The document outlines various decision-making models including the rational model, intuitive model, and Simon’s normative model, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations in the decision-making process. It provides a systematic framework for ethical decision-making, encouraging recognition of ethical issues, evaluation of facts and options, and reflection on decisions' outcomes. Ultimately, the document stresses that effective decisions should align with ethical principles, promote trust, and achieve desired goals.

1. AlternativeAlternative
Decision MakingDecision Making
ModelModel

3. Objective: This multi-step model aims to be
logical and follow the orderly path from
problem identification through solution

4. 1. The Rational Model
The rational model proposes that people follow
a rational, four step sequence when making
decisions. The four steps are:
•Identifying the problem
•Generating solutions
•Selecting a solution
•Implementing and evaluating the solution

5. 2. The Intuitive Model
This model do not depend on reason and logic.
The choice is reached usually by an intuitive
'knowing' of what the best answer is. People talk
about 'feeling it in their gut', 'listening to their
heart' and receiving visions or hearing voices.

6. 3. Simon’s Normative Model
This model is based on premise that decision
making is not rational.
Decision making is characterized by:
• Limited information processing - there is a
limit to how much information a person can
manage.
•Judgemental heuristics - shortcuts are used to
simplify decision making.
•Satisficing - choosing solutions that meet
minimum requirements and are "good enough."

7. A leader will only be able to manage a
certain amount of information at any one
time, so they make judgements based on
their previous experiences wherever possible
to speed up the decision making process.
Often choosing a solution that is "good
enough", is considered effective when there
are multiple solutions that will produce
similar outcomes.

8. Related Studies
According to Gortner (2001), facts are the
information and knowledge that the public
administrators possess in formulating policies.
Facts are important in deciding the appropriate
means to take to achieve higher ends. They may
not be readily known by administrators but
need to be acquired through extensive research
and analysis. Rationality is defined in terms of
appropriateness for the accomplishment of
specific goals.

9. Related Studies
Values are internal perceptions on the
desirability and priority of one’s actions and
choices. (Van Wart, 2004) Besides setting
goals for their plans, decision makers make
priorities, interpret facts and act upon
objective situations according to their
values. Besides balancing conflicting values
within an individual, government has to
weight and balance values embodied in
different departments (Van Wart, 1996,
1998).

10. Related Studies
Means are the instruments to satisfy a higher
end (Simon, 1997). Although they are used
to achieve a higher end, they are not neutral
in value. When policy makers devise their
strategies, they choose their means
according to their internal values and
consequences.

11. Related Studies
Ends are the intermediate goals to a more
final objective. In a means-end hierarchy,
the concept of means and ends is
relative. An action can be a mean relative to
the higher levels in the hierarchy but an end
relative to the lower levels. However, in this
hierarchy, an action is more value-based
when moving upwards in the hierarchy but
more fact-based when moving downwards.

12. Synthesis
As a leader, we are frequently required to
make decisions which can have significant
impacts on your organisation and team.
Therefore, we should have a good
understanding of the different models of
decision making and what's involved in
making a good decision.

13. Ethics onEthics on
Decision MakingDecision Making

15. Objective:
• To Encourage, Inspire, Motivate you to think
about ethical decisions we make.
•To provide a systematic way of making ethical
decisions.

16. Ethical decision-making refers to the
process of evaluating and choosing among
alternatives in a manner consistent with
ethical principles. In making ethical
decisions, it is necessary to perceive and
eliminate unethical options and select the
best ethical alternative.

17. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making
• Recognize an Ethical Issue
1. Could this decision or situation be damaging to
someone or to some group? Does this decision
involve a choice between a good and bad
alternative, or perhaps between two "goods" or
between two "bads"?
2. Is this issue about more than what is legal or
what is most efficient? If so, how?

18. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making
• Get the Facts
3. What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are
not known? Can I learn more about the situation? Do I
know enough to make a decision?
4. What individuals and groups have an important stake
in the outcome? Are some concerns more important?
Why?
5. What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant
persons and groups been consulted? Have I identified
creative options?

19. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making
• Evaluate Alternative Actions
6. Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:
Which option will produce the most good and do the
least harm?
 Which option best respects the rights of all who have a
stake?
 Which option treats people equally or proportionately?
Which option best serves the community as a whole,
not just some members?
Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I
want to be?

20. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making
• Make a Decision and Test It
7. Considering all these approaches, which
option best addresses the situation?
8. If I told someone I respect-or told a
television audience-which option I have
chosen, what would they say?

21. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making
• Act and Reflect on the Outcome
9. How can my decision be implemented
with the greatest care and attention to the
concerns of all stakeholders?
10. How did my decision turn out and what
have I learned from this specific situation?

22. Synthesis
The process of making ethical decisions
requires:
Commitment
Consciousness
Competency

23. Synthesis
Good decisions are both ethical and
effective:
Ethical decisions generate and sustain
trust; demonstrate respect, responsibility,
fairness and caring; and are consistent with
good citizenship. These behaviors provide a
foundation for making better decisions by
setting the ground rules for our behavior.

24. Synthesis
Effective decisions are effective if they
accomplish what we want accomplished and if
they advance our purposes. A choice that
produces unintended and undesirable results is
ineffective. The key to making effective
decisions is to think about choices in terms of
their ability to accomplish our most important
goals. This means we have to understand the
difference between immediate and short-term
goals and longer-range goals.

25. References:
• Simon, H. A. (1976). From Substantive to Procedural Rationality. In S. J. Latsis
(Ed.), Method and Appraisal in Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press:
pp. 130-131
• Jump up^ Simon, H. A. (1964). On the Concept of Organizational
Goal. Administrative Science Quarterly, 9(1), 1-22.
• This framework for thinking ethically is the product of dialogue and debate at the
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Primary contributors
include Manuel Velasquez, Dennis Moberg, Michael J. Meyer, Thomas Shanks,
Margaret R. McLean, David DeCosse, Claire André, and Kirk O. Hanson. It was last
revised in May 2009.
• http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html#sthash.iML6rwED.dpu
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• Buck, J., Moore J., Schwartz, M., and Supon S. (2001). What is Ethical Behavior for
an Academic Adviser? The Mentor: An Academic Advising Journal, 3(1) . Retrieved
April 23, 2004, from http://www.psu.edu/dus/mentor.
• Hojnacki, William. (2004). Three Rules of Management. In Managerial Decision
Making, graduate course conducted in the School of Public and Environmental
Affairs, Indiana University South Bend.
• Copyright 2002 Josephson Institute of Ethics

26. Presented by:
AIVY ROSE N. DE OCAMPO