects.
3c
Search
Next results
Colour: Reaches the viewer directly, puts him in
Previous results a certain mood, rouses feelings.

Print
Size: To emphasize, to cause tension.
Exit
Position: The position of an object within a com-
position is of substantial importance concerning
its effect.

Design principles

It does not make sense to define rigid design
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rules because, as described above, graphic de-
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie sign is influenced by changing perceptions,
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changing communication methods and changing 5.9
By the detailed inspection of countless design
design goals. examples a designer should try to get a reliable
flair for proportions, harmony and good design.
But the following principles (Fig. 3d) that guar-
Contents antee a good and successful design should still
be considered:
Exercises

Index Proportion or the relation between single ob-
jects and their surroundings. Many attempts

Search have been made to determine the ideal absolute
Next results
proportion, but without success. Some models
Previous results such as the golden section are considered as be-
ing almost perfect.
Print

Exit Harmony: A design is harmonic when it is well
ordered and when all internal elements have
been combined properly according to an aes-
thetic sense, which means that nothing disturbs,
tips over or drops out.

Contrast: Every effect is based on contrast.
Contrast creates tension and therewith the at-
tention of the viewer. It is created through the
use of contrast pairs: To be activated every ob-
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ject needs a counter object.
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4 Optical Illusions 5.9

Optical illusions are of particular interest due to
their unexpected results and the effects thus
Contents achieved. They show again that the personal
aesthetic experience is set above the strict geo-
Exercises
metric construction.
Index

Search
Next results Lines
Previous results
Fig. 4a demonstrates that vertical lines of the
Print
same length seem to differ in length if their add-
Exit ed corners are changed. As a result sharp and
round letters must jut out from the type line
(Schriftlinie) so that they do not seem smaller 4a

than the letters D and T.

Fig. 4b shows that repeatedly subdivided lines
seem longer that undivided. 4b

In Fig. 4c thick narrow set lines appear shorter
than the ones that are further apart. For that
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reason type faces with thin line gauges seem to
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie be higher than that with bold ones. 4c
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The optic centre is not always the same as the 5.9
geometric center, as shown by Fig. 4d.

The Futur type face has been constructed geo- 4d

Contents metrically but was subsequently modified ac-
cording to optic-aesthetic viewpoints. Because
Exercises
of that it appears calmer and more harmonic
Index now.

Search Fig. 4e shows optical deformations: The circle
Next results
seems dented and the single line repeatedly bro- 4e
Previous results ken.

Print

Exit
Areas

A square optically seems wider than higher.
Therefore squares must be exaggerated vertical- 4f
ly (Fig. 4f). The same applies to circles.

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4g
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In Fig. 4g the horizontal lines 5.9
widen the square area whereas
the vertical ones exaggerate it
vertically.
Contents
In Fig. 4h all central squares
Exercises
have the same size. Their apparent size (the 4h
Index
other squares and the white space) is influenced

Search by their surrounding.
Next results
Previous results

Print

Exit
In Fig. 4i and 4j the bright areas (or letters) 4i
seem larger than the dark areas (or letters) of

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AB AB
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the same size because their brightness out- 5.9
shines their contour.

Contents
Tonal value
Exercises

Index In Fig. 4k it becomes apparent of how little im-
portance the actual brightness is (all inner

Search squares have the same grey value). Their sur-
Next results
rounding is decisive for the effect of the grey ar-
Previous results eas.

Print
It is possible to create depth with the help of
Exit tonal values: the inner square in the left field
seems to lie clearly above the surface area
whereas in the most right one the black area
seems to be a window.

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5 The area 5.9

The area is the space for mounting the design. It
should be sufficiently considered because the
Contents area more or less influences the elements ar-
ranged on it.
Exercises

Index
5a

Search Empty space / white space
Next results
Previous results Some elements need a big area (empty space)
to unfold. Empty spaces are fields of force.
Print

Exit A composition can appear disharmonious if the
empty space is not incorporated. A design can
be thrown out of balance or upset optically if the
relation between printed and empty areas is dis- 5b
turbed. Empty space can create tension and dy-
namics in connection with design elements. It
can order and emphasize them.

Even a completely empty area is not empty for
the viewer: he wanders around with his eyes
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(Fig. 5b, a typical reading loop), projects things
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie on it and divides it into specific sub-areas (Fig.
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5c). 5c
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Locations of effect 5.9

If an area is divided in the middle, the upper half
seems to be larger than the lower half (Fig. 5d).
Contents Elements positioned in the upper sector seem
more weighty than the ones below.
Exercises

Index This has to do with the natural human field of vi-
sion. Above the horizon people expect just the

Search sky which seems to be unlimited. This viewing
Next results
habit is unconsciously applied to the area.
Previous results
In the same way the left and the right side of the
Print 5d
area have different meanings. The reading direc-
Exit tion proceeds from left to right. People feel a
movement mostly directed to the right. There-
fore the right side is more important than the
left one (Fig. 5e).

5e
Effect
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ing if they are located at a certain spot within
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the empty space. Points appear calm and stable 5.9
if they lie on lines in Fig, 5c, but restless and dy-
namic off them (Fig. 5f).

Contents Lines have different qualities as well, depending calmness active, far passive, near
on their location (Fig. 5g and h).
Exercises

Index The effect can be described by adjectives as
light, heavy, floating, unstable, rising, distant

Search etc.
Next results restless, move- quiet, at the
Previous results Fig. 5i shows different black elements on white ment to the right objective
areas with a specific effect in each case. 5f
Print

Exit

passive, active, seemingly
left right bottom top endless

5g

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5h positive negative
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Now, if one tries to look at the white spaces as 5.9
new forms in their own right, that lie before a
grey background, a new effect can be realized.

Contents The general effect is changed by every new ele-
ment within the design.
Exercises
5i
Index

Search
Next results
Previous results
Associative meanings
Print

Exit Empirical investigations have resulted in discerning specific associative meanings:

THE HORIZONTAL: CLIMBING THE DESCENDING THE LEFT: RIGHT:
VERTICAL: VERTICAL:
horizon passiveness activity
sea tower plumb line reflection deed
steppe obelisk weight introversion extroversion
plain fountain heavy past future
calmness powerful serious self you
sleep
death
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impressive
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie important
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quiet
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6 Area aesthetics 5.9

We have already spoken about the importance of
the area as the mounting space. Now, the pro-
Contents portions, distribution and composition will be
analysed.
Exercises

Index 1: 2 2:3 1 : 1,538
(base line
and height of
Search Size
a pentagon)
Next results
Previous results Already at the beginning of the design process
the designer has to decide about a page size.
Print

Exit The size and shape naturally depends on the
purpose: Is the design object a map, a folder or
a book?

There are shapes whose proportions seem to be 5:8 1: 3 1: 5
especially well balanced, including the golden (approxima
golden section) (DIN A-size)
section.
6a
Squares can look interesting as well if they are
divided appropriately.
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Area subdivision 5.9

Depending on the size, the area can be subdivid-
ed according to the following principles, in view
Contents of the design purpose: Proportion, harmony and
contrast. This results in a layout. Here a square
Exercises
has been chosen as the mounting space.
Index
In Fig. 6b the area is subdivided by two continu-

Search ous intersecting lines.
Next results
Previous results

Print 6b
Exit
In Fig. 6c the subdivision is realised by three dif-
ferent shapes that vary in size and tonal value.
Moreover the shapes are arranged vertically and
horizontally. This example shows the white area
as an independent shape as well.

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6c
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Composition 5.9

Fig. 6d shows a composition with simple shapes
and their variation possibilities.
Contents
The necessary tension (contrast) is achieved by:
Exercises

Index (Fig. 6d, upper row, from left to right)
s different shapes

Search s different sizes
Next results
s position within the area
Previous results
(Fig. 6d, lower row, from left to right)
Print 6d
s asymmetry
Exit s negative – positive
s tonal value (brightness).

Fig. 6e shows a dynamic composition in which
the elements are arranged in first slice, i.e. they
extend beyond the format. They are cut at the
margin and now obtain another interesting out-
line. Their real form can be reconstructed or
rather surmised. The viewers complete the parts
indicated or missing in their imagination.
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6e
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In Fig. 6f a grid has been constructed first at 5.9
which the elements have been oriented. Differ-
ent methods have been used to create tension.
Now the composition is more complex, it com-
Contents bines different shapes, tonal values and sizes.

Exercises
In Fig. 6g pages containing text are simulated.
Index The different elements can be column titles,
headings, initials, graphics and pictures within

Search the layout of a map catalogue.
Next results
Previous results Classical newspapers (Fig. 6h) are a good exam-
6f
ple of area aesthetics because they have to
Print
manage with few design elements: Text and pic-
Exit tures are the principal design elements. Apart
from them, lines and boxes are applied. Every
page of a newspaper comes alive through the in-
terplay between the text areas and the blank
spaces: The reader needs to be able "to breathe"
while reading.

6h
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7 Colour 5.9

Colour is an important design element. It has an
immediate impact on the viewers and addresses
Contents their subconsciousness.

Exercises

Index
Colour psychology
Search
Next results
The following characteristics are associated with
Previous results certain colours:

Print
YELLOW: RED: 7a
Exit expansion vivacity BLACK:
communication power hopelessness
reason imagination darkness
death
BLUE: ORANGE:
introversion health WHITE:
absorption full of drive all possibilities Colour assignment after Wassily Kandinsky
intellect pleasure glaring bright-
ness
GREEN: VIOLET: birth
immobility illness
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Kommission Aus- und Weiterbildung, ness
sensuality
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie Colour assignment after Oskar Schlemmer
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7b
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Of course this table is not universally valid. An 5.9
essential factor is the personal colour sensitivity
of the viewer: colours remind us of sensory im-
pressions, put someone into a mood.
Contents
Gender and gender-specific roles of the viewers
Exercises
are just as important as cultural influences, e.g.
Index fashion (fashion colours).

Search Therefore colours should be carefully selected
Next results
and the colour experience of the target group
Previous results should be taken into account.

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Colour dimension (CIELAB-colour
system)

A colour tint can be varied by the two factors 7c
brightness (Fig. 7c) and saturation (addition of Colour brightness: 15% – 25% – 40% – 65% –
white, black or grey; Fig. 7d) 100%

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Colour saturation: 0% – 25% – 50% – 75% – 100%
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Colour contrast 5.9

The relationship between colours is named col-
our contrast. When working with colours much
Contents can be learned about their characteristics, their
effects and their interplay. A warm tonal value
Exercises
can suddenly become cold due to an adjacent
Index tonal value. Harmonic compositions can abruptly
change completely because of additional colour

Search elements. The following types of colour contrast
Next results
are distinguished:
Previous results
s Complementary contrast
Print

Exit Colours which face each other in the colour circle
are termed complementary. Each colour has its
complementary colour with which it is balanced
and even can increase to the highest luminosity
(Fig. 7e). 7e

s Simultaneous contrast

Simultaneous contrast appears where a rich col-
our stands without its complementary colour (in
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which case the eye will generate this comple-
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie mentary colour), through which phenomenon its
e.V., Germany 2000
tonal value is optically changed (Fig. 7f). 7f
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s Quality contrast 5.9

Quality contrast depends on the opposition be-
tween bright and dull colours (Fig. 7g).
Contents
s Quantity contrast
Exercises

Index Quantity contrast arises from the confrontation 7g
of differently sized colour areas (Fig. 7h).

Search
Next results
Here the intensity, the strength of a colour’s
Previous results brightness is of importance, e.g. yellow has a
much bigger optical impact than violet. The or-
Print
der reads: yellow, orange, red, green, blue and
Exit violet.

s Cold-warm-contrast
7h

The opposition between the red-orange and
blue-green pair has the biggest effect on the
contrast (Fig. 7i).

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c/o Reinhard Urbanke 7i
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8 Type aesthetics 5.9

Now type will be introduced as a new design ele-
ment. In this section we look at type from the
Contents viewpoint of readability.

Exercises

Index
Evolution of type
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Next results
Pictographic system: Letters have been created
Previous results by imitating natural shapes. The symbol to the
left in Fig. 8a was developed in Egypt approxi- 8a
Print
mately 3000 BC.
Exit
Letters: The pictorial symbols became more and
more abstract in the course of time and finally
became letters: Fig. 8b Phoenician alphabet, ap-
proximately 1300 BC.
8b
Capital letters and serifs (Serifen): The letters in
Fig. 8c are derived from the Greek /Roman al-
phabet between 200 BC and 300 AD. Special at-
tention has been paid to aesthetics and propor-
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tions. Only capital letters existed. The Greeks
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie did not use spaces between word or sentences. 8c
e.V., Germany 2000

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The Romans invented serifs (Serifen) for aes- 5.9
thetic reasons.
8d
Lower case letters: Fig. 8d shows further devel-
Contents opment in the Middle Ages. With the "Karolinger 8a
Minuskel" lower case letters were first devel-
Exercises
oped. Later on letters became narrow, heavy
Index and angular (Gothic type).

8e 8e
Search Roman type: At the rediscovery of classical an-
Next results
tiquity the roman type originated around 1450,
Previous results e.g. Garamond (Fig. 8e, left). The alternation
between capital and lower case letters resulted
Print
in a better readability, because now several let-
Exit ters, so-called word images, could be registered
simultaneously. 8f f

Grotesque: At the end of the 19th century graph-
ically reduced type faces have been developed.
e.g. Akzidenz-Grotesque (Fig. 8f, left).

Design fonts: Today good readability is now and
then opposed by trendy type face creations (Fig. 8g

8g).
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Screen fonts: Computers require specific font 5.9
types that have been adjusted to the screen res-
olution (Fig. 8g, right).

Contents
8h
Exercises
Geometry
Index
Around 1920 characters have been reduced to

Search the basic geometric forms rectangle, circle and
Next results
triangle (Fig. 8h, Futura). However, since abso-
Previous results lute geometry impairs readability, small modifi- 8i
cations have been made.
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Letter spacing

Over 2000 years ago Greeks and Romans al- The optic weight of the blank space between the
ready dealt with the aesthetics of letters letters must correspond to the inner space of the
stringed together. They discovered that not only letter.
the shape of every single letter should be taken
into account in order to obtain a good typeface, In Fig. 8i the blank spaces and the inner spaces
but also the blank space between the words. of the letters are made clear through geometric
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forms.
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Fig. 8j shows a badly balanced word, because 5.9
the spacing between the letters is exactly the
same. The principle of geometric forms (in line
3) shows distinct harmonic disturbances.
Contents
In line 4 positive and negative forms have been
Exercises
balanced according to aesthetic considerations.
Index The result is an in itself well proportioned word
(Fig. 8k).

Search 8j

Next results
The harmonic balance of the letter spacing has
Previous results to be considered especially when using graphic 8k
or big type faces.
Print

Exit To get a correct spacing no measurable values
can be provided. The recognition of the size of
blank spaces and the weight balance of words
has to be practised in order to acquire an aes-
thetic competence.

It can be helpful to turn a word upside down, in
order to recognize the forms and spaces unhin-
dered (Fig. 8l). By the way, this method may be
useful for each kind of design task.
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Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie 8l
e.V., Germany 2000

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